Water

This article is about the chemical substance. For its chemical and physical
properties, see water (molecule). For other uses, see Water (disambiguation).

Water in three states: liquid, solid (ice), and (invisible) vapor in air. Clouds are droplets of
liquid, condensed from water vapor.

Water is a common chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known
forms of life. In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form or state, but the
substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state, water vapor. About 1.460
petatonnes (Pt) of water covers 71% of the Earth's surface, mostly in oceans and
other large water bodies, with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in
the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid and liquid water particles suspended in air),
and precipitation.[1] Saltwater oceans hold 97% of surface water, glaciers and polar
ice caps 2.4%, and other land surface water such as rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%.
Some of the Earth's water is contained within water towers, biological bodies,
manufactured products, and food stores. Other water is trapped in ice caps, glaciers,
aquifers, or in lakes, sometimes providing fresh water for life on land.
Water moves continually through a cycle of evaporation or transpiration,
precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea. Winds carry water vapor over
land at the same rate as runoff into the sea, about 36 Tt per year. Over land,
evaporation and transpiration contribute another 71 Tt per year to the precipitation of
107 Tt per year over land. Clean, fresh drinking water is essential to human and
other life. However, in many parts of the world - especially developing countries -
there is a water crisis, and it is estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world
population will be facing water-based vulnerability.[2] Water plays an important role in
the world economy, as it functions as a solvent for a wide variety of chemical
substances and facilitates industrial cooling and transportation. Approximately 70%
of freshwater is consumed by agriculture.[3]

Types of water
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Liquid water in motion

Water can appear in three phases. Water takes many different forms on Earth: water
vapor and clouds in the sky; seawater and rarely icebergs in the ocean; glaciers and
rivers in the mountains; and aquifers in the ground.
Water can dissolve many different substances, giving it different tastes and odors. In
fact, humans and other animals have developed senses to be able to evaluate the
potability of water: animals generally dislike the taste of salty sea water and the
putrid swamps and favor the purer water of a mountain spring or aquifer. Humans
also tend to prefer cold water rather than lukewarm, as cold water is likely to contain
fewer microbes. The taste advertised in spring water or mineral water derives from
the minerals dissolved in it, as pure H2O is tasteless. As such, purity in spring and
mineral water refers to purity from toxins, pollutants, and microbes.

stormwater or surface water

according to religion
holy water
Main article: Water (molecule)

model of hydrogen bonds between molecules of water

Impact from a water drop causes an upward "rebound" jet surrounded by circular
capillary waves.

Dew drops adhering to a spider web

Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H2O: one molecule of water
has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom.
The major chemical and physical properties of water are:

1. Water is a tasteless, odorless liquid at ambient temperature and pressure.

The color of water and ice are, intrinsically, a very light blue hue, although
water appears colorless in small quantities. Ice also appears colorless, and
water vapor is essentially invisible as a gas.[4]
2. Water is transparent, and thus aquatic plants can live within the water
because sunlight can reach them. Only strong UV light is slightly absorbed.

Water is a liquid under standard conditions.

Since oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen, water is a

polar molecule. The oxygen has a slight negative charge while the
hydrogens have a slight positive charge giving the article a strong
effective dipole moment. The interactions between the different dipoles
of each molecule cause a net attraction force associated with water's
high amount of surface tension.

Another very important force that causes the water molecules to stick to
one another is the hydrogen bond.

The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is directly related to the
barometric pressure. For example, on the top of Mt. Everest water boils
at about 68 °C (154 °F), compared to 100 °C (212 °F) at sea level.
Conversely, water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents can reach
temperatures of hundreds of degrees and remain liquid.

Water sticks to itself. Water has a high surface tension caused by the
strong cohesion between water molecules because it is polar. The
apparent elasticity caused by surface tension drives the capillary waves.

Water also has high adhesion properties because of its polar nature.

Capillary action refers to the tendency of water to move up a narrow

tube against the force of gravity. This property is relied upon by all
vascular plants, such as trees.
 Water is a very strong solvent, referred to as the universal solvent,
dissolving many types of substances. Substances that will mix well and
dissolve in water, e.g. salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases:
especially oxygen, carbon dioxide (carbonation), are known as
"hydrophilic" (water-loving) substances, while those that do not mix well
with water (e.g. fats and oils), are known as "hydrophobic" (water-
fearing) substances.

