Photovoltaic System Commissioning and Testing

A Guide for PV System Technicians and Engineers

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Contents

1 Introduction 2 5.3.1 Open-Circuit Voltage Testing 25

1.1 Codes and Standards 3 5.3.2 Short-Circuit Current Testing 25

1.2 Safety 4 5.4 Insulation Resistance Testing 26

2 PV System Fundamentals 5 5.5 System Functional Testing 29

2.1 PV Module Performance 5 5.5.1 Test Reports 30

2.1.1 Response to Irradiance 7 6 System Performance Testing 30

2.1.2 Response to Temperature 8 6.1 Verifying Power and Energy Production 30

2.1.3 Rating Conditions. 9 6.1.1 Verifying AC Power Output 31

2.1.4 PV Arrays 10 6.1.2 Verifying AC Energy Prodution 34

2.2 Types of PV Systems 12 6.2 Array I-V Measurements 35

3 System Documentation 14 6.3 Other Tests 37

4 Commissioning PV Systems 16 6.3.1 Power Quality Analysis 37

4.1 Final Installation Checkout 16 6.3.2 Thermal Imaging 37

4.2 Visual Inspection 16 6.3.3 Inverter Efficiency Tests 38

4.2.1 Labels and Markings 18 6.3.4 Maximum Power Point Tracking Tests 38

5 System Testing and Measurements 19 6.3.5 Shading Analysis 38

5.1 Continuity Testing 20 7 System Maintenance 40

5.2 Polarity Testing 23 7.1 Testing 41

5.3 Voltage and Current Testing 24 7.2 Troubleshooting 41

 operation of these systems, quality PV installation
1 INTRODUCTION
and service contractors execute a thorough
Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are being commissioning process followed by a regular
installed in ever increasing numbers throughout periodic testing and maintenance program.
the world, and are expected to safely and reliably These practices can help promote safety and
produce electrical energy over several decades of optimize performance, and provide essential
operation. However, many systems are not information required to effectively troubleshoot,
satisfactorily evaluated prior to being placed into diagnose and remedy problems with the system.
service, and many have had little, if any,
All PV systems require testing for performance
scheduled maintenance or testing over their
and safety verifications. The level of testing
lifetime. Unfortunately, this often leads to unsafe
required will depend on local regulators, the
and underperforming systems with reduced value
customer desires, and quality commitments of
to their owners.
installation and maintenance contractors. This
Any electrical system can be tested to verify document provides an overview of the
performance and to evaluate the condition of the commissioning and testing process, and applies
wiring systems and equipment. This is particularly generally to interactive PV systems that are
important for PV installations, which are subjected interconnected to the utility grid. It addresses the
to extreme environmental conditions and applicable codes and standards, in addition to
deteriorating effects of the elements over many testing equipment, procedures, and interpretation
years. To help ensure the long-term safe of the results. See Figure 1.
Figure 1. PV system overview

Power Power
Conditioning Distribution
Electrical
Energy Load
Source
PV Array Load
Inverter
Center
Energy
Conversion

Electric
Energy Utility
Storage
Battery
(optional)

