Society, Sociology and

Chapter 1 Sociological Research

After completing this chapter, you will be able to;

1 2
Learning Outcomes

Define the concept of society and explain the

Define sociology main characteristics of types of society

Define the concepts of social behavior, social

structure, social institution, social fact, group,

3 self, status, role, value, norm, sanction and

socialization.
4
Comprehend the origins and the birth of
sociology as a social science discipline

5 Define the concept of science and explain the

characteristics of scientific research. 6 Explain the phases of scientific research.

7 Compare the main methodological approaches

in sociological research. 8 Explain qualitative and quantitative research
designs

Chapter Outline
What is Socıology? Key Terms
The Society and Types of Society Sociology
The Fundamental Concepts in Sociology Society
The Origins and the Birth of Sociology as a Social Socialization
Science Science
Science and Method Scientific Method
Scientific Research Process Research Process
Main Methodological Approaches in Quantitative Research
Sociological Research Qualitative Research
Research Designs and Techniques in
Sociological Research

2
 1
Introduction to Sociology

INTRODUCTION than women, higher for singles than people in a

This chapter, by providing introductory level relationship and higher among Protestants than
information on sociology, aims to form a basis for Catholics. He also found that suicide rates are
the following chapters of this book. In this chapter, higher in times of peace than times of war; and
first, the main concepts of sociology will be defined higher in times of economic crisis than times of
and exemplified, the origins and characteristics economic welfare. Depending on these similarities
of sociology as a social science discipline will be and differences, Durkheim developed a theory and
explained. Second, the concepts of science and explained suicide as a sociological phenomenon,
scientific method will be defined. Finally, the as a social fact. He claimed that there are four
research methods and techniques of sociological types of suicides and the rates of suicide are based
research will be explained in simple terms. on the degrees of social integration and moral
regulation in that society. When these two social
factors increase or decrease too much, suicide
WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? rates get higher. This shows that suicide is a social
All people have values, beliefs, and attitudes. fact, and is in relation with other social facts.
Are these our personal traits, or are they molded
by an outer pattern? What kind of a life would
you have lived if you were born in a different 1
society? If you were born in a tribe in Africa, in
What are the suicide types
the steps of Mongolia, in Switzerland or in an
that Durkheim claimed? In
Inuit tribe? Would your values, beliefs, attitudes
what ways do the degree of
be the same as they are now? If you were born in
social integration and moral
one of the richest or the poorest families in your
regulation of the society inf-
country, if you were born in another sex, would
luence suicide?
your opportunities of education or employment
be the same, would your behaviors, reasons of
honor and sorrow be the same? In short, would Another example is divorce. In everyday
you be the same person? To think about these life, people think that their divorce is a personal
questions would show that a wide range of norms phenomenon, an individual problem. However,
and values that we consider personal are indeed every year an approximate number of people get
shaped by societal factors. divorced in any given society. For example, 40-
Think about a person who is about to commit 50% of married people in the US get divorced
suicide. Of course, he/she could have personal (APA, 2017). In other countries, too, there are
reasons for this. Is this a personal behavior or divorce rates that show that a similar number of
is it a social phenomenon? If very few people people get divorced every year. There are social
do commit suicide in a society, this may be factors that influence divorce rates. For example,
considered personal. However, a considerable in countries that women have higher economic
number of people in every society do commit independence, divorce rates are higher. Also in
suicide every year. The statistics indicate that the countries in which women have equal rights with
number of people who commit suicide every year men about legislations about divorce, divorce
is approximately 3 thousand in Turkey and 44 rates are higher. These data show that there are
thousand in the US (TUIK, 2016; AFSP, 2017). similarities in people’s divorce behaviors, and there
This means that the suicides in 100,000 people, are differences in this similarity. Thus, we can
namely the suicide rate, is 4,11 in Turkey and see that many of our behaviors that we consider
13,26 in the US. If there is an approximate annual personal are the reflections of wider social patterns.
quota of people committing suicide in a given As seen in these examples, sociology reveals the
society, suicide should not be considered only as social in the individual, the general in the particular.
a personal behavior, it is a social phenomenon. This means that sociologists show that the personal
Durkheim, in his seminal study entitled “Suicide” experiences of people are reflections of wider social
(1897) shows that suicide rates are higher in men facts. Sociology shows the similarities among the

3
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

experiences of people and the differences among these similarities

(Bauman and May, 2001:7). Sociology prompts us to reevaluate
our experiences that in everyday life we do not tend to think about.
Sociological thinking makes people comprehend that things are not
always the same as they think; and that the world that they think they
know may actually be different than what they think. This enables us
to understand our and other people’s problems better. Thus we see
that all people confront similar obstacles and disappointments with us.
Thus, we respect their right to choose and perform the life style they
choose. In other words, sociological thinking creates a solidarity based
on mutual understanding and respect (Bauman and May, 2001:12).
The areas that sociologists investigate are parts of our everyday lives.
Sociologists talk about families, groups, politics, economy, factories,
religion, authority, etc. In everyday life, people do think and talk about
these issues depending on their own experiences, in other words, with
commonsense. This is not the same for physical sciences. For example,
the experiences of people do not mean anything for astronomy or
chemistry. However, sociologists live in the society they investigate,
they have families, they work in the work places, they are a part of the
economy. They cannot completely isolate themselves from the society.
In addition, what people say and do is the basis of the research subject
of sociology. Nevertheless, there are important differences between
commonsense and sociology. These can be summarized in four points
(Bauman and May, 2001:8-10):
• The first difference is related to the responsible speech. Unlike peo-
ple depending on commonsense while talking, sociologists make
effort to follow the rules of responsible speech. This means they
make a clear distinction between untested personal claims and
the statements corroborated by evidence. This is a very important
point because the trust to and credibility of scientific knowledge
depends on the belief that scientists follow the rules of responsible
speech.
• The second difference is related to the size of the field from which
the material is drawn. People who talk with regard to common-
sense generally think and talk depending on few people’s lives and
experiences. This causes their thinking to be partial or one-sided.
Sociologists, on the other hand, broaden their horizons, use a wider
perspective and can link individual biographies to social processes.
Sociological thinking is a multi-dimensional thinking practice.
• The third difference is related to how we understand events. In
everyday life, people tend to think that everything that occurs in
the world is an outcome of somebody’s intentional actions. They
think that goodwill lies behind good events and ill intensions lie
behind unpleasant events. Sociologists do not make personalized
interpretations. Sociologists’ explanations depend on networks of
Picture 1.1 What if you were born dependencies rather than individual actors or actions.
in a different society?

4
 1
Introduction to Sociology

• The last difference is related to dogmas. Sociologist C. Wright Mills used the concept of
In everyday life, repeated actions become sociological imagination to define the awareness of
habitual and commonsense does not the relationship between personal, private experience
ask critical questions. The reactions to and the wider society. Sociological imagination
social facts are perceived as true ways of means to comprehend the history, the biography,
life. However, sociologists challenge the and their relationship in the society. Mills argues
supposed commonsense and ask radical, that people have to understand wider patterns in
critical, provoking questions about the order to understand the problems related to their
social facts. Sociology discusses the flow of works, families or neighbors. For Mills, the mission
the life in details. of sociology is to understand the connection between
Doing sociology is not a simple knowledge the individuals and the society they live in. Mills
acquisition process. When we think sociologically, argues that sociology should be used in order to
we reexamine the things that we think we knew or reveal how the society molds the individual lives. He
understood. We move away from the commonness thinks that if we want to understand an individual or
a group, we should have knowledge of the social and
of everyday life and see the things from a broader
historical context of the society in which these people
perspective. The aim of sociology is not to correct our
live. Mills (1959:3) explains the intertwinement of
knowledge or to replace our inaccurate knowledge
individual lives and social forces as following:
with put unquestionable truths. Sociological
thinking is to have the habit to criticize, analyze and
“When a society is industrialized, a peasant becomes
question the claims that are taken for granted and a worker; a feudal lord is liquidated or becomes
accepted as certain facts. a businessman. When classes rise or fall, a man is
employed or unemployed; when the rate of the
investment goes up or down, a man takes a new
Sociology does not aim to replace our heart or goes broke. When wars happen, an insurance
incorrect information with unquestionable salesman becomes a rocket launcher; a store clerk,
true information. It helps us to question a radar man; a wife lives alone; a child grows up
and criticize the facts that are accepted true without a father. Neither the life of an individual
nor the history of a society can be understood without
without questioning.
understanding both.”

As we saw in the examples of suicide and divorce,

to understand the connection between biography
and history is to understand the connection
between the individual and the society, between
the world and us. A divorce of a married couple
is an individual problem, but if nearly half of the
married couples in a society divorced in the last
decade, the divorce itself is a social problem. It is an
individual problem for a person to be unemployed,
but if one-third of the population is unemployed,
the unemployment itself is a social problem. This
shows that problems do not arise from individual
characteristics, they are social problems and have
to be examined and analyzed at the societal level.
By this way, sociology helps us to see the common
Picture 1.2 C.W. Mills (1916-1962) used the in the personal and the social in the individual. In
“sociological imagination” phrase to explain the need other words, it helps us to see the social problems,
to move away from viewing problems as personal and which lie behind the individual problems. When
to recognize them as social issues. The sociological the patterns of the social life are put forward in this
imagination enables us to grasp history and biography way, people can better understand both themselves
and the relations between the two within the society. and the world they live in (Coser et al., 1983:8).

5
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

Besides being a perspective, sociology is also a THE SOCIETY AND TYPES OF

branch of social sciences. In this manner, sociology SOCIETY
can be defined in many ways. Giddens (2008:38)
defines sociology as the scientific study of the social Society: Society consists of the interactions
life of human beings, human groups and societies. among people who share a culture or a number
For another definition, sociology is the systematic of social institutions. In other words, the society
and planned study of human groups and social life is not the sum of gathered people. What makes a
in modern societies (Browne, 1998:1). Sociology can society is not people themselves. Rather, it is the
also be defined as scientific examination and research totality of the relationships among the people.
of human societies and the human behaviors in the Society can be defined as “any self-perpetuating,
social groups (Kornblum and Smith, 2008:4). Thus, human grouping occupying a relatively bounded
we can define sociology as the scientific investigation of territory, possessing its own more or less distinctive
the society, the social interaction, the relation between culture and institution” (Jary and Jary, 2005:585).
the individual and the society, the structures of the Although the concept of society is often used to
social institutions and their relations with each other. refer to a nation, they are different concepts.
Sociology as a social science has its origins in the effort The concept of nation is a political category, and
to understand the transformation from the traditional refers to a pretended unity which involves official
society to the modern society. It aims to understand recognition. As a political category, a nation cannot
the structure of and changes in the societies through subsist on its own; nations generally subsist through
scientific inquiry on contemporary human societies. the agency of their states. Society, on the other
Sociology has three levels of inquiry. At the macro hand, is a praxis, which is established by mutually
level, sociology investigates the structure and change bounded social relations. Societies are not political
of the societies or social institutions. In other words, units; they are not administered by the politicians.
macrosociology studies the analysis of large-scale social Societies administer themselves, they can subsist
organizations such as political or economic systems. on their own, they do not need any agency. For
At the meso level, which is known as mesosociology, example, although few in number, there are still
sociologists study the experiences of groups and the hunter-gatherer tribes today. These tribes are not
interactions between groups. At the micro level, nations, but they are societies. Every nation is a
namely microsociology, sociologists investigate the society, but not every society is a nation. Society
smallest levels of interaction, such as the everyday is the totality of the mutual relationships among
behaviors in face-to-face interactions. Microsociology a human community, which lives in a specific
studies may include interactions between friends or territory, shares a specific culture and common
couples, or only the perception of the self. social institutions.

Society is not the totality of people; it is the

Sociology is a social science that aims to totality of the mutual relationships among a
understand the structure of and changes community of people who share a specific
in the societies. It examines contemporary territory, a specific culture and common
human societies through scientific inquiry. social institutions.

Types of society: Sociologists classify the

2 types of societies depending mainly on their
How do we choose in which characteristics of production. Therefore, although
level to study? Can we study human groups have established many types of
the same topic at more than societies through the history, sociologists usually
refer to six types of society.
one level? Try to answer this
question by giving examples
for each level of sociology.