All the major components in cells (proteins, DNA and polysaccharides)

are also dissolved in water.

Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, but this increases

significantly upon solvation of a small amount of ionic material such as
sodium chloride.

Water has the second highest specific heat capacity of any known
chemical compound, after ammonia, as well as a high heat of
vaporization (40.65 kJ mol−1), both of which are a result of the extensive
hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties
allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in
temperature.

The maximum density of water is at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F)[5]. Water

becomes even less dense upon freezing, expanding 9%. This causes an
unusual phenomenon: ice floats upon water, and so water organisms
can live inside a partly frozen pond because the water on the bottom has
a temperature of around 4 °C (39 °F).

Water is miscible with many liquids, for example ethanol, in all

proportions, forming a single homogeneous liquid. On the other hand,
water and most oils are immiscible usually forming layers according to
increasing density from the top. As a gas, water vapor is completely
miscible with air.

Some substances (sodium, lithium, calcium, potassium) emit a

flammable gas (hydrogen) when wet, or react violently with water.
Distribution of water in nature
Water on Earth
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface; the oceans contain 97.2% of the Earth's water.
The Antarctic ice sheet, which contains 90% of all fresh water on Earth, is visible at the
bottom. Condensed atmospheric water can be seen as clouds.

Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout
the Earth. The study of the distribution of water is hydrography. The study of the
distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, of glaciers is glaciology,
of inland waters is limnology and distribution of oceans is oceanography. Ecological
processes with hydrology are in focus of ecohydrology.
The collective mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planet is
called hydrosphere. Earth's approximate water volume (the total water supply of the
world) is 1 360 000 000 km³ .
Groundwater and fresh water are useful or potentially useful to humans as water
resources.
Liquid water is found in bodies of water, such as an ocean, sea, lake, river, stream,
canal, pond, or puddle. The majority of water on Earth is sea water. Water is also
present in the atmosphere in solid, liquid, and vapor phases. It also exists as
groundwater in aquifers.
The most important geological processes caused by water are: chemical
weathering, water erosion, water sediment transport and sedimentation, mudflows,
ice erosion and sedimentation by glacier.
Water cycle
The water cycle (known scientifically as the hydrologic cycle) refers to the
continuous exchange of water within the hydrosphere, between the atmosphere, soil
water, surface water, groundwater, and plants.
Water moves perpetually through each of these regions in the water cycle consisting
of following transfer processes: evaporation from oceans and other water bodies into
the air and transpiration from land plants and animals into air. precipitation, from
water vapor condensing from the air and falling to earth or ocean.
Most water vapor over the oceans returns to the oceans, but winds carry water
vapor over land at the same rate as runoff into the sea, about 36 Tt per year. Over
land, evaporation and transpiration contribute another 71 Tt per year. Precipitation,
at a rate of 107 Tt per year over land, has several forms: most commonly rain, snow,
and hail, with some contribution from fog and dew. Condensed water in the air may
also refract sunlight to produce rainbows.
Water runoff often collects over watersheds flowing into rivers. A mathematical
model used to simulate river or stream flow and calculate water quality parameters
is hydrological transport model. Some of water is diverted to irrigation for agriculture.
Rivers and seas offer opportunity for travel and commerce. Through erosion, runoff
shapes the environment creating river valleys and deltas which provide rich soil and
level ground for the establishment of population centers. A flood occurs when an
area of land, usually low-lying, is covered with water. It is when a river overflows its
banks or flood from the sea. A drought is an extended period of months or years
when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. This occurs when a region
receives consistently below average precipitation.
Fresh water storage
Some runoff water is trapped for periods, for example in lakes. At high altitude,
during winter, and in the far north and south, snow collects in ice caps, snow pack
and glaciers. Water also infiltrates the ground and goes into aquifers. This
groundwater later flows back to the surface in springs, or more spectacularly in hot
springs and geysers. Groundwater is also extracted artificially in wells. This water
storage is important, since clean, fresh water is essential to human and other land-
based life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supply.