6
 1
Introduction to Sociology

• Hunting and Gathering Societies:

The earliest type of societies is hunting attention
and gathering societies, which exist
since 50,000 BC to present. However, In the most general
today there are only a few hunting and level, societies before the
gathering societies in the world. This 18th century are called
type of society consists of small numbers “traditional societies”. In
of people, such as 30-40 people. People the Western world, the
majority of the traditional
are nomad and gain their livelihood
societies transformed
from hunting, fishing, and gathering
through Enlightenment,
edible plants. In this type of society,
Scientific and Political
there is very little social inequality, and
Revolutions and the
the inequalities are based on honor
Industrial Revolution,
rather than wealth. Because they do not
and a new society
do agriculture, they do not have long- emerged. This new type
term storable food. The material goods of society is called “the
they have and use are very limited, industrial society” or “the
they have their weapons, traps and modern society”.
cooking tools. As a consequence, there
are no rich and poor people, and there are no divisions depending
on wealth. The social divisions and the division of labor is based on
age and sex. This type of society is based on cooperation, there is no
competition among people. They are generally participatory societies
and all male members gather together when important decisions are
taken. However, the thoughts of the oldest men are more important
(Giddens, 2005: 46).
• Pastoral Societies: Pastoral societies are the societies in which the
gain of livelihood is based on domesticated livestock such as cattle or
sheep. These societies generally live in areas which are not suitable for
agriculture. These societies consist of a larger population than hunting
and gathering societies. Their population varies from a few hundred
people to many thousand people. There is also more social inequality
in this type of societies. Members of pastoral societies are engaged
in trade and this causes a division between the rich and the poor. In
these societies, there are non-economic social inequalities, too; for
example, the chiefs, warlords, and leaders have extensive personal
Picture 1. 3 There are different power. This type of society has emerged in 12,000 BC and today
types of societies. many pastoral societies exist, particularly in Africa, Middle East and
Central Asia (Giddens, 2005: 49).
• Agrarian Societies: Agrarian societies are the societies of small rural communities which are
engaged in agriculture. They often hunt animals and gather edible plants in addition to agricultural
production. Their existence period is approximately same with pastoral societies. The first form of
agrarian is the “horticultural societies”, in which people cultivated small gardens with simple tools.
Agrarian societies are settled societies and develop
regular trading and political ties with other societies.
There are important economic inequalities among
Most of the pastoral and agrarian societies
people (Giddens, 2005: 51). As pastoral societies,
are now part of larger states and they are
agrarian societies, too, are now part of larger states
losing their traditional identities.
and losing their traditional identities.

7
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

• Traditional States: The societies known and the emergence of industrial working
as traditional states or non-industrial class. With the concentration of industry
civilizations existed between 6000 BC to and production in factories in cities, large
19th century. Traditional societies were amounts of people migrated from rural
smaller than industrial societies, but larger areas to urban areas. Industrial society refers
than all the former types of societies, some to a type of society in which the majority of the
reached to millions of people. Some of the production is industrial and most of the people
important examples of traditional states work as industrial workers in factories, offices
are the Chinese empire, the Aztecs and or shops and live in urban areas. Industrial
the Mayas of Mexico and the Inca of Peru. Revolution and Political Revolutions (such
Traditional societies are largely based on, as French Revolution) were the main
but not limited to, agricultural production. elements that revealed the modern society.
This is the first society type in which not The modern society is an industrialized,
most of the people are engaged in food urbanized, secularized society which is
production. People in traditional states are politically formed as a nation-state.
also engaged in trade and nonagricultural • Post-Industrial Societies: With the
production. Traditional states are not technological changes in the 20th century,
completely rural societies; they have some a new type of society emerged. In the
cities in which traders or manufacturers post industrial society, the majority of
concentrate. While the division of labor the production shifted from industrial
is based on sex and age in hunting and production to service sector. The service
gathering, pastoral or agrarian societies; sector, including communication, health,
there is a complex division of labor in the banking and insurance had a larger
traditional states. Although the division proportion in industry than before.
of labor by sex continued, specialized jobs Information and technology gained more
emerged in the traditional societies. The importance. This new type of society is
main occupation groups are merchants, called with a number of names, but it is
courtiers, government administrators, most generally named as the post-industrial
clergies and soldiers. There are major society or information society. The
inequalities among the different groups, approaches emphasizing the cultural change
especially between aristocratic groups and rather than technologic and economic
the rest of the society. The members of the change mostly name it the postmodern
aristocracy had much more wealth and held society.
the political power. There are no traditional
states in the contemporary world, this type THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
of society completely disappeared (Giddens, IN SOCIOLOGY
2005: 55). There are a number of concepts in sociology,
• Industrial (Modern) Societies: Industrial which are essential in explaining, understanding
Revolution began with the emergence of and studying society and social behavior. These are
non-living resources of energy (such as social action, social structure, social institution,
electricity), which enabled the machine social fact, group, self, status, role, value, norm,
production. Industrial Revolution is a sanction and socialization. Let’s try to define and
complex set of changes in technologic, exemplify them.
economic and social organization in
society. Beginning in the second half of the Social action: Not every action is a social
1700s in England and spreading to many action. Social action is an action which is oriented
other countries, Industrial Revolution was towards the past, present or future actions of the
characterized mainly by the replacement other people. For example, taking revenge out on
of hand tools with electrical machines, the someone or buying a burglary insurance are social
concentration of industry in large factories actions. If two people on the way change their
directions because of only personal reasons, this is not

8
 1
Introduction to Sociology

a social action. However, if they think they are going structure and main
to crash each other and they change their directions attention values of the society.
in order to prevent this clash, this is a social action. Social institutions
In short, if an action is made towards other people’s Sociologists are divided as include thoughts on
actions, it is a meaningful social action. to whether social action how to reach the aims
Social structure: Neither the society nor or the social structure that are considered
the members of the society obtain themselves better explains the social significant. The
incidentally. Most of our activities are structured, reality. The approach in process of a social
regular, continuous and repetitive. Social structure which social action is practice to become
is composed of these social actions of and the more important is the regular and
interactions among the members of the society. Interpretive approach, perpetual enough
In other words, the social structure is the regular, and the approach in for being a social
permanent and stereotyped relations among which the structure is institution is called
the members of the society (Abercrombie et al. more important is the institutionalization
2006:361). For example, the family is a social Positivist-Structuralist ( J o h n s o n ,
institution in which the parents, the children, and approach. 2000:157). The main
the other family members regularly interact in a social institutions,
specific way. The society assumes that its members family, religion, economy, education, health and
have a number of responsibilities to each other. politics exist in every society, although sometimes
The parents are expected to raise and educate they appear in different forms. It is important not
their children, send them to school, and the to confuse the social institutions with concrete
children are expected to follow their parent’s advice presentations. For example, a family is not equal
and obey their rules until they reach lawful age. to the family as a social institution, a hospital is
These action-behavior expectations construct the not equal to the health as a social institution, and
structure of the family. Thus, the social structure of a government is not equal to the politics as a social
a society refers to the status, roles, norms, values, institution. Such that, all families are influenced by
groups, institutions, in short, the elements which the way that the society forms the family. However,
constitute the relation patterns in that society. not all of the families necessarily reflect the
Social structure is then, the enduring, continuous structural characteristics of the family institution
and organized relations among the members, social in that society. Another characteristic of the social
groups and social institutions. Social structure is institutions is that all of the social institutions in a
the enduring pattern of the social arrangements in society are related to each other. For instance, the
a given society. family raises new generations, the members of these
generations will be both producers and consumers.
This shows the relation between the family and
the economy. Education trains the labor force that
Social structure is the perpetual, continuous economy needs, thus the economy is also related to
and organized relations among the groups and the education. Politics and legal system make the
social institutions that consist the society. arrangements that enable the economy to process
without problems. Hence, the economy is also
related to the politics.
Social institution: Social institution refers to
arrangements involving large numbers of people Social fact: In social life, there are phenomena
whose behaviors are guided by norms and roles different than physical sciences examine. These
(Jary and Jary, 2005: 306). A social institution is phenomena are known as social facts or social
a socially organized social behavior pattern that reality. Social facts are created collectively by
reflects the established appearance of the society, society. They are exterior, inevitable and limiting
which are continuously repeated, maintained and for the individuals. In other words, the social
approved by the social norms. In other words, facts are the acting, thinking and feeling patterns
social institutions are a totality of perpetual rules which are out and above of the individuals
which are important for the maintenance of the and have the power to force themselves to the

9
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

individuals. Durkheim defines the social facts as a group until they get off the cab. Families, friends,
the actions of society and sociology as the study students in a class, co-workers in a workplace are
of the social facts. According to Durkheim, the some examples of groups. The groups may be
social facts exist outside and regardless of the permanent or temporary. For instance, families are
individual, are acquired through coercion of the an example of the permanent groups and crowds
society that created them (Durkheim, 1985:43, are an example of the temporary groups. There are
50). Because the social facts impose themselves some fundamental characteristics of groups:
upon individuals, deviation from social facts can • A social group consists of a number of
result in various types of sanctions. Social facts people. To form a group, two or more
are sui generis, in other words, they are peculiar individuals are necessary.
in their characteristics. They are the creation • Reciprocal relations exist among the
of human activities or actions, however, they members of a social group. The members of
are not the product of conscious intentions, the group must interact or be interrelated
and they are the unanticipated consequence with each other, a group cannot exist without
of human agency. Examples of the social facts these reciprocal relations. Reciprocity is
are the social institutions, statuses, roles, laws, the basis of group activity. Each member
beliefs, population distribution, urbanization, is required to respond to the needs of the
language, religion etc. For example, violence other members. For example, in the family
against women is a social fact. Poverty, marriage, not only must the children obey the rules of
urbanization, class structure, subcultures are also the parents, but parents must also fulfill the
examples of social facts. The norms and rules, children’s needs.
which individuals internalize and are forced to • There are common aims, objectives and
obey, are more or less solidified examples of social ideals for the members of the group. The
facts (Marshall, 2003: 755). Social facts can be group is formed in order to achieve these
studied empirically and consist the main subject objectives and ideals. Aims and ideals of the
of sociology. However, social facts cannot speak group are more important than the aims
for themselves, we need theories to understand or ideals of the individual. Members of the
them (Giddens, 2008:44). group behave in similar ways in order to
achieve the common goals.
• Members of the group share a sense of
Social facts consist of ways of acting, unity and bond of solidarity. The members
thinking, and feeling, which are external to share a feeling of “we”. In addition to the
the individual, and endowed with a power common goals and mutual relations, this
of coercion. They are the creation of human “we” feeling strengthens the sense of unity.
activities but they are not intended. Thus the members identify themselves
with the group, and consider people out
of the group as “others” or “outsiders”.
Group: Social groups are the main blocks The members of the group are aware of
of the society. The group is a set of people who their membership. They have a group
are in mutual interaction, who share specific consciousness and distinguish themselves
expectations and who take into consideration the from other people.
other’s behaviors (Kornblum and Smith, 2008:75). • Social groups have control over their
In other words, social group is a set of people members. This control is often exercised by
who share common goals and interests, who are group norms. Group norms are the norms
interrelated and who have a continuous interaction and regulations that the members have
for a while. For example, five people who are to follow. These norms, whether or not
waiting for a bus at a bus stop do not consist a they are written, maintain the unity and
group. However, if they decide to take a cab and integrity of the group. Violation of group
share the cab fare, they become a group and stay as norms is subject to sanctions.

10
 1
Introduction to Sociology

Status: A status is the rank, the position that

one holds in the society. Anybody may occupy
A social group is an organized group, of the status of a son or a daughter, a husband or a
which the members have mutual interaction, wife, a teacher, or a mother. Statuses are divided
reciprocal relations, common goals, similar into two basic types. These are ascribed and
behaviors, a sense of unity and follow the achieved status. The statuses that the individual
group norms. has in birth, are ascribed statuses. Sex, age, race,
ethnic group are examples of ascribed status. The
statuses that individuals gain during their life,
Self: When they are born, individuals do not are achieved statuses. The achieved statuses are
have any idea about who they are. In time, they gained by individuals’ knowledge, abilities, skills,
learn what other people think about them and they or sometimes luck (Coser et al., 1983:83,85). For
learn to think in the same way. While children grow, example, being a teacher or a lawyer, being a mother
they see that people perceive women different from or a father, or winning a lottery and becoming rich
men, Christians different from Muslims, the poor are examples of achieved status. Both ascribed and
dıfferent from the rich. They learn how the world achieved statuses exist in all societies, and people
perceives them, and they tend to adopt the same do have some ascribed and some achieved statuses.
perspective. Ultimately, the self that the individual However, in modern societies achieved statuses are
develops widely depends on how people define more important than ascribed statuses.
their status in society. Self is the totality of the
perceptions and thoughts related to our identity
and our qualifications. In other words, self is a
If a status is determined at the birth of
relatively stable set of perceptions and thoughts of
the individual, it is an ascribed status. In
who we are in relation to the others and ourselves.
addition to ascribed statuses, individuals
According to sociologist George Herbert Mead,
the theorist of The Theory of the Social Self, the may acquire other statuses in their life time
self is developed by three phases. These phases with the exercise of their abilitres, skills,
are the language, the play, and the game. The knowledge or luck. These are called the
language phase allows individuals to respond to achieved statuses.
each other’s opinions or emotions. Emotions like
anger or happiness, and opinions about a person Role: Society expects specific behaviors from
or a subject are conveyed through the language. people who hold specific statuses and these
The play phase develops self by developing self- expected behaviors are called “roles”. Roles
consciousness through role playing. During the
are composed of the rights and assignments
role-playing, individuals learn to internalize other
appropriate to the social status. All people do have
people’s perspectives. The game phase develops self
a number of statuses (mother, teacher, student,
by allowing individuals to learn and follow the
neighbor, etc.) and each of these statuses carries
rules of the activity (the game). Thus, individuals
learn that there are rules and regulations to follow the related roles in it. Depending on the number
in order to be considered successful in an activity. of their statuses, individuals may have multiple
roles. For example, a man may have the roles of
a father, a son, a worker and a trade unionist. If
one or more of the roles of the individual do not
3 sort together, role conflict occurs. For example, if
Sociologist George Herbert a policeman father makes a bust and comes across
Mead is well known for his his son among the criminals, he will live a role
theory of the social self, which conflict. If he acts as a good father and bestows
includes the concepts of ‘self,’ privilege on his son he won’t be a good policeman;
‘me,’ and ‘I.’ What do you but if he acts as a good policeman and arrests
think are the differences among his son, he won’t be a good father (Coser et al.,
the self, me and I? 1983:86-87).