Effects on life
From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for
the proliferation of life that set it apart from other substances. It carries out this role
by allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allow replication. All
known forms of life depend on water. Water is vital both as a solvent in which many
of the body's solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many metabolic processes
within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of anabolism and catabolism. In
anabolism, water is removed from molecules (through energy requiring enzymatic
chemical reactions) in order to grow larger molecules (e.g. starches, triglycerides
and proteins for storage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water is used to
break bonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acids and
amino acids to be used for fuels for energy use or other purposes). Water is thus
essential and central to these metabolic processes. Therefore, without water, these
metabolic processes would cease to exist, leaving us to muse about what processes
would be in its place, such as gas absorption, dust collection, etc.
Water is also central to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the
sun's energy to split off water's hydrogen from oxygen. Hydrogen is combined with
CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen. All living cells
use such fuels and oxidize the hydrogen and carbon to capture the sun's energy and
reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular respiration).
Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. An acid, a
hydrogen ion (H+, that is, a proton) donor, can be neutralized by a base, a proton
acceptor such as hydroxide ion (OH−) to form water. Water is considered to be
neutral, with a pH (the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids
have pH values less than 7 while bases have values greater than 7. Stomach acid
(HCl) is useful to digestion. However, its corrosive effect on the esophagus during
reflux can temporarily be neutralized by ingestion of a base such as aluminum
hydroxide to produce the neutral molecules water and the salt aluminum chloride.
Human biochemistry that involves enzymes usually performs optimally around a
biologically neutral pH of 7.4.For example a cell of Escherichia coli contain water, a
human body 60-70%, plant body up to 90% and the body of an adult jellyfish is
made up of 94–98% water.
Earth's waters are filled with life. The earliest life forms appeared in water; nearly all
fish live exclusively in water, and there are many types of marine mammals, such as
dolphins and whales that also live in the water. Some kinds of animals, such as
amphibians, spend portions of their lives in water and portions on land. Plants such
as kelp and algae grow in the water and are the basis for some underwater
ecosystems. Plankton is generally the foundation of the ocean food chain.
Aquatic animals must obtain oxygen to survive, and they do so in various ways. Fish
have gills instead of lungs, although some species of fish, such as the lungfish, have
both. Marine mammals, such as dolphins, whales, otters, and seals need to surface
periodically to breathe air. Smaller life forms are able to absorb oxygen through their
skin.

Effects on human civilization

Civilization has historically flourished around rivers and major waterways;

Mesopotamia, the so-called cradle of civilization, was situated between the major
rivers Tigris and Euphrates; the ancient society of the Egyptians depended entirely
upon the Nile. Large metropolises like Rotterdam, London, Montreal, Paris, New
York City, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe their success in part to
their easy accessibility via water and the resultant expansion of trade. Islands with
safe water ports, like Singapore, have flourished for the same reason. In places
such as North Africa and the Middle East, where water is more scarce, access to
clean drinking water was and is a major factor in human development.
Health and pollution

Water fit for human consumption is called drinking water or potable water. Water
that is not potable can be made potable by filtration or distillation (heating it until it
becomes water vapor, and then capturing the vapor without any of the impurities it
leaves behind), or by other methods (chemical or heat treatment that kills bacteria).
Sometimes the term safe water is applied to potable water of a lower quality
threshold (i.e., it is used effectively for nutrition in humans that have weak access to
water cleaning processes, and does more good than harm). Water that is not fit for
drinking but is not harmful for humans when used for swimming or bathing is called
by various names other than potable or drinking water, and is sometimes called safe
water, or "safe for bathing". Chlorine is a skin and mucous membrane irritant that is
used to make water safe for bathing or drinking. Its use is highly technical and is
usually monitored by government regulations (typically 1 part per million (ppm) for
drinking water, and 1-2 ppm of chlorine not yet reacted with impurities for bathing
water).
This natural resource is becoming scarcer in certain places, and its availability is a
major social and economic concern. Currently, about 1 billion people around the
world routinely drink unhealthy water. Most countries accepted the goal of halving by
2015 the number of people worldwide who do not have access to safe water and
sanitation during the 2003 G8 Evian summit.[10] Even if this difficult goal is met, it will
still leave more than an estimated half a billion people without access to safe
drinking water and over 1 billion without access to adequate sanitation. Poor water
quality and bad sanitation are deadly; some 5 million deaths a year are caused by
polluted drinking water. Water, however, is not a finite resource, but rather re-
circulated as potable water in precipitation in quantities many degrees of magnitude
higher than human consumption. Therefore, it is the relatively small quantity of water
in reserve in the earth (about 1% of our drinking water supply, which is replenished
in aquifers around every 1 to 10 years), that is a non-renewable resource, and it is,
rather, the distribution of potable and irrigation water which is scarce, rather than the
actual amount of it that exists on the earth. Water-poor countries use importation of
goods as the primary method of importing water (to leave enough for local human
consumption), since the manufacturing process uses around 10 to 100 times
products' masses in water.
In the developing world, 90% of all wastewater still goes untreated into local rivers
and streams.[11] Some 50 countries, with roughly a third of the world’s population,
also suffer from medium or high water stress, and 17 of these extract more water
annually than is recharged through their natural water cycles.[12] The strain not only
affects surface freshwater bodies like rivers and lakes, but it also degrades
groundwater resources.
Human uses
Agriculture