11
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

right, and important. Society expects all members

to adhere to the norms and impose sanctions to
who do not adhere, however, most members of the
society already adhere to the norms. Norms may
be formal or informal. Formal norms are written,
established rules such as laws, university exam
requirements, and “don’t step on the grass” signs
at public parks. The formal norms are the most
specific norms. However, their sanctions show
a great variety, because the sanction of theft and
stepping on the grass can not be same in weight.
Informal norms are unwritten rules; they are casual
behavior expectations like using a napkin while
Picture 1. 4 When there are contradictions eating or meeting the guests warmly. The norms of
between separate roles of a person and these a society or a group are based on the social values
roles become incompatible with each other, of that community. For example, if honesty is an
role conflict occurs. Role conflict may result in important social value in a society, the society
difficulty to perform either role in an effective tries to prevent the behavior of lying by norms.
way. Not all norms have similar sanctions. Sanctions
of folkways and mores are very different in every
society. Folkways indicate the appropriate behavior
Value: Social values are the standards that we in the daily life practices of a given culture. They
consult to know what is wrong and what is right are relatively weak norms and their sanctions are
(Coser et al., 1983:69). In other words, values not very heavy. Wearing appropriate clothes to
are the ideals and faiths that a society or a group an event, eating the meal decently, greeting back
considers important. They are shared by the society when greeted are examples of folkway norms. On
and account for the stability of the social order. the other hand, mores are strong and important
The values are the criteria that guide individuals norms of the society. The members of the society
to choose between alternative courses of action. believe that mores should be obeyed in order to
A value is a belief that something is desirable, maintain the society. As a consequence, their
worth having and striving, and people always refer sanctions are quite heavy. The strongest mores are
to the values in their every day life. The values often legally protected with laws. Cannibalism,
provide goals to aim for and hold the society incest or homicide are standard examples of mores
together because they are shared in common. and exist in almost every society. While folkways
Some examples of values are patriotism, respect for do not include moral principles, mores embody
human dignity, rationality, sacrifice, individuality, the moral principles of the society of the group.
equality or democracy. These are some of the People who violate mores may be excluded or
standards that guide our behavior in many ways. banned from some groups. Laws are also written
Different societies may have different values. For norms. They are formal norms which are designed,
example, in some societies values such as family maintained and imposed by the political authority
commitment, modesty, fatalism or hospitality are of the society.
very important. However, in some other societies
Sanction: Sanctions are the anticipated
individualism and competitiveness are the most
consequence of violating the rules and the norms.
important values and behaviors reflecting modesty
They are used to make members of the society
may be considered as weakness.
follow the norms. Thus, sanctions are mechanisms
Norm: Norms are the rules resultant of values; of social control. As opposed to forms of internal
they are binding expectations of behaviors. In social control such as norms and values, the sanction
other words, norms are the visible and invisible is a form of external social control. Sanctions may
rules of conduct. They define how to behave in be positive or negative. Positive sanction includes
accordance with what a society has defined as good, rewarding of a behavior that follows the norms

12
 1
Introduction to Sociology

and negative sanction includes the punishment themselves by transmitting their values, social
of a behavior that violates the norms (Marshall, actions, the cultural heritage from generation
2003:810). Sanctions may arise from either formal to generation (Coser et al., 1983:106). Through
or informal control. For example, if we enter the process of socialization, societies make every
a restaurant and eat our meal with our hands generation learn the values and norms and fulfill
without using the forks and knives, we don’t face the expectations of that society.
a formal sanction, because this behavior does not Socialization is a fundamental process for
include a violation of a law or more. However, human beings. If an individual cannot have
if we behave like this, we may face the sanctions a sufficient process of socialization, extreme
such as disapproving glares, whispers or ridicules isolation may occur. Genie’s case is one of the
of people around us. Informal sanctions may most important examples of the extreme isolation.
include community pressure, shame, ridicule, Genie was discovered when she was 13, in 1970.
criticism, disapproval or sarcasm. Formal sanctions She was found in the room in which she was locked
include law enforcement mechanisms such as alone for ten years. At nights, she was tied into a
imprisonment, limits on freedom, censorship, sleeping bag, she was often forgotten alone in the
expulsion or penalty fines. room. When Genie was found, she did not look
like a 13-year-old child. She could understand
and say only a few words. She could not chew,
Sanctions function to guarantee the norms could hardly swallow and continuously sniffed.
to be followed. She could not walk normally; she was walking
lopsidedly by holding her hands up in front of her,
like a bunny. She was not toilet trained. This is an
So c i a l i z a t i o n : important example that shows how important the
attention
Socialization is the socialization process is, and what it means to learn
interaction process in to be a human.
Internal social control is
which the individuals
the social control that we
learn the language,
impose on ourselves. For
values, norms,
example, while going to Socialization is the process by which a
attitudes, knowledge
school, you wear some society transmits its social values, norms,
and skills, in short,
nice clothes. Although and culture to its members.
the culture of the
there is not a law against
society they live in.
wearing pajamas at
When newborns
school, no one wears
are born, they are attention
pajama, because people
biologically human
internalize the norm of
but they are not Socialization must not be
dressing clothes outside
socially human yet. confused with socializing.
the home.
Beginning with their Socializing is interacting
birth, the individuals with other people, the
interact with people who guide their behaviors members of the family
such as the family members, teachers, friends or or workplace, or friends.
coworkers. In this interaction process, they learn Socialization is the process
about the norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors in which the individual
of their groups and society. The socialization learns how to be a
process refers to the ways that people understand member of the society he/
and accept the expectations of the society, and get she lives in, the process
an awareness about the social norms. There are two that prepares them to
functions of the socialization process. The first is function in social life.
to develop the self; the second is the transmission
of culture to new generations. Societies reproduce

13
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

THE ORIGINS AND THE BIRTH of people migrated to urban areas in order to work
OF SOCIOLOGY AS A SOCIAL in the factories. The expansion of industrial cities
created problems related to crowd and pollution.
SCIENCE
Although it became possible to produce more and
People have long been interested in social faster with less labor in the factories, the wealth was
factors that influence human behavior. However, not shared equally in the society. Members of the
sociology as a social science discipline exists only new industrial working class were working almost
for 200 years. In the Western world, the structure all day in bad conditions and living in poverty. This
of the society began to change beginning from the created conflict between the classes and paved the
1600s. The Enlightenment period, impacted by the way for major labor movements.
Renaissance, Reform and Scientific Revolution,
These developments created the industrial
changed the way of thinking about natural and
society, in other words, the modern society. The
social life in the 17th and 18th centuries. According
old traditional society, which was based on kinship,
to the Enlightenment philosophers, traditional
land, religion, local communities and monarchies,
social values and institutions were irrational and
changed and was replaced by a new society. The
restrained the development of human societies.
new society was an industrialized, urbanized,
They believed that the world could be explained
bureaucratized, secular society which was organized
by reason and empirical research, and that every
as the nation state and governed by the republic.
individual had the capacity to reason. They
This major change caused chaos and disorder in
produced studies which combined reason with
the society and new questions arose such as “what
empirical research. However, their thoughts
is society?”, “why do societies change?”, “how
conflicted with traditional institutions such as the
will the society change in the future?”. The early
Catholic Church and the social system of feudalism.
sociologists tried to answer these questions and
In addition to this intellectual force, there are social
to find new bases for order in the new, modern
forces that paved the way for sociology. These forces
industrial society. They tried to find out what
were French Revolution and Industrial Revolution.
changed, how the change occurred, and to estimate
With French Revolution, the absolute monarchy in
how the social structure will be in the future.
France broke down and the republic was accepted
Sociology arose from the attempts to answer these
as the government regime. As a consequence, the
questions with the utilization of scientific methods
authority of the Catholic Church considerably
of inquiry. As a separate social science discipline,
weakened and the feudal system disappeared to
sociology originated with Comte in the middle of
a large extent. With this revolution, the ideas of
19th century. Auguste Comte, the founding father
Enlightenment philosophers, who defended ration
of sociology, developed the concept of positivism
against tradition were put into practice. The social
into sociology. Positivism is the philosophy of
life began to be lived by the principles of the
knowledge which asserts the social world can be
Enlightenment, such as freedom, individualism
understood, explained and estimated with scientific
and secularism.
methods, mostly the methods of physical sciences.
The Industrial Revolution refers to major Positivist sociologists believed that as there are
changes in technology, economy and social life. natural laws in the physical world, so there are
These changes began in the United Kingdom universal and structural laws in social life and
in 1760-1850 and spread to Western Europe, sociology should reveal these laws and regularities.
United States of America, Japan and Russia in
the 19th century. Industrial Revolution is a set of
developments which transformed the traditional
agricultural societies into industrial societies. With With the major changes that the French
the Industrial Revolution, unanimated sources of Revolution and Industrial Revolution
energy began to be used in the production. Thus, caused, new questions arose about the
factories began to be established and machine structure and future of the society. The rise of
production began. A new social class –the industrial sociology is based on the attempts to answer
working class- has emerged, and specialization the questions with scientific methods.
occurred in the division of labor. Large numbers

14
 1
Introduction to Sociology

The Relation Of Sociology To The main difference between history and sociology
Other Social Science Disciplines is that historians often study the state of the facts in a
specific time period. Sociologists, on the other hand,
The roots of the social sciences, which emerged
begin with generalizations about a number of facts,
in the 19th century, lie in the Enlightenment period.
which can be tested by the examination of these facts
There are many disciplines of social sciences, such as
in different time periods (Bottomore, 1977:75).
economics, history, political science, anthropology,
psychology, and these are all related to each Philosophy and sociology have a close relation.
other. All of these disciplines examine human The rise of sociology is mostly the result of a
behavior, they are all interested in the human- philosophical desire, the desire to give meaning to
built social world (Bauman, 2004:11-12). The human history, to explain the social crisis in the 19th
difference among the disciplines of social sciences century and to create a social doctrine that will guide
is not the subject of study, the difference is in their to social politics. The relation between philosophy
perspective. Every social science discipline has and sociology has three main dimensions. First,
authentic, unique question patterns and principles sociology makes use of philosophy of science, as it
of interpreting. In regard to this, the determining is a science itself. Second, sociology is interested in
characteristic of sociology is the assumption that values while studying social facts, so it has to know
human actions occur in the reciprocal network of the debates of values in ethics and social philosophy.
the wider settings (Bauman, 2004:16). Third, sociology helps new philosophical questions
to arise (Bottomore, 1977:77).
Psychology studies individual human behavior.
Sociology is also interested in human behavior,
however, the analysis unit for sociology is not
the individual. From the sociological perspective, A discipline is a sub category of a science.
psychological explanations are not wrong, but they The science of sociology is a discipline of
are insufficient. Sociologists think that human social sciences.
behavior does not result only from individual
motivations and attitudes. They think that there
are behavior patterns at the societal level which To clarify the difference in their perspectives,
influence individual behavior (Anderson, 2006:4). let us look what different social science disciplines
Anthropology studies the origins and development would focus on when they study family.
of human species and their languages and cultures Psychologists may study how the personality
through time. Sociologists also study culture, but develops in the family context. Anthropologists
they do not focus only on culture or language. may study different family structures in different
In addition, while anthropologists generally cultures. Political scientists may study how a
study distant and past societies, sociologists study particular political decision would influence the
contemporary societies. Economics studies the families. Economists may study the consumption
production, distribution and consumption of patterns or unemployment levels of families.
goods and services. Political science studies states, Sociologists may study how the families are shaped
governments, politics, political behavior and by the society they exist in or how the changes in
philosophy of politics. For sociology, economics the family structure influence the structure of the
and politics are social institutions, and it studies society (Anderson, 2006:4).
all of the social institutions and their influence on The relation between the different disciplines
human behavior (Anderson, 2006:4). points that the social sciences is a whole. Sociology
The study subjects of sociology and history both makes use of other disciplines, and is used by
often overlap. Frequently the main difference other disciplines. To reach a detailed comprehension
between them is thought to be that historians of social life, social sciences should be considered as
study facts that occur only once, but sociologists a whole. Today, excessive specialization in disciplines
try to make generalizations. However, historians is gradually reducing and interdisciplinary studies are
make generalizations, too; and in many studies increasing. Thus, social scientists may take advantage
sociologists focus on facts that have occurred only of the strong aspects of different disciplines and
once, or study the present, instant states of the facts. reach a better understanding of the social world.

15
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

Science is at the same time, a method of thinking.

Scientific thought is described as intentional,
Interdisciplinarity refers to combining or creative, systematic thought which focuses on
involving more than one academic discipline problem solving (Kaptan, 1973:5).
into one scientific activity.
If science is one way of obtaining knowledge,
what may the other ways be? In order to
understand the world, people gather knowledge
SCIENCE AND METHOD through ways other than science. For example,
Since the beginning of history, people gathered they may gather information and knowledge from
knowledge in order to understand the universe and authorities, traditions, commonsense, media or
to have nature under their control. The concept personal experiences (Neuman, 2000:2-4). We
of science derives from the Latin word “scire” learn much knowledge from our parents, teachers,
(to know) and refers to the known things or the professionals such as physicians or lawyers, who are
knowledge. This is not an accidental knowledge; it authorities. However, the knowledge we learn from
consists of related information which constitutes a TV, the internet or individual experiences is not
body. Thus, in the most general sense, science can scientific knowledge. Considering its aim, science
be defined as a cluster of systematic knowledge. differs from other knowledge. The aims of scientific
However, every systematic knowledge is not science. knowledge are (Sencer and Sencer, 1978:3):
The subject of the scientific knowledge should be
1. To comprehend, define and classify its
an observable objective reality (Sencer and Sencer,
study subjects depending on observations,
1978:2). Science is a knowledge generating activity
2. To establish causality relationship between
which is based on systematically organized bodies
facts and to explain these relationships by
of accumulated knowledge gathered through
testing and verifying through observations,
objective and systematic observations.
3. To Draw on these verified relationships, to
Science can be defined in a number of ways. develop generalizations, laws and theories
Some definitions of science are listed below: and to make inferences and estimations
• “Science is the knowledge which grounds about the future of the study subject.
on empirical proofs and is gained directly Other than its aim, there are a number of
and systematically” (Bozkurt, 1999:65). characteristics of scientific knowledge. Scientific
• “Science is the systematic cluster of knowledge is rational, empirical, factual, logical,
knowledge, which studies observable and objective, explicit, consistent, systematic,
testable subjects” (Sencer and Sencer, generalizable, valid, reliable and critical. To
1978:4) be critical is a very important characteristic of
• “Science is the systematic, organized totality scientific knowledge. Scientists do not take any
of knowledge and technical method” finding as absolute truth. Any finding in the future
(Kaptan, 1973:5) research may confute the former information
• “Science is both the system which generates about a fact. Scientific knowledge accumulates by
knowledge and the name of the knowledge gathering new information, rejecting theories and
itself, it is both a way to generate knowledge developing better ones. Scientific knowledge is
and a social institution” (Neuman, 2000:6) both rational and empirical. It is empirical because
As seen above, the two main elements in the the subject of science is observable facts. Science
definition of science are knowledge and method. does not extrapolate with reasoning, it is doubtful
In other words, science is both the knowledge about non-empirical, not verified, unconfirmed
and the method through which the knowledge is information. Science is rational at the same time,
generated. Knowledge refers to the theories which because the observations are defined, analyzed and
are developed in order to explain the relations synthesized both by depending on observations
between the facts, and method refers to the ways and by reasoning (Kaptan, 1973:6).
used to generate knowledge (Kaptan, 1973:5).

16
 1
Introduction to Sociology

Positive sciences are innovative sciences, they

have observable, empirical study subjects and make
Not every knowledge is scientific. Scientific deductions on these subjects. Positive sciences are
knowledge is rational, empirical, factual, not tautological; they generate new knowledge. The
logical, objective, explicit, consistent, common trait of all positive sciences is that they
systematic, generalizable, valid, reliable reach generalization through the observation of the
and critical knowledge which is generated facts. Because they make repetitive deductions based
through scientific methods of inquiry. on same presumptions, deductions are limited in
mathematical sciences. On the contrary, deduction
possibilities are unlimited in positive sciences, thus
The Classification of Sciences the body of knowledge gradually increases (Sencer
and Sencer, 1978:17). The difference between
The sciences, in the most general sense, are
mathematical and positive sciences is the difference
divided into two; the mathematic sciences and
between what there is and what there should be;
positive sciences. Mathematical sciences are
positive sciences do not study what there should
divided into mathematic and logic. Positive
be, they study what there is (Kaptan, 1973:6).
sciences are divided into physical sciences and
social sciences. Mathematic is an observable and Positive sciences split up to physical sciences
objective science, because the starting point of and social sciences. Physical sciences are the
mathematical concepts is observation, and the sciences which study animated and unanimated
entities they symbolize are objective realities, substances and material facts. Some of the physical
even though they are abstract (Sencer and Sencer, sciences are astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology
1978:6). Although the knowledge of the main and zoology. Social sciences are the sciences which
concepts like the numbers or shapes depends study social world and the relations among people.
on observations, the relationship among these Sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics
concepts is based on some presuppositions. For and political science are some of the social sciences.
example, the triangle concept, a shape consisting In order to comprehend the characteristics of
of three intersecting lines, is based on observations. physical and social sciences, let’s compare them
But the presupposition that the sum of the interior with regard to main differences.
angles of a triangle is 180 degrees, has no concern
with observations. The generalization in positivist
sciences on the other hand, are not generated with Science is a set of logical, systematic,
this kind of non-empirical presuppositions, they documented methods for investigating
are generated by the observations of single facts. nature and natural processes and the
For example, the generalizations like water boils knowledge produced by these investigations.
at 100 centigrade degrees, or objects heavier than Social science is the use of scientific methods
air fall onto ground when let down from a high to investigate individuals, societies, and
place are not presuppositions prior to observation social processes and the knowledge produced
(Sencer and Sencer, 1978:7). Mathematical by these investigations (Chambliss and
deductions are repetitive deductions, they repeat Schutt, 2012).
the same knowledge without saying anything
new, in this respects, mathematical deductions
are tautological in character. The other branch of The Comparison of Physical
mathematic sciences is logic. Logic is a science that
shows the conditions of validity and correctness
Sciences and Social Sciences
of deductions, and like mathematics, logic is also When people talk about science, what occurs
tautological. Mathematics provides precision and in their mind is often scientists in aprons, studying
logic provides consistency to our knowledge. Thus, with test tubes or microscopes in laboratories.
mathematical sciences are tools that other sciences This happens because the term “science” generally
use for quantification, knowledge derivation and reminds of physical sciences such as biology or
deducting (Sencer and Sencer, 1978:17). chemistry. However, the studies which are in

17
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

conformity with the criteria, principles and phases information that the researcher will gain
of scientific research are scientific research, even from the observation of the organism
though their study subjects are social facts instead of cannot change according to the behavior
physical facts. Nonetheless, there are some important of the researcher. However, social scientists
differences between physical and social sciences: are members of the society they investigate,
• Physical scientists may conduct experiments they may influence the people they
in order to test and prove hypotheses. In investigate and may be influenced by them.
these experiments, they can keep external Thus, it is harder to be objective in social
effects under control, thus they can focus on sciences than it is in physical sciences. In
the effects of the independent variable on addition to this, unlike social sciences,
the dependent variable. In social sciences, physical scientists do not have to persuade
the study subjects are human beings and the study subjects to cooperate in research.
they have the right not to join the test. In social sciences, the subjects have free will,
In addition, creating an environment the scientists have to persuade the people
of a laboratory may hinder people from they investigate to cooperate. People may
behaving naturally, thus may be an obstacle prefer not to cooperate in research, refuse
to reaching the actual facts. For this reason, to answer the questions, or they may give
social scientists prefer to investigate people incorrect or deficit information, or may lie
in their natural environments rather than intentionally. This kind of behavior would
in a laboratory environment (Browne, make a sociological research impossible,
2005:4). difficult or unreliable.
• In physical sciences, providing that all • In physical sciences scientists may
conditions of the circumstance will be investigate facts singly and examine the
the same, experiments enable scientists to causality relationship between them. On
make explicit predictions. For example, the contrary, because the structure of the
if a chemist conducts an experiment and society is complex and there are many
finds that a substance explodes at a specific factors influencing the causality relations,
centigrade degree, s/he can predict that this social scientists have to take the social world
substance is going to explode again in the as a whole (Williams, 1999:64).
future at the same degree and under the same • Measurement is much easier in physical
circumstances. However, it is impossible to sciences. The subjects of physical sciences are
make predictions with this much certainty often in measurable conditions, they may
in social sciences. The interaction of be expressed by measures such as weight,
individuals, groups and society are complex length, density or volume. Because there
and people may change their minds with are not standard measures for measuring
their own will, for this reason making behaviors, perceptions or attitudes of
estimations in social sciences is not this easy. people, it is harder to make measurements
People may react and behave differently in in social sciences (Williams, 1999:64). For
the same circumstances, they may interpret example, how to measure conservatism is a
the same fact differently, or may change problem in itself.
their minds. Consequently, the regularities The differences between the physical and social
or laws in the social world cannot be put sciences indicate that social scientists cannot
forward with the same certainty degree as follow exactly the same research procedures with
in physical sciences. physical sciences. Social scientists also cannot make
• In physical sciences, scientists can not measurements or predictions as precisely physical
influence the reaction of their subjects. scientists do. However, as long as they meet
For instance, a biologist cannot influence the scientific research principles, social science
an organism which s/he investigates researches are certainly scientific. These principles
with a microscope. In other words, the are (Browne, 2005:4):

18
 1
Introduction to Sociology

• Value freedom: Social scientists should the methods of physical sciences, some argue they
not allow their personal beliefs, prejudices cannot. The claim that social sciences can use
or attitudes to influence their evidence and the methods of physical sciences depends on the
findings. They may be influenced by these philosophical principle known as “naturalism”.
while choosing their study topics, but the Closely related to positivism, naturalism is the
research process must be protected from notion that social world arises from the physical
being influenced. world and there is an objective and natural
• Objectivity: Social scientists must not social order. Depending on this notion, some
manipulate the data or the findings with argue that the methods of physical sciences,
the intent of supporting their assertions. with an appropriate adaptation, can be used to
They should consider all kind of evidence, investigate the social world (Williams, 1999:61).
including the ones which have the capacity Some social scientists who disagree with this idea
to refute their arguments or to reject their argue that the methods of physical sciences are
hypothesis. not suitable for social research. For example,
• The use of evidence: The definitions and German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey argues
explanations in the research must be based that the methods of physical sciences, which aim
on evidence. to explain the causality relationships between
• The use of scientific research methods: facts, should not be used in social sciences.
Social scientists should collect their evidence In social sciences a method of understanding
through planned, organized, systematic (verstehen) should be used. For Dilthey, social
scientific methods and techniques. They life is the consequence of human mind and it
should follow the phases of research, which does not have only one meaning. Social life has
we will focus on later this chapter. several and changeable meanings which people
• The capacity for being: The evidence, subjectively attribute. Depending on this notion,
findings and conclusions of the research it is argued that social sciences can not explain
should be open to scientific criticism and or predict the social world; they can only define
testing by other social scientists. social reality in different ways (Kincaid, 1996:4-
6; Williams, 1999:51).