Irrigation of field crops.

The most important use of water in agriculture is for an irrigation and irrigation is key
component to produce enough food. Irrigation takes up to 90% of water withdrawn in
some developing countries.[13]
The human body is anywhere from 55% to 78% water depending on body size.[16] To
function properly, the body requires between one and seven liters of water per day
to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity,
temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this is ingested through foods or
beverages other than drinking straight water. It is not clear how much water intake is
needed by healthy people, though most advocates agree that 6–7 glasses of water
(approximately 2 litres) daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration.[17] Medical
literature favors a lower consumption, typically 1 liter of water for an average male,
excluding extra requirements due to fluid loss from exercise or warm weather.[18] For
those who have healthy kidneys, it is rather difficult to drink too much water, but
(especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) it is dangerous to drink too
little. People can drink far more water than necessary while exercising, however,
putting them at risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), which can be fatal. The
"fact" that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced
back to a scientific source.[19] There are other myths such as the effect of water on
weight loss and constipation that have been dispelled.[20]
An original recommendation for water intake in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition
Board of the National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse
persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in
prepared foods."[21] The latest dietary reference intake report by the United States
National Research Council in general recommended (including food sources): 2.7
liters of water total for women and 3.7 liters for men.[22] Specifically, pregnant and
breastfeeding women need additional fluids to stay hydrated. According to the
Institute of Medicine—who recommend that, on average, women consume 2.2 litres
and men 3.0 litres—this is recommended to be 2.4 litres (approx. 9 cups) for
pregnant women and 3 litres (approx. 12.5 cups) for breastfeeding women since an
especially large amount of fluid is lost during nursing.[23] Also noted is that normally,
about 20 percent of water intake comes from food, while the rest comes from
drinking water and beverages (caffeinated included). Water is excreted from the
body in multiple forms; through urine and feces, through sweating, and by exhalation
of water vapor in the breath. With physical exertion and heat exposure, water loss
will increase and daily fluid needs may increase as well.

Humans require water that does not contain too many impurities. Common
impurities include metal salts and/or harmful bacteria, such as Vibrio. Some solutes
are acceptable and even desirable for taste enhancement and to provide needed
electrolytes. [24]
The single largest freshwater resource suitable for drinking is Lake Baikal in Siberia,
which has a very low salt and calcium content and is very clean.
As a dissolving agent or solvent
Dissolving (or suspending) is used to wash everyday items such as the human body,
clothes, floors, cars, food, and pets. Also, human wastes are carried by water in the
sewage system. Its use as a cleaning solvent consumes most of water in
industrialized countries.
Water can facilitate the chemical processing of wastewater. An aqueous
environment can be favourable to the breakdown of pollutants, due to the ability to
gain an homogenous solution that is pumpable and flexible to treat. Aerobic
treatment can be used by applying oxygen or air to a solution reduce the reactivity of
substances within it.
Water also facilitates biological processing of waste that have been dissolved within
it. Microorganisms that live within water can access dissolved wastes and can feed
upon them breaking them down into less polluting substances. Reedbeds and
anaerobic digesters are both examples of biological systems that are particularly
suited to the treatment of effluents.
Typically from both chemical and biological treatment of wastes, there is often a
solid residue or cake that is left over from the treatment process. Depending upon its
constituent parts, this 'cake' may be dried and spread on land as a fertilizer if it has
beneficial properties, or alternatively disposed of in landfill or incinerated.
Water is the most abundant molecule in organisms.Fruits shrink when they are dried
because they consist primarly of water.
As a heat transfer fluid

Ice used for cooling.