According to Wilhelm Dilthey, social

sciences should use an understanding
method instead of the explanation method
in physical sciences.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
PROCESS
Picture 1.5 Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911) distinguished Scientific method refers to the following
social sciences from physical sciences. He stated that the of scientific rules, procedures and phases in
task of physical sciences is to arrive at universal laws of order to reach scientific knowledge. In a general
casual explanations, and the task of social sciences is to sense, scientific method means the process of
reach an understanding of the organizational structure hypothetico-deduction, which is the method of
of social life. logical positivism. Hypothetico-deduction is the
process in which the scientists first hypothesize
through deduction, and then test these hypotheses
The differences between physical and social
through empirical ways such as observation or
sciences raised debates on the methods of social
experiment.
sciences. Some argue that social sciences can use

19
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

attention The physical of family decreases” is a hypothesis, because “the

and social proportion of industrial workers in a population”
facts which is a variable of industrialization concept, and the
Scientific method in a the general
constitute the “family size” is a variable of family structure concept.
sense, refers to the the process
subjects of The relations among variables may be casual
of hypothetico-deduction, the
science are not or correlational. A casual relationship means that
method of logical positivism,
in an organized the change in a variable causes change in the other
in which the scientists first
position by variable. A correlational relationship means that
hypothesize through deduction,
themselves. both variables change simultaneously, but it does
and then test these hypotheses
However, the not claim a casualty. For example, “the increase in
through empirical ways. For a
knowledge must the educational level causes a decrease in the time
long time the only valid method
be organized spent on the internet in a day” hypothesis claims a
for scientific inquiry was believed
in order to be casual relationship, but “the higher the education
to be positivism. However, in
useful. A theory level gets, the less time is spent on the internet in
the 20th century much of the
is a knowledge a day” hypothesis claims a simple correlational
scientists agree that there is
system, which relationship, because it does not claim that “the
more than one valid method in
is organized in educational level” is the reason and “the time spent
scientific researches.
order to explain on the internet” is the result. In casual relationships,
the relations among the facts in the simplest there are independent and dependent variables.
and most understandable form. It consists of An independent variable is a reason; it is the
observations, conditions, definitions, concepts, variable which affects the dependent variable. The
propositions and principles. In other words, a dependent variable is measured and expected to
theory is a system of a logically interrelated set of change depending on the change in the independent
concepts and propositions which aims to explain the variable. In other words, the dependent variable
empirical reality and the casualty among observable is dependent on the independent variable. As the
facts. Theories show us how to cumulate, explain researcher changes the independent variable, the
and interpret knowledge. Theories in social sciences effect of this change on the dependent variable is
aim to explain the social reality, however, there may observed, recorded and compared with results prior
be more than one theory aiming to explain the same to the change in the independent variable. For
social reality. In this case, in order to decide which example, in the hypothesis of “the increase in the
of the theories is better, the three characteristics of educational level causes a decrease in the time spent
the theories are examined. The theory (a) which on the internet in a day”, “the educational level” is
has a simpler structure; (b) which explains the facts the independent variable and “the time spent on the
in a more explicit and correct way; (c) which has internet in a day” is the dependent variable.
the capacity to explain more and different social
Theories also include assumptions. An
events, behaviors and relations is considered a
assumption is a judgment or generalization which
better, superior theory (Lin, 1976:16).
is not made in order to be tested empirically.
Theories consist of a set of interrelated The generalizations that the assumptions express
propositions, some of which are testable. A should be compatible with the existing scientific
proposition is a statement that claims a relationship knowledge. In other words, assumptions should
between at least two concepts. Hypotheses are include true, scientifically proven information. For
testable propositions. A hypothesis is a statement example, a researcher may make the assumption of
that claims a relationship between at least two “industrialization causes alienation”. This is a fact
variables. Variables are measurable indicators of that is put forward by many theories and studies.
concepts. A concept may have more than one Another example of an assumption may be “The
variable. For example, “Industrialization causes Marmara District is the most industrialized district
a change in the family structure” is a proposition, in Turkey”. When a researcher, depending on the
it claims that industrialization and family, two facts, makes this assumption, it means that s/he
concepts, are related. “When the proportion of does not aim to test this statement, s/he takes for
industrial workers in a population increase, the size granted that this is true information.

20
 1
Introduction to Sociology

Scientific research is conducted in order to gain cross-sectional or longitudinal with regard

scientific knowledge. Scientific research is the process to how many times they gather data. The
of the gathering, grouping, analyzing, synthesizing, researcher also decides whether quantitative
explaining, interpreting and evaluating the data in or qualitative methods to use, and s/he
an intentional, planned and systematic way, in order also decides which techniques to use in the
to transform the findings into a meaningful body of research.
knowledge and to find reliable solutions to problems • Sampling: All people related to the
(Kaptan, 1973:13-14). research problem consists the research
Scientific researches must be objective, explicit, population. However, often it is neither
valid and reliable. Validity and reliability are possible nor necessary to gather data from
fundamental characteristics of scientific researches. all the population. In this phase of reseach,
Validity refers to the accuracy of a measurement the researcher decides from whom s/he
to the fact that the research aims to measure. will gather the data. The researcher sets the
Reliability refers to the repeatability of the sample size and selects the sample by using
findings. In other words, reliability means to what an appropriate sampling technique.
extend the measurement is stable and consistent. • Preparing measurement instruments:
For example, a bathroom scale is not a valid In this phase, the researcher prepares
measuring instrument for measuring height, but it measurement instruments, such as
is valid for measuring human weight. If a bathroom questionnaires, interview or observation
scale shows approximately the same weight when forms. Then s/he makes a pilot study in
we get on it in one-minute intervals, it is reliable. order to find and correct the deficiencies
But if it shows different weights, it means that the of the form. After the pilot study, the
measurement is not repeatable, thus, the measuring measurement instrument is revised and
instrument is not reliable. made ready for use.
• Gathering data: In this phase, the
The procedure of scientific research concretizes
researcher gathers data from the sample
in the phases of research. The phases of research
through the measurement instruments s/he
are as follows (Lin, 1976:5; Neuman, 2000:11-12):
developed in the former phase.
• Choosing a research topic and • Analyzing data: The researcher analyses
formulating the research problem: In the data, tests the hypotheses and tries to
this phase, the researcher chooses a research answer the research problem in this phase.
topic in a general level. After choosing • Interpreting the results and reporting the
the topic, s/he makes a detailed literature findings: In the final phase of the research,
review. This means the researcher reads, the researcher interprets the findings,
summarizes and synthesizes the scientific compares and integrates them with the
researches that are done on this topic. S/ former researches on the same topic, and
he learns what is known, what is unknown writes the research report suitably with the
and what are the contradictory findings in academic writing rules.
the research topic. Then s/he formulizes
a detailed, specific research problem and
develops hypotheses. MAIN METHODOLOGICAL
• The selection of the appropriate method, APPROACHES IN
techniques and type of research: SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Formulating a research problem means to In every social research, the researcher adopts
put forward explicitly what the researcher a methodological approach. The selection of the
wants to learn through the research. After method is very important because it shapes and
putting forward the aim of the research, the limits the research design and techniques. There
researcher should decide which way to use are three main methodological approaches in social
in order to reach this aim. Researches may sciences. These are the Positivist, the Interpretive
be descriptive, explanatory or exploratory and the Critical approaches. In addition to these,
with regard to their aims, and may be there are Feminist and Postmodern approaches.

21
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

However, the three main approaches are the most regulating social world, and these laws and
commonly used approaches. social reality itself exist independent of humans.
Although there are fundamental differences According to positivism, as the law of gravity is not
among them, all of the three main approaches dependent on human activity and existed before
in social sciences are empirical, systematical and people discovered it, so are the social laws, they
theoretical. exist independent of human activities and wait to
be discovered. For this reason, positivist approach
• All of them are empirical, because all of
advocates that social sciences should use the method
them investigate observable facts related to
of physical sciences, and should aim to discover
human actions such as behaviors, images,
universal laws which will enable social scientists
voices or states.
to predict human behavior. In other words, the
• All of them are systematical because all of
aim of social research for the positivist approach is
them refuse arbitrary, defective, inadequate
to explain causal relationships among social facts,
studies and all include rigorous and
which are independent of human activities, in order
meticulous studies.
to put forward universal laws of the social world.
• All of them are theoretical because although
Therefore, the techniques of physical sciences such
the nature and purpose of theories are
as experiment, and observations should be used in
different for each approach, none of the
social research.
approaches claims that the social world
consists of chaos and disorder; all of them The Positivist approach is criticized by
defend that explaining or understanding interpretive and critical approaches in many aspects.
the social world is possible. By the Interpretive approach, it is criticized for
attention degrading the human
relationships to
numbers, running
Depending on the
after abstract formulas
thoughts of Auguste
and laws which
Comte and Emile
are meaningless to
Durkheim, Positivist
people, paying no
approach claims that
attention to social
the social world is
context, claiming to
not different from the
be objective although
physical world, social
it is impossible to
facts are independent
be free from values,
of human activity, and
Picture 1.6 The founder of positivism is Auguste Comte and generalizing
there are social laws like
(1798–1857). Positivism refers to the study of society facts that are not
physical laws, which
through the utilization of scientific evidence such as generalizable. By the
wait to be discovered.
experiments, statistics and qualitative results, in order to Critical approach,
For this reason, positivist
reveal social laws that regulate the social world. it is criticized for
approach uses the
maintaining and
methods of physical
defending the status
Positivist Approach: Positivist approach sciences to explain the
quo and ignoring
depends on the assertion that science has only facts and causalities in the
people’s ability to feel
one logic and for an intellectual activity to be social world.
and think (Neuman,
considered as scientific, it has to match this logic.
2000:70-81).
In other words, there is only one scientific method,
all sciences use this method, the only difference Interpretive Approach: Also known as
among them is their study subjects. This method Hermeneutic Approach, Interpretive approach
is the hypotetico-deduction process, in which the depends on the thoughts of Wilhelm Dilthey
researcher tests the hypotheses in a theoretical and Max Weber. This approach grounds on the
frame in order to make predictions about social theory of Hermeneutic which emerged in the 19th
facts. Positivism claims that there are social laws century, a theory which is used in many areas such

22
 1
Introduction to Sociology

as philosophy, art history, linguistics and literature. relationships, it is to explore how people create
As a methodology of interpretation, Hermeneutics meaning, understand and interpret social action and
is concerned with problems that arise when social life. Interpretive approach ultimately makes
dealing with meaningful human actions and the an explanation too. However, an explanation is
products of such actions, most importantly texts only possible after understanding and interpreting
(Mantzavinos, 2016). the reasons behind human actions. In other words,
according to Interpretive approach, a researcher may
make an abstract explanation of a social action only
after understanding and interpreting the meaning
that the actor (the individual who acts) attributes
to that action. The meaning cannot be understood
independent of the social context in which it is
created, thus the Interpretive approach does not
investigate facts from outside like the Positivist
approach. It tries to see the facts from the inside,
from the perspectives of the actors who live them.
Interpretive approach is mainly criticized for ignoring
the objective processes which are not influenced
by the interactions and information of individuals,
and for being too subjective and relativist (Neuman,
2000:70-82).

Picture 1.7 Detail from a Hermes (Mercury) sculpture

(1580) by Giovanni da Bologna. 4

Try to give an example of how

The name Hermeneutic is derived from Hermes in the
Positivist and Interpretive
Greek mythology. The assignment of Hermes is to
approaches would examine the
transmit God’s wills to mortal people, translate God’s
same topic: criminal behavior.
words to a simpler form which mortal people can
understand, thus provide an environment for them to
communicate (Neuman, 2000:70).
C r i t i c a l
attention
The Interpretive approach claims that unlike the Approach: Critical
physical world, which exist independent of human approach depends
Although they are related,
activity, the social world is established through the on the thoughts
the methodological
cultural relations, the meaningful and intentional of Karl Marx and
approaches in social
actions of people. According to Interpretive Sigmund Freud.
sciences should not
approach, social facts are not fixed and stable, they This approach has
be confused with
constantly continue to be established. Besides, some characteristics
theoretical approaches.
although a particular cultural system may have of both Positivist
Every theoretical
specific rules, these rules cannot be generalized to and Interpretive
approach is related to a
other cultural systems, because every cultural system approaches. It
methodological approach.
has a different process of generating meaning. Social claims that social
For example, Structural
research should not have the purpose of making reality exists outside
Functionalism is related
generalizations, because it cannot reach universal and independent
to the Positivist approach,
social laws as in the physical sciences. Depending of human actions
Symbolic Interactionism
on these notions, Interpretive approach argues as put forward by
is related to the
that social reality cannot be investigated with the Positivism. However,
Interpretive approach,
methods physical scientists use to investigate the unlike Positivism,
and Marxism is related to
physical realities. The purpose of social research for the Critical approach
the Critical approach.
Interpretive approach is not to explain the casualty argues that social

23
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

reality is shaped by social, political, economic and cultural factors. According to Critical approach, social
reality changes in time, it is not possible to understand it only by looking at its superficial appearance. The
Critical approach focuses on the conflict and change in society, especially on the conflicts and contradictions
in the organization modes of society. This conflict and change are not always in an observable situation, the
social world may be full of illusions, myths and distortions of social reality. Under the observable surface
of social realities, there lies deep structures and mechanisms. The relation and events on the surface of the
social reality arise from the operation of these nonobservable deeper mechanisms. According to Critical
approach, the purpose of social science is to criticize and transform social relations. This transformation
will be possible by revealing the underlying mechanisms of social relations and thus by providing power
to powerless people. Thus the empowered people will have the capacity to change the world they live in.
In short, according to Critical approach, social conflicts and contradictions are covered and hidden, social
science should pull the cover and reveal the actual social reality (Neuman, 2000:75-79).

Table 1.1 A brief comparison of Positivist, Interpretive and Critical Approaches

Positivist Approach Interpretive Approach Critical Approach
The structure of Social realities are the Social realities only exist Social realities are the
social reality regularities which exist when experienced and conflicts which are
independent of individual made sense of by people. created by the underlying
subjectivity and which Social realities are as mechanisms of the
wait to be discovered. people perceive them. surface. They can not be
seen at first glance by
individuals.
The aim of the The aim of the social The aim of the social The aim of the social
social research research is to explore the research is to understand research is to criticize and
universal laws of social life and define social action transform social relations
and enable scientists to and to put forward how and to change the world.
predict and control social people make sense of
facts. social facts in their natural
environments.
The characteristic A good finding depends A good finding fits with A good finding displays
of a good finding on correct observations the context of the existing the illusions and uncovers
and is repeatable by other and changing social social realities.
scientists. relations.
Human nature People do not act with People are social entities People are creative entities
their own will, they who create meaning and with potential, who are
act rationally and their make sense of the world trapped by illusions and
behaviors are shaped by they live in. exploitation.
exterior forces.
Objectivity Science is independent of Values are embedded in Scientists should have
values. Scientists should social life; it is not possible values. Some of the values
be objective and free for scientists to be totally are wrong and some are
of values, thoughts and free of values. No value right. Scientists should
beliefs. is wrong; values are only have the right values.
different from each other.
Source: Summarized and adopted from Neuman, W.L. (2000) Social Research Methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. p.85.

Feminist Approach: Feminist approach is the approach based on feminist theories and adopted by
researchers who have a feminist consciousness. The purpose of feminist research is to reveal how gender
and power relations are penetrated in every aspect of social life and to empower powerless women in

24
 1
Introduction to Sociology

patriarchal societies. Feminist approach criticizes RESEARCH DESIGNS

Positivist approach for maintaining the dominant AND TECHNIQUES IN
male-oriented perspective in social sciences and
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
tries to correct it. According to Feminist approach,
as a consequence of both the dominant patriarchal There are two research designs in social
cultural values and beliefs and the outnumber of research. These are the quantitative and qualitative
male researchers, the majority of the non feminist designs. Researchers choose the design of their
researches are sexist. These sexist researches research considering the aim of their study, the
generalize male experiences to all people, focus knowledge level they want to learn and their
on only male problems and accept gender roles material and human resources. Researchers may
as they are. For example, when a nonfeminist prefer quantitative or qualitative research design
research examines the family and finds out that the according to their personal skills, experiences
males in the family are unemployed, the researcher or interests. However, because of their nature,
concludes that there is an unemployment problem some research problems are suitable for only one
in the family. However, if the females in the design. For example, a research problem, which is
family are unemployed, this will not be seen as about the causation between two social facts, may
an important problem as the unemployment of only be studied with quantitative design. On the
males. Feminist approach claims that in order to other hand, if the research problem is about the
correct this situation, Feminist researchers should coping strategies of long term homeless people,
not be objective. For Feminist approach, while quantitative design would be insufficient. In
there are deep gender inequalities in the social these cases, the consistency between the research
world, a researcher cannot change anything if problem and research design is more important
she stays objective. In order to empower women, than researcher’s personal skills or interests about
feminist researchers should side with women, who research designs.
are oppressed by men. According to Feminist
approach, researchers should have a feminist Quantitative Research Design
perspective and conduct action oriented researches
Quantitative design depends on the Positivist
in order to create individual and social change
approach, which advocates that the method of
(Neuman, 2000:83-84).
physical sciences should be used in social research.
Postmodern Approach: Postmodern approach The aim of quantitative researches is to explore the
is philosophically based on existentialism, nihilism, social laws through revealing the casualty relations
anarchism and the thoughts of Heidegger, Nietzsche, between social facts. Quantitative researches, with
Sartre and Wittgenstein. According to Postmodern the principle of deduction, begin with theories
approach, there is no difference between social and hypotheses. Concepts are transformed
science and art or literature. This approach argues into measurable variables, the measurement
that research can not have a function other than instruments are developed elaborately, and data are
describing, and all descriptions are the same in terms gathered with precise measurements. The gathered
of their value. The description of a scientist is not data are analyzed through statistical methods. The
more valuable or more valid than the description statistical relationships between the variables are
of ordinary people. Postmodern approach rejects explained and the hypotheses of the research are
all organized belief systems, including social theory. tested. The measurement instruments, which are
It also rejects the notion of the linear historical the tools used to gather data, are standardized.
development and progress. For Postmodern This standardization enables other researchers to
approach, the social world is a fractured, chaotic, repeat the research. The findings of the research
complicated world which rapidly and continuously are presented with charts, tables and graphics.
changes. It considers only the here and now as valid, Because quantitative researches aim to generalize
thus it rejects to examine the past or other places. their findings to the population, their samples
It argues that casualty can not be examined because are large and representative samples which are
social life is too complicated and rapidly changing selected through probability sampling techniques
(Neuman, 2000:83-84). (Walliman, 2006:36-52; Neuman, 2000:65-70).

25
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

forms to the participants by mail or by the

internet. However, sending forms by mail
or the internet would systematically exclude
the illiterate population. The form on
which the questions are written is called the
questionnaire form or the question sheet.
Although the questionnaire questions are
often close-ended, open-ended questions,
Picture 1.8 Quantitative design is useful when a questions with no answer choices, may also
researcher wants to put forward the relations between be asked in questionnaires.
variables. It enables the researcher to make statistical • Experiment: Experiment is the
analysis and to present them with charts. However, it examination of the relations between
does not provide rich and detailed verbal data about the variables with the purpose of testing a
thoughts or attitudes of the sample. hypothesis while controlling the extrinsic
factors. In experiments, there are two
Data gathering techniques used in quantitative identical groups, an experimental group
research design are structured (controlled) and a control group. First, the properties
observation, structured (controlled) interview, of the two group are measured, this
questionnaire, experiment, quasi-experiment and measurement is called pre-test. After pre-
survey. test, the dependent variable is subjected to
• Structured (controlled) observation: the effect of the independent variable. The
In structured observation researchers control groups is not subjected to any effect.
use observation charts. These charts are Then the properties of the two groups are
standard for every observation of the measured again. This measurement is called
research. These charts include instructions post-test. After post-test, the test results of
on what, where, how long the observation the experimental group and the control
is going to be and guides observers on group are compared and the difference is
what to pay attention and how to record examined. By this way, the researchers try
the observations. The observer strictly to explain the effects of the independent
follows the instructions on the observation variable. The aim of the experiment is to
chart and does not observe anything else show that some results occur only with
than stated. Thus, the observing process is the effect of the independent variable, and
controlled. that the same results do not occur when
• Structured (controlled) interview: In the effect of the independent variable is
structured interviews, researchers use an removed.
interview form for every interview of the • Quasi-experiment: Quasi-experiments
research. The same form is used for all the are similar to experiments. They both aim
interviews. The form includes questions to test hypotheses, however, the extrinsic
in order, and the interviewer asks these factors are not totally under control in
questions to the participant face to face. quasi-experiments. In quasi-experiments,
The interviewer does not digress from the the control group is not constituted in
interview form, and does not ask anything the beginning of the experiment. After
that is not mentioned in the form. observing the results of the experimental
• Questionnaire: Questionnaires include group, a new group is selected in order
previously prepared questions, most of to make a comparison. This new group
which are close ended, multiple-choice. has similar characteristics with the
Researchers may conduct questionnaires experimental group but it is not formed
face to face, they may ask the questions on the in the laboratory environment (Robson,
phone, or they may send the questionnaire 2000:46-47).

26
 1
Introduction to Sociology

• Survey: Surveys are the researches are not as precise as in quantitative research,
which have representative samples; use and data are gathered with non-standardized
standardized measurement instruments; measurement tools. After gathering the data with
systematically gather data and gather the principle of induction, researchers are free to
data from more than one data gathering make changes in the research problem under the
technique. Thus, the survey is often light of their data. In qualitative research, the
considered as a research design rather than whole is considered more than the totality of the
a technique (De Vaus, 1990:3). Surveys parts, and social reality is considered too complex
and questionnaires are often confused. to be degraded to measurable variables. For this
However, they are completely different reason, researchers do not transform concepts to
from each other. The questionnaire is variables. Researchers study the social world as a
a measurement tool, a data gathering whole. This means they do not disassembly it to
technique, but the survey is a process of variables such as dissembling a puzzle into pieces.
data gathering and analyzing. Surveys are Instead of variables, they use themes, motives
wider than questionnaires and consume or classifications. Because qualitative research
more time. Survey refers to the collection, requires seeing the facts from the perspectives of
recording, analysis and interpretation of the people who live them, the researchers form
data which are gathered with a variety of close interactions with the participants. This
measurement techniques. This is why it is is why standardized measurement instruments
often referred as a research design rather are not used in qualitative research. The main
than a technique. data-gathering instrument is the researcher him/
herself, and the interaction s/he forms with the
participant. The data gathering process is free and
Although there are differences among flexible, but not suitable for the repetition by other
quantitative data gathering techniques, all of researchers. The qualitative researches do not have
the quantitative researches use standardized the aim of generalizing the findings and predicting
measurement tools. social facts, thus their samples are smaller than the
samples of quantitative researches. The samples are
selected through non-probability (judgemental)
Qualitative Research Design sampling techniques. The findings are presented
Qualitative research design is based on verbally, in a way that shows the details, depth and
Interpretive approach, which claims that social variety of the data (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2008:39-
reality can be explained only after it is understood 48; Neuman, 2000:123).
and interpreted. The researcher does not aim to
explain the casualty relations between facts, s/he
aims to understand and interpret the perspectives The difference between nonprobability and
of the the social actors and the reasons and probability sampling is that in probability
motivations of social actions. In other words, the sampling, units are selected randomly,
purpose of qualitative research is to understand but in nonprobability sampling they are
how people constitute meaning and social reality in judgmentally selected.
their natural social contexts; to define social facts in
depth and to interpret the complex relations among In qualitative research design, data are gathered
the social facts inside their own social contexts. through unstructured (not controlled, in-depth)
Thus, in qualitative researches, social facts are interview, focus group interview, unstructured
evaluated inside their own social contexts. Unlike (not controlled) observation, semi-structured
quantitative researches, qualitative researches do observation, life story interview, oral history, case
not begin with hypotheses. The qualitative research study and document analysis. All of the data
process is more flexible than the quantitative gathering instruments used in qualitative research
research process. The qualitative research problems are non-standardized instruments.

27
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

• Unstructured observation: Unlike the

structured observation, an observation
chart is not used in the unstructured
observation. Although observers have an
idea about what and how they are going to
observe, they are free to observe additional
behaviors or events. Unstructured
observations are divided into participant
and non-participant observations. In
non-participant observation, the observer
observes from outside. In participant
observation, the researcher enters into Picture 1.9 In a focus group interview, a group of people
the culture s/he observes, and tries to be is selected by the researcher. They gather and talk about
partially or completely a member. However, a predetermined topic.
the degree of participation may change.
In regard to the participation degree, • Unstructured (not controlled, in-depth)
observers may have four different roles in interview: This is an interview design in
observations: which the researcher interviews a few people
• Complete observer: The observer is neither but gathers very in-depth and detailed
seen nor noticed by the participants, s/ information. Interview forms are not used in
he does not form interactions with the unstructured interviews; the interviews are
participants, observes from outside. conducted in a conversation environment.
People may change their behaviors • Focus group interview: In focus group
when they are aware of the fact that they interviews, the researcher, according
are being observed. This is an obstacle to specific criteria, selects 6-12 people
in observation and is called Hawthorne as a sample and tells them the topic.
Effect. Complete observer role is a good Later the sample gathers and talks on
this predetermined topic. Focus group
strategy for minimizing the Hawthorne
interviews are especially effective if the
Effect.
researcher aims to observe the group
• Observer as participant: The researcher interaction and group dynamics.
and the aim of the observation are • Semi-structured observation: Semi-
known and recognized by participants. structured observations are used in order to
There is, but little, interaction between check whether some social actions, which
the researcher and the participants. The are observed before, are going to appear
researcher tries to act neutral. again. Often an observation form is used in
• Participant as observer: There is full this observation design.
interaction between the researcher • Life story interview: The researcher
and the participants. The researcher interviews people who reflect the research
becomes a partial member of the problem. The interview includes the
culture s/he observes, and establishes entire life course in details. The researcher
friendships with the participants. tries to understand the social fact s/he
• Complete participant: The researcher studies through the life experiences of the
acts as a complete member of the participants.
• Oral history: Oral history is similar to
observed culture. The participants do
the life story interview. However, in oral
not know that they are being observed,
history, not the entire life is subject to the
the identity of the researcher is hidden. interview. The interview includes only a
part, a historical period of the life of the
participant.