Water and steam are used as heat transfer fluids

in diverse heat exchange systems, due to its
availability and high heat capacity, both as a
coolant and for heating. Cool water may even be
naturally available from a lake or the sea.
Condensing steam is a particularly efficient
heating fluid because of the large heat of
vaporization. A disadvantage is that water and
steam are somewhat corrosive. In almost all
electric power plants, water is the coolant, which
vaporizes and drives steam turbines to drive
generators.
In the nuclear industry, water can also be used as
a neutron moderator. In a pressurized water
reactor, water is both a coolant and a moderator.
This provides a passive safety measure, as
removing the water from the reactor also slows
the nuclear reaction down.
Extinguishing fires
Water is used for fighting wildfires.

Water has a high heat of vaporization and is

relatively inert, which makes it a good fire
extinguishing fluid. The evaporation of water
carries heat away from the fire. However, water
cannot be used to fight fires of electric equipment,
because impure water is electrically conductive,
or of oils and organic solvents, because they float
on water and the explosive boiling of water tends
to spread the burning liquid.
Decomposition of water may have played a role
in the Chernobyl disaster. Initially, cooling of the
incandescent reactor was attempted, but the
result was an explosion, when the extreme heat
caused water to flash into steam, thus leading to
a steam explosion; it may also have decomposed
water into hydrogen and oxygen, which
subsequently exploded.
Chemical uses
Organic reactions are usually quenched with
water or a water solution of a suitable acid, base
or buffer. Water is generally effective in removing
inorganic salts. In inorganic reactions, water is a
common solvent. In organic reactions, it is usually
not used as a reaction solvent, because it does
not dissolve the reactants well and is amphoteric
(acidic and basic) and nucleophilic. Nevertheless,
these properties are sometimes desirable. Also,
acceleration of Diels-Alder reactions by water has
been observed. Supercritical water has recently
 been a topic of research. Oxygen-saturated
supercritical water combusts organic pollutants
efficiently.
Recreation
Main article: Water sport (recreation)
Humans use water for many recreational
purposes, as well as for exercising and for
sports. Some of these include swimming,
waterskiing, boating, and diving. In addition,
some sports, like ice hockey and ice skating,
are played on ice. Lakesides, beaches and
waterparks are popular places for people to
go to relax and enjoy recreation. Many find
the sound of flowing water to be calming, too.
Some keep fish and other life in aquariums or
ponds for show, fun, and companionship.
Humans also use water for snow sports i.e.
skiing or snowboarding, which requires the
water to be frozen. People may also use
water for play fighting such as with
snowballs, water guns or water balloons.
They may also make fountains and use water
in their public or private decorations.
Water industry
Main articles: Water industry and :Category:Water supply and sanitation by
country
A water-carrier in India,1882. In many
places where running water is not available,
water has to be transported by people.

The water industry provides drinking

water and wastewater services (including
sewage treatment) to households and
industry.

A manual water pump in China

water purification facility

Water used in landscaping.

Water supply facilities includes for

example water wells cisterns for
rainwater harvesting, water supply
network, water purification facilities,
water tanks, water towers, water pipes
including old aqueducts. Atmospheric
water generator is in development.
Drinking water is often collected at
springs, extracted from artificial borings
in the ground, or wells. Building more
wells in adequate places is thus a
possible way to produce more water,
assuming the aquifers can supply an
adequate flow. Other water sources are
rainwater and river or lake water. This
surface water, however, must be purified
for human consumption. This may
involve removal of undissolved
substances, dissolved substances and
harmful microbes. Popular methods are
filtering with sand which only removes
undissolved material, while chlorination
and boiling kill harmful microbes.
Distillation does all three functions. More
advanced techniques exist, such as
reverse osmosis. Desalination of
abundant ocean or seawater is a more
expensive solution used in coastal arid
climates.
The distribution of drinking water is done
through municipal water systems or as
bottled water. Governments in many
countries have programs to distribute
water to the needy at no charge. Others
argue that the market mechanism and
free enterprise are best to manage this
rare resource and to finance the boring
of wells or the construction of dams and
reservoirs.
Reducing waste by using drinking water
only for human consumption is another
option. In some cities such as Hong
Kong, sea water is extensively used for
flushing toilets citywide in order to
conserve fresh water resources.
Polluting water may be the biggest single
misuse of water; to the extent that a
pollutant limits other uses of the water, it
becomes a waste of the resource,
regardless of benefits to the polluter.
Like other types of pollution, this does
not enter standard accounting of market
costs, being conceived as externalities
for which the market cannot account.
Thus other people pay the price of water
pollution, while the private firms' profits
are not redistributed to the local
population victim of this pollution.
Pharmaceuticals consumed by humans
often end up in the waterways and can
have detrimental effects on aquatic life if
they bioaccumulate and if they are not
biodegradable.
Wastewater facilities are sewers and
wastewater treatment plants. Another
way to remove pollution from surface
runoff water is bioswale.
Industrial applications

Three Gorges Dam is the largest hydro-

electric power station

Water is used in power generation.

Hydroelectricity is electricity obtained
from hydropower. Hydroelectric power
comes from water driving a water turbine
connected to a generator.
Hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-
polluting, renewable energy source. The
energy is supplied by the sun. Heat from
the sun evaporates water, which
condenses as rain in higher altitudes,
from where it flows down.
Pressurized water is used in water
blasting and water jet cutters. Also, very
high pressure water guns are used for
precise cutting. It works very well, is
relatively safe, and is not harmful to the
environment. It is also used in the
cooling of machinery to prevent over-
heating, or prevent saw blades from
over-heating.
Water is also used in many industrial
processes and machines, such as the
steam turbine and heat exchanger, in
addition to its use as a chemical solvent.
Discharge of untreated water from
industrial uses is pollution. Pollution
includes discharged solutes (chemical
pollution) and discharged coolant water
(thermal pollution). Industry requires
pure water for many applications and
utilizes a variety of purification
techniques both in water supply and
discharge.
Food processing

Water can be used to cook foods such as

noodles.

Water plays many critical roles within the

field of food science. It is important for a
food scientist to understand the roles
that water plays within food processing
to ensure the success of their products.
Solutes such as salts and sugars found
in water affect the physical properties of
water. The boiling and freezing points of
water is affected by solutes. One mole of
sucrose (sugar) raises the boiling point
of water by 0.52 °C, and one mole of salt
raises the boiling point by 1.04 °C while
lowering the freezing point of water in a
similar way.[25] Solutes in water also
affect water activity which affects many
chemical reactions and the growth of
microbes in food.[26] Water activity can
be described as a ratio of the vapor
pressure of water in a solution to the
vapor pressure of pure water.[25] Solutes
in water lower water activity. This is
important to know because most
bacterial growth ceases at low levels of
water activity.[26] Not only does microbial
growth affect the safety of food but also
the preservation and shelf life of food.
Water hardness is also a critical factor in
food processing. It can dramatically
affect the quality of a product as well as
playing a role in sanitation. Water
hardness is classified based on the
amounts of removable calcium
carbonate salt it contains per gallon.
Water hardness is measured in grains;
0.064 g calcium carbonate is equivalent
to one grain of hardness.[25] Water is
classified as soft if it contains 1 to 4
grains, medium if it contains 5 to 10
grains and hard if it contains 11 to 20
grains.[25] The hardness of water may be
altered or treated by using a chemical
ion exchange system. The hardness of
water also affects its pH balance which
plays a critical role in food processing.
For example, hard water prevents
successful production of clear
beverages. Water hardness also affects
sanitation; with increasing hardness,
there is a loss of effectiveness for its use
as a sanitizer.[25]
Boiling, steaming, and simmering are
popular cooking methods that often
require immersing food in water or its
gaseous state, steam. While cooking
water is used for dishwashing too.
 Water politics and water
crisis
Main articles: Water politics and Water crisis
See also: Water resources, Water law, and Water right
Water politics is politics affected by water and water resources. Because of
overpopulation, mass consumption, misuse, and water pollution, the availability of
drinking water per capita is inadequate and shrinking as of the year 2006. For this
reason, water is a strategic resource in the globe and an important element in many
political conflicts. It causes health impacts and damage to biodiversity. The serious
worldwide water situation is called water crisis.
UNESCO's World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from its World Water
Assessment Program indicates that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available
to everyone is predicted to decrease by 30%. 40% of the world's inhabitants currently
have insufficient fresh water for minimal hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in
2000 from waterborne diseases (related to the consumption of contaminated water) or
drought. In 2004, the UK charity WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15 seconds
from easily preventable water-related diseases; often this means lack of sewage
disposal; see toilet.
To halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking
water is one of the Millennium Development Goals.
Fresh water — now more precious than ever in our history for its extensive use in
agriculture, high-tech manufacturing, and energy production — is increasingly receiving
attention as a resource requiring better water management and sustainable use.
Organizations concerned in water protection include International Water Association
(IWA), WaterAid, Water 1st, American Water Resources Association. Water related
conventions are United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD),
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea and Ramsar Convention. World Day for Water
takes place at March 22 and World Ocean Day at June 8.Water used in the
production of a good or service is virtual water.