28
 1
Introduction to Sociology

• Case study: The case study is the

examination of a social fact in its own
social context, through a variety of data 5
gathering techniques. In case study, only a
single critical case is examined rather than Try to find a research problem
a larger sample of the population, and the that is only suitable for
researcher focuses only on this case rather quantitative design, and
than more general indicators of the research another which is only suitable
problem. Thus, the researcher may make for qualitative research.
longer and more detailed observations. The
“case” in the case study may be an event,
an institution, a group or a person. For Methodological Pluralism
example, the case may be a specific hospital, Can we use both quantitative and qualitative
a specific strike, or a person who had an research designs? Concerning the answer of this
occupational injury. question, there are two diverse opinions. According
• Document analysis: The analysis of to the first opinion, these designs cannot be
documents like books, newspapers, used together, because they ground on different
magazines, reports, records, approaches and accept different, even contrary
correspondences, proceedings, diaries, philosophical presuppositions. The second opinion
memoirs or letters are called document considers quantitative and qualitative research
analysis or documentary analysis. There are designs only as different ways of data gathering, and
a number of analysis methods for analyzing sees no problem in integrating them. This opinion
documents, such as content analysis or is called methodological pluralism. However, a
critical discourse analysis. single research may only have one method. In other
words, methodological pluralism does not refer
Strengths and Weaknesses of to a research that claims to be both quantitative
Quantitative and Qualitative and qualitative. It refers to the acceptance of
Designs both designs as accurate research methods.
Both quantitative and qualitative designs Methodological pluralism can be implemented in
have strengths and weaknesses. The quantitative a number of ways (Bryman, 1988:4-5; Haralambos
approach enables us to explore the general structures and Holborn, 1995:856):
and patterns in the society through generalizable • The researcher may prefer to use a design
findings; this is the strength of this design. The to support the evidence or to strengthen
main weakness of this design is that it extracts the interpretations of a former research
human behavior from its own social context and conducted with another design.
degrades it to numbers and abstract formulas. This • The researcher may use a design to check
design has some other weaknesses, too. It does not the correctness of the findings of a research
enable the researcher to understand the reasons that is conducted with the other design.
and motives that lie behind the observed behavior. • Quantitative research may be conducted
This desing also may cause the researcher to ignore in order to test hypotheses, which are put
the effects of the variables that are not included by forward in qualitative researches.
the research hypothesis. • Qualitative research may be conducted in
The strength of the qualitative design is that it order to develop hypotheses, which will
provides us rich and detailed data, which enables then be tested by quantitative research.
us to understand human actions and the process • Qualitative research may be conducted
of social change in their own context and in a in order to understand the characteristics
holistic manner. The main weakness of this design of the casualty relations, which are put
is that it overlooks the structural influences that are forward in quantitative researches.
beyond the information of individuals. Another
weakness of the qualitative design is its high level
of subjectivity.

29
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

• The researcher may conduct two • Developmental questions: Questions such

simultaneous researches to gain as “How did crime rates change in the last
comprehensive information about the 50 years in Istanbul?” or “How did the
research problem. For example, a researcher first hospitals emerge and how did they
who is interested in poverty may conduct transform to the present situation?” are
a quantitative research to find out how developmental questions.
many people in the city are living under • Theoretical questions: Factual,
poverty line, and a qualitative research to comparative and developmental questions
understand how people cope with poverty. are important for gathering information,
but this is not enough for sociologists.
Question Types in Sociological Sociologists also try to understand what
the facts mean. Questions such as “Why
Research Problems
are women politically represented less than
Apart from the methods and techniques, some men?”, “Why did crime rates increase in
question types are used to formulate research prob- the last 50 years in Turkey?” are theoretical
lems in sociological researches. These are factual questions. These questions ask what
(empirical), comparative, developmental and theo- underlies beneath the social facts.
retical questions (Giddens, 2008:111-112):
• Factual (empirical) questions: These
questions ask the state of a social fact.
For example, “What is the educational Factual questions ask what happened.
level of the internet addicts in İstanbul?”; Comparative questions ask whether
“What are the main integration problems this happened in other places, too.
of people who migrate from rural to urban Developmental questions ask whether it is
areas?” or “What are the most committed repeated in time. Theoretical questions ask
crimes in New York?” are factual questions. what lies beneath this (Giddens, 2008:112).
However, with these questions, researchers
cannot gather information about whether
these facts are unique to this society or are
normal situations that are seen in different
societies. To learn this, the researchers
should ask comparative questions.
• Comparative questions: Questions
comparing at least two different societies,
groups, districts or cultures are comparative
questions. For example, “Is the educational
levels of the internet addicts in Turkey
and in Britain the same?” or “Are there
differences between the most committed
crimes in New York and in Istanbul?” are
comparative questions. However, these
questions only provide information of this
age. By asking these questions, researchers
can not put forward the differences
between the pasts and presents of the
societies. To gain that kind of information,
developmental questions should be asked.

30
 1
Introduction to Sociology

In Practice

Sociology of the coffee: An example from A second dimension to a cup of coffee has to
Mills do with its use as a drug. Coffee contains caffeine,
which is a drug that has stimulating effects on the
brain. For many, this is the reason why they drink
coffee. It is interesting sociologically to question
why coffee addicts are not considered drug users
in Western cultures while they might be in other
cultures. Like alcohol, coffee is a socially acceptable
drug whereas marijuana is not. In other cultures,
however, marijuana use is tolerated, but both
coffee and alcohol use are frowned upon.
Still a third dimension to a cup of coffee is
tied to social and economic relationships. The
growing, packaging, distributing, and marketing
of coffee are global enterprises that affect many
Picture 1.10 Coffee is an important drink for many cultures, social groups, and organizations
people. However, we often do not think about what it within those cultures. These things often take
means. What different aspect may coffee have? Can we place thousands of miles away from the coffee
think about coffee sociologically? drinker. Many aspects of our lives are now
affected by worldwide trading exchanges and
“We can apply the concept of the sociological communications and studying these global
imagination to any behavior. Take the simple act transactions is important to sociologists.
of drinking a cup of coffee for example. We could
argue that coffee is not just a drink, but rather it A fourth dimension to a cup of coffee relates
has symbolic value as part of day-to-day social to past social and economic development. The
rituals. Often the ritual of drinking coffee is coffee relationships currently set in motion were
much more important than the act of consuming not always there. Like tea, bananas, potatoes,
the coffee itself. For example, two people who and sugar, coffee only became widely consumed
meet “to have coffee” together are probably more after the nineteenth century. These relationships
interested in meeting and chatting than in what developed gradually, and might well break down
they drink. In all societies, eating and drinking in the future due to change.”
are occasions for social interaction and the
Source: Mills, C.Wright (1959). The Sociological
performance of rituals, which offer a great deal of
Imagination. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
subject matter for sociological study.

31
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

To define sociology
LO 1

Sociology is a branch of social sciences; it is the scientific study

of social life. It examines the interaction between the social
actors and society. It provides a perspective, a way of thinking.
Sociological thinking enables us to see how society shapes
social actions. It shows us the social behind the individual.
When we think sociologically, we do not evaluate events and
Summary

facts depending on our individual experiences, we use the

sociological theories and methods to reach a comprehensive
understanding.

To define the concept of society and to explain

LO 2 the main characteristics of types of society

Society is the totality of the mutual relationships and interactions

among a community of people, who share a specific territory, a
specific culture and common social institutions. The main types
of societies are hunting and gathering societies, pastoral societies,
agrarian societies, traditional states, industrial (modern) societies
and post-industrial societies. Hunting and gathering societies
are small and mobile societies in which people gain their
livelihood from hunting, fishing and gathering edible plants.
There is very little social inequality in hunting and gathering
societies. Pastoral societies are based on domesticated livestock
such as cattle or sheep. Agrarian societies are small agriculture
societies without urbanization. Traditional states are larger than
the former types of society, are based on, but not limited to,
agricultural production. There are important social inequalities
in traditional states. Industrial (modern) societies are urbanized,
secularized, bureaucratized societies in which most of the people
work in factories, offices or shops. Post-industrial society is the
newest type of society. In post-industrial society, information
and technology are very important and most of the population
work in service sector jobs.

32
 1
Introduction to Sociology

To define the concepts of social action, social structure,

LO 3 social institution, social fact, social group, self, status,

role, value, norm, sanction and socialization.

Social action is an action which is oriented towards the past, present or future actions of
the others. Social structure is the regular, permanent and stereotyped relations among the
members of the society, which is composed by continuous and repetitive social actions. A
social institution is a socially organized social behavior pattern that reflects the established
appearance of the society, which are continuously repeated, maintained and approved by

Summary
the social norms. Social facts are the acting, thinking and feeling patterns which are out and
above of the individuals and have the power to force themselves to the individuals. A social
group is a set of people who are in mutual interaction, who share specific expectations and
who take into consideration the other’s behaviors. Self is the totality of the perceptions and
thoughts related to our identity and our qualifications. A status is the rank, the position
that one holds in the society, and the behavior we expect from this person holding this
position is called role. Values are the ideals and faiths, which a society or a group considers
important. Norms are the visible and invisible rules resulting from the values. Sanctions are
the anticipated consequence of violating the rules and the norms, which are used to make
members of the society follow the norms. Socialization is the interaction process in which
the individuals learn the language, values, norms, attitudes, knowledge and skills, in short,
the culture of the society they live in.

To comprehend the origins and the birth

LO 4 of sociology as a social science discipline

With the influence of the French Revolution and the Industrial

Revolution, major social transformations have taken place in
the 18th century. The old traditional society, which was based
on kinship, land, religion, local communities and monarchi-
es, was replaced by a new society, which was an industrialized,
urbanized, bureaucratized, secular society. This major change
caused chaos and disorder in the society and the first sociolo-
gists tried to understand why and how societies change. The
roots of sociology lie in the attempts to answer the questions
about the structure, change and future of the society by using
the methods of physical sciences.

To define the concept of science and to explain

LO 5 the characteristics of scientific knowledge.

Science is the body of systematic and empirical knowledge

about observable facts, and the system that generates scientific
knowledge. Scientific knowledge is the knowledge generated
through the process of scientific research. Scientific knowledge
is rational, empirical, factual, logical, objective, explicit,
consistent, systematic, generalizable, valid, reliable and critical.

33
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

To explain the phases of scientific

LO 6 research.

The phases of research are (a) choosing a research topic and formulating the research problem;
(b) selecting the appropriate method, techniques and type of research; (c) sampling; (d)
preparing measurement instruments; (e) gathering data; (f ) interpreting the results and
reporting the findings. The researcher first chooses a research topic in a general level, then
makes a detailed literature review, then formulizes a specific research problem and develops
hypotheses. After this phase, the researcher decides which methods and techniques to use in
Summary

the research. Then the researcher decides on the sample size and selects the sample by using a
proper sampling technique. After selecting the sample, the researcher prepares measurement
instruments and then gathers data from the sample through these instruments. Then the
researcher analyses the data. In the final phase, the researcher interprets the findings, compares
and integrates them with the literature and writes the research report.

To compare the main methodological

LO 7 approaches in sociological research.

The Positivist approach depends on the assertion that science has only one logic and any
intellectual activity can be considered as scientific if only it matches this logic. For Positivism,
there is only one scientific method, all sciences use this method, the only difference among
them is their study subjects. According to Positivism, there are social laws regulating the
social world, and these laws and social reality itself exist independent of humans. Positivist
researchers test hypotheses in a theoretical frame in order to make predictions about social
facts and put forward universal social laws. However, according to Interpretive approach,
social facts are not fixed and stable, they constantly continue to be established. Thus, it
is not possible to put forward certain casualties in the social world. For the Interpretive
approach the social world is established through the cultural relations, the meaningful and
intentional actions of people, in other words, it does not exist independent of human activity,
as Positivism argues. For this reason, Interpretive approach argues that social reality cannot
be investigated with the methods physical scientists use to investigate physical realities. The
purpose of social research for Interpretive approach is not to explain the casualty relationships,
it is to understand and interpret social action and social life. The Critical approach has some
characteristics of both Positivist and Interpretive approaches. It claims that social reality exists
independent of human actions as Positivism also does. However, unlike Positivism, it argues
that social reality is shaped by social, political, economic and cultural factors. For critical
approach, social reality changes in time, it is not possible to understand it only by looking
to its superficial appearance. This approach focuses on the conflict and change in society.
According to Critical approach, the purpose of social science is to criticize and transform
social relations. This transformation will be possible by revealing the underlying mechanisms
of social relations and thus by providing power to powerless people. Feminist approach is
the approach based on feminist theories and adopted by researchers who have a feminist
consciousness. The purpose of feminist researches is to reveal how gender and power relations
are penetrated in every aspect of social life. They also aim to empower powerless women
in patriarchal societies. Postmodern approach rejects all organized belief systems, including
social theory and the notion of linear historical development and progress. For Postmodern
approach, there is no difference between social science and art or literature. It argues that
research cannot have a function other than describing, and all descriptions are the same in
terms of their value. The description of a scientist is not more valuable or more valid than the
description ordinary people.