Religion, philosophy,
and literature
A Hindu ablution as practiced in
Tamil Nadu

Water is considered a purifier in

most religions. Major faiths that
incorporate ritual washing
(ablution) include Christianity,
Hinduism, Rastafarianism,
Islam, Shinto, Taoism, and
Judaism. Immersion (or
aspersion or affusion) of a
person in water is a central
sacrament of Christianity (where
it is called baptism); it is also a
part of the practice of other
religions, including Judaism
(mikvah) and Sikhism (Amrit
Sanskar). In addition, a ritual
bath in pure water is performed
for the dead in many religions
including Judaism and Islam. In
Islam, the five daily prayers can
be done in most cases after
completing washing certain
parts of the body using clean
water (wudu). In Shinto, water is
used in almost all rituals to
cleanse a person or an area
(e.g., in the ritual of misogi).
Water is mentioned in the Bible
442 times in the New
International Version and 363
times in the King James
Version: 2 Peter 3:5(b) states,
"The earth was formed out of
water and by water" (NIV).
Some faiths use water
especially prepared for religious
purposes (holy water in some
Christian denominations, Amrita
in Sikhism and Hinduism). Many
religions also consider particular
sources or bodies of water to be
sacred or at least auspicious;
examples include Lourdes in
Roman Catholicism, the Jordan
River (at least symbolically) in
some Christian churches, the
Zamzam Well in Islam and the
River Ganges (among many
others) in Hinduism.
Water is often believed to have
spiritual powers. In Celtic
mythology, Sulis is the local
goddess of thermal springs; in
Hinduism, the Ganges is also
personified as a goddess, while
Saraswati have been referred to
as goddess in Vedas. Also
water is one of the "panch-
tatva"s (basic 5 elements,
others including fire, earth,
space, air). Alternatively, gods
can be patrons of particular
springs, rivers, or lakes: for
example in Greek and Roman
mythology, Peneus was a river
god, one of the three thousand
Oceanids. In Islam, not only
does water give life, but every
life is itself made of water: "We
made from water every living
thing".[27]
The Ancient Greek philosopher
Empedocles held that water is
one of the four classical
elements along with fire, earth
and air, and was regarded as
the ylem, or basic substance of
the universe. Water was
considered cold and moist. In
the theory of the four bodily
humors, water was associated
with phlegm. Water was also
one of the five elements in
traditional Chinese philosophy,
along with earth, fire, wood, and
metal.
Water also plays an important
role in literature as a symbol of
purification. Examples include
the critical importance of a river
in As I Lay Dying by William
Faulkner and the drowning of
Ophelia in Hamlet.
Sherlock Holmes held that
"From a drop of water, a
logician could infer the
possibility of an Atlantic or a
Niagara without having seen or
heard of one or the other."[