34
 1
Introduction to Sociology

To explain qualitative and

LO 8 quantitative research designs

Quantitative design depends on the Positivist

approach. The aim of quantitative researches is to explore
the social laws through revealing the casualty relations
between social facts. Concepts are transformed into
measurable variables, the measurement instruments are
developed elaborately, and data are gathered with precise

Summary
measurements. Samples are large and are selected through
probability sampling techniques. The findings of the
research are presented with charts, tables and graphics.
Data gathering techniques used in quantitative research
design are structured (controlled) observation, structured
(controlled) interview, questionnaire, experiment, quasi-
experiment and survey. Qualitative research design is
based on Interpretive approach and aims to understand
and interpret the perspectives of the social actors and the
reasons and motivations of social actions. The purpose
of qualitative research is to understand how people
constitute meaning and social reality in their natural
social contexts. It aims to define social facts in depth and
in detail and to interpret the complex relations among
the social facts from inside their own social contexts. The
standardized measurement instruments are not used in
qualitative research, the main data-gathering instrument
is the researcher. Samples are smaller and judgmentally
selected, the findings are presented verbally, in a way
that shows the details, depth and variety of the data. In
qualitative research design, data are gathered through
unstructured (not controlled, in-depth) interview,
focus group interview, unstructured (not controlled)
observation, semi-structured observation, life story
interview, oral history, case study and document review.

35
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

1 Which of the following refers to the socially 6 Which of the following data gathering tools is
organized social behavior pattern that reflects the used in quantitative research design?
established appearance of the society, which are A. Life story interview
continuously repeated, maintained and approved B. Oral history
by the social norms? C. In-depth interview
A. Social institution D. Questionnaire
B. Social fact E. Unstructured observation
Test Yourself

C. Social action
D. Role 7 In which of the following observation designs
does the researcher hide his/her researcher identity
E. Norm and tries to become a member of the observed
group?
2 In which of the following societies are social A. Complete observer
inequalities less than others? B. Observer as researcher
A. Post-industrial society C. Observer as participant
D. Participant as observer
B. Industrial society
E. Complete participant
C. Hunting and gathering societies
D. Traditional states
8 Which of the followings is a theoretical question?
E. Agrarian societies
A. What is the life expectancy at birth in Turkey?
B. Why is the life expectancy at birth higher in
3 Which of the following is a necessary condition societies that are more egalitarian?
for a behavior to be considered as social behavior? C. Are there differences in the life expectancy at
A. To be acted by at least three people birth in Turkey and in India?
B. To be approved by society D. Is the life expectancy at birth same in rural and
urban areas of Turkey?
C. To be appropriate for the roles of the individuals E. How did life expectancy at birth change in the
D. To be continuous last century in Turkey?
E. To be oriented at the behaviors of other people
9 Which of the following phase of research
4 Which of the following statements about comes first before the others?
socialization is right? A. Sampling
A. It begins in adolescence. B. Data gathering
C. Preparing measurement instruments
B. It ends with marriage.
D. Data analysis
C. Not every person needs the socialization process. E. Formulation of the research problem
D. It is the process of learning to live as a human.
E. Only the family is important in the socialization 10 “The higher the size of an individual’s social
process. network, the more s/he participates in volunteer
activities for NGOs”. What is the independent
5 Which of the following refers to a characteristic of variable in the hypothesis above?
scientific knowledge? A. NGOs
B. The number of the volunteer activities the indi-
A. Ambiguity
vidual participated
B. Explicitness
C. The size of the social network of the individual
C. Sophistication
D. The individual
D. Subjectivity
E. The will of participating volunteer activities
E. Sensuality

36
 1
Introduction to Sociology

If your answer is not correct, review

1. A If your answer is not correct, review 6. D
“Research designs and techniques in
“Fundamental concepts in sociology”.
sociological research”.

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

If your answer is not correct, review
2. c If your answer is not correct, review 7. E
“Research designs and techniques in
“Fundamental concepts in sociology”.
sociological research”.

If your answer is not correct, review

3. E If your answer is not correct, review 8. B
“Question types in sociological research
“Fundamental concepts in sociology”.
problems”.

4. D If your answer is not correct, review 9. E If your answer is not correct, review
“Fundamental concepts in sociology”. “Scientific method and research process”.

5. B If your answer is not correct, review 10. C If your answer is not correct, review
“Science and Method”. “Scientific method and research process”.

What are the suicide types that Durkheim claimed?

In what ways the degree of social integration and

Suggested answers for “Your turn”

moral regulation of the society influence suicide?

Durkheim claims that there are four kinds of suicide. These are egoistic,
altruistic, anomic and fatalistic suicide. While the egoistic and the altruistic
suicides are influenced by social integration levels, the anomic and the
fatalistic suicides are influenced by moral regulation levels of the society. Very
low levels of social integration are related to egoistic suicide. Egoistic suicide
occurs when family, work and community ties weaken, people can not bound
to social groups and find little social guidance about values, norms, traditions
and goals. Because of the lack of social integration, they feel that they do
not belong to the society. When bonds weaken due to loss of family, loss of
friends, or a retirement, probability of egoistic suicide increases. Very high
levels of social integration are related to altruistic suicide. Altruistic suicide
your turn 1 occurs when there is extreme social regulation, when the goals of the group or
the society are considered more important than the individual’s personal goals.
For example, the Japanese Kamikaze pilots in the World War II committed
suicide for the sake of political reasons; which is an example of altruistic
suicide. Very low levels of moral regulation are related to anomic suicide.
Anomic suicide occurs when people have moral confusion, lack enough
moral guidance and regulation. This happens especially in periods of serious
economic, social or politic changes. When the old rules of, and expectations
from life become outdated and the new rules or expectations are not set yet,
people do not know where they fit in the society and the likelihood of anomic
suicide increases. Very high levels of moral regulation are related to fatalistic
suicide. The opposite of anomic suicide, fatalistic suicide occurs when people
are excessively regulated and disciplined. For example, people in prisons may
prefer to die rather than continue to live under oppressive conditions.

37
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

How do we choose in which level to study? Can we

study the same topic at more than one level? Try to
answer this question by giving examples for each level
Suggested answers for “Your turn”

of sociology.

Some topics are limited to a particular level of inquiry. For example, if we want to
study the transformation in the political systems as a consequence of the mobiliza-
tion of the global community, we should study in the macro level. However, many
topics can be studied in any of the three levels. The level choice depends on the
interests of the researcher, the approach s/he adopts, the type of information s/he
your turn 2 needs. For example, crime or gang activity may be studied in three levels. In micro
sociology, the sociologist can study the inner mechanisms of a specific gang. S/he
may conduct a research on the interaction and communication patterns among
the members of the gang. Or s/he may study what it means to be a gang member
to the members of the gang. On the meso level, sociologist may investigate the
interactions between different gangs. On the macro level, sociologist can compare
the gang activity in different societies, or the relation between the change in the
economic system and the increase in the number of gangs.

Sociologist George Herbert Mead is well known for his

theory of the social self, which includes the concepts of
‘self,’ ‘me,’ and ‘I.’ What do you think are the differences
among the self, me and I?

According to Mead’s theory of the social self, the self has two sides as “me” and
“I”. The “me” side represents learned behaviors, attitudes, and expectations of
others and of society, of the generalized other. So the “me” is the socialized
aspect of the individual, it is the social self. On the other hand, the “I” is the
response to the “me”, it is the individual impulse. The “me” exercises societal
control over one’s self and prevents someone from breaking the rules or boun-
your turn 3 daries of societal expectations. The “I” allows the individual to express creati-
vity and individualism and understand when to possibly bend and stretch the
rules that govern social interactions. The “me” is the organized set of assumed
attitudes of other people, and the “I” is the response of an individual to the
attitudes of the others. The ‘I’ and the ‘me’ together make up the “self ”.

38
 1
Introduction to Sociology

Try to give an example of how Positivist and Interpretive

approaches would examine the same topic

Suggested answers for “Your turn”

Let’s think that two researchers, one adopting the Positivist approach and the
other the Interpretive approach, would study on the topic of criminal behavior.
The researcher who adopts Positivist approach would develop hypotheses about the
causes of criminal behavior. S/he will claim that some variables such as education
your turn 4 level, income level, or the size of the personal network influence the number of
the criminal actions individuals are involved in. The researcher, through testing
these hypotheses, would try to put forward the universal laws related to criminal
behavior. Then, depending on these laws, s/he would try to make predictions about
criminal behavior in the future. The other researcher, adopting the Interpretive
approach, would try to observe criminal people in their own social environments,
to understand crime from their perspective. In the research, s/he would define
the interactions among them in detail. The researcher would try to understand
the meanings the criminals attribute to crime, and the reasons that lie behind the
criminal actions.

Try to find a research problem that is only suitable

for quantitative design, and another which is only
suitable for qualitative research.

For example, if a researcher wants to predict the results of the next political
elections, s/he has to design a quantitative research, because a qualitative research
would not enable the researcher to make generalizations and predictions. Or, let’s
think that a researcher wants to learn whether there is a relation between income
level and health status in Turkey. The researcher may develop a hypothesis and
claim that the higher the income level gets, the better the health status gets.
Then he tests this hypothesis on a large sample which represents the population
of Turkey, and accepts or rejects this hypothesis at the end of the research. This
kind of aims cannot be reached with qualitative design. On the other side,
let’s think that a researcher observes that poor and rich people give different
your turn 5 reactions to serious diseases. S/he thinks that poor people meet this situation
calmly with a deep fatalism, but the rich strive aggressively for seeking cures. The
researcher wants to learn why poor and rich people give different reactions to
serious diseases. In this case, the researcher should conduct a qualitative design,
which enables her/him to collect in-depth data about the thoughts, attitudes
and beliefs of the people. A quantitative design is not suitable for this kind of
a research problem, because it does not allow to collect in-depth verbal data.

39
1
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

References

Abercrombie, N; Hill, S. and Turner, B. S. (2006). Jary, D. and Jary, J. (2005). Collins Internet Linked
The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology. Great Dictionary of Sociology. Glasgow: Harper Collins.
Britain: Penguin.
Johnson, Allan, G. (2000). The Blackwell Dictionary
Anderson, M. L. and Taylor, H. F. (2006). Sociology: of Sociology. Blackwell.

Understanding A Diverse Society. Thomson
Kaptan, S. (1973). Bilimsel Araştırma ve İstatistik
Wadsworth.
Teknikleri. Ankara: Tekışık.

AFSP (2017). American Foundation for Suicide
Kincaid, H. (1996). Philosophical Foundations
Prevention. Suicide Statistics. Retrieved from:
of the Social Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge
www.afsp.org (04.04.2017)
University Press.

APA (2017). American Psychological Association.
Kornblum, W. and Smith, C. D. (2008). Sociology in a
Marriage & Divorce. Retrieved from: http://www.
Changing World. 8th Edition. Thomson Wadsworth.
apa.org/topics/divorce/ (04.04.2017)
Lin, N. (1976). Foundations of Social Research.
Bauman, Z. (2004). Sosyolojik Düşünmek. (A.
USA: Mc Graw-Hill.
Yılmaz, Trans.) İstanbul: Ayrıntı.
Mantzavinos, C. (2016). Hermeneutics. Stanford
Bauman, Z. and May, T. (2001) Thinking
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.
Sociologically. USA: Blackwell.
stanford.edu/entries/hermeneutics/ (Retrieved
Bottomore, T.B. (1977). Toplumbilim. (Ü. Oskay, 05.04.2017)
Trans). Ankara: Doğan.
Marshall, G. (2003). Sosyoloji Sözlüğü. Ankara: Bilim
Bozkurt, V. (2006). Değişen Dünyada Sosyoloji. ve Sanat..
Bursa: Ekin.
Mills, C. W. (1959). The Sociological Imagination.
Browne, Ken (1998). An Introduction to Sociology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2nd Edition. Cambridge: Polity.
Neuman, W. L.. (2000). Social Research Methods.
Bryman, A. (1988). Quantity and Quality in Social 4. th Edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Research. London: Unwin Hyman.
Robson, C. (2000). Real World Research. Oxford: Blackwell.
Chambliss, D. F. and Schutt, R. K. (2012) Making Sense
Sencer, M. and Sencer, Y. (1978). Toplumsal
of the Social World. 4th Edition. London: Sage.
Araştırmalarda Yöntembilim. Ankara: TODAIE.
Coser, L. A.; Buford, R.; Patricia, A. S. and Steven, L.
TUIK (2016). İntihar İstatistikleri. TUIK Haber
N. (1983) Introduction to Sociology. New York:
Bülteni, Number: 21516
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Walliman, N.S.R. (2006). Social Research Methods.
De Vaus, D.A. (1990). Surveys in Social Research.
London: Sage.

2.Edition. London: Unwin Hyman.
Williams, M. (1999). Science and Social Science: An
Durkheim, E. (2002 [1897]) Suicide: A Study in
Introduction. London: Routledge.

Sociology. (Translator: J.A. Spaulding and G.
Simpson) London: Routledge. Yıldırım, A. and Şimşek, H. (2005) Sosyal Bilimlerde
Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri. Ankara: Seçkin.
Giddens, A. (2005). Sociology. 3rd Ed. Cambridge: Polity.
Giddens, A. (2008). Sosyoloji. İstanbul: Kırmızı.
Haralambos, M., and Holborn, M. (1995). Sociology:
Themes and Perspectives. 4.Edition. Collins
Educational.


40