2
1.1 Codes and Standards include verifying the continuity of grounding
The National Electrical Code® (NEC), NFPA 70 systems, verifying system voltages and currents,
governs the requirements for most non-utility and measuring insulation resistance to determine
electrical installations in the U.S., including solar wiring integrity.
photovoltaic (PV) systems. When adopted into
Other standards also apply to the testing and
the building codes by states or local jurisdictions,
commissioning of PV systems. Compliance with
the NEC becomes the basis for inspections and
these additional codes or standards may be
approvals of electrical installations.
required by local authorities, or requested by
Chapters 1–4 of the NEC generally apply to all buyers, lenders or underwriters to help ensure the
electrical systems, covering installation highest levels of safety, quality and performance
requirements, wiring and protection, wiring for PV installations.
methods and materials, and equipment for
The international standard IEC 62446 Grid
general use. Article 690 of the NEC covers special
Connected PV Systems – Minimum Requirements
installation requirements for solar photovoltaic
for System Documentation, Commissioning Tests,
systems, however many other articles also apply.
and Inspection defines minimum documentation,
Additionally, Article 705 covers requirements for
commissioning tests and inspection criteria for
the interconnecting PV systems and other
grid-connected PV systems. Information derived
distributed generation equipment to other
from this standard is intended to verify the safe
sources, such as the utility grid.
and proper operation of PV systems, and to serve
While the NEC does not specifically address PV as a guide for designers, installers and service
system performance, it does establish personnel. This IEC standard covers specific
requirements for the overall quality and safety of requirements for testing and commissioning PV
electrical installations. Many of these systems not addressed by the NEC and other
requirements can be verified through visual electrical installation codes, such as IEC 60364:
inspections and a review of the system design Electrical Installations for Buildings. Section 712
and installation documents. However, certain of IEC 60364 addresses specific requirements for
NEC requirements can only be validated by solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems.
electrical tests and measurements. These
Compliance with the IEC 62446 standard is
required for many PV projects in Europe and
NFPA 70B Recommended Practice for similar requirements are being listed in
Electrical Equipment Maintenance procurement documents for new projects in the
provides guidelines on test methods and U.S. Many of the testing procedures outlined in
the preventive maintenance of electrical this standard correlate directly with NEC
systems. This standard can be used in requirements for the verification of safety for all
part to help verify NEC requirements electrical systems, which are addressed
through electrical system measurements throughout this document.

3
 1.2 Safety The Occupational Safety and Health
Conducting electrical testing on any PV system Administration (OSHA) issues and enforces
should be performed by qualified individuals standards in the U.S. for worker safety and health
having knowledge and experience with electrical in the U.S. In particular, OSHA regulations covered
systems measurements, the test equipment used, in CFR 29 Part 1926 — Safety and Health
the equipment or systems being tested, and an Regulations for Construction address a broad
awareness of the hazards involved. Working with scope of safety hazards likely to be encountered in
PV systems involves exposure to energized constructing and maintaining PV installations. The
circuits with high voltages and potentially lethal standards can be freely downloaded from the
currents, presenting electrical shock hazards. OSHA website, see: www.osha.gov
Battery systems and higher voltage installations
OSHA regulations require that employers provide
can also present electrical burn and arc flash
a safe and healthy workplace free of hazards, and
hazards. When these electrical hazards are
follow the applicable OSHA standards. Employers
combined other hazards such as working at
must provide safety training to affected employees
heights and in difficult locations exposed to the
addressing all probable hazards on a construction
elements, it is imperative for those installing and
site. Workers are responsible for following the
servicing PV systems to follow all applicable safety
employer’s safety and health rules and wearing
standards and guidelines.
and maintaining safety gear as instructed. An
OSHA 10-Hour Construction Industry Training
Qualified Person program covers the requirements for avoiding and
The NEC defines a qualified person as mitigating a number of jobsite safety hazards
“one who has skills and knowledge addressed in 29 CFR 1926, including electrical
related to the construction and operation
safety, personal protective equipment (PPE), fall
of the electrical equipment and
installations and has received safety protection systems, stairways and ladders, hand
training to recognize and avoid the and power tools, cranes and lifts, excavations,
hazards involved”. However, the NEC is scaffolding, and others.
not very specific about the extent of
safety training required relative to the Best practices for preventing electrical hazards
level of hazards and types of work and other common safety hazards associated
involved, presuming individuals may be with PV installations include the following:
qualified for certain tasks and not others.
Generally, individuals installing or ■ Carry out a risk assessment before
servicing PV installations should have conducting any work at the site.
appropriate experience in working with
PV systems as well as electrical systems, ■ Working on electrical equipment and circuits
and safety training consistent with the in a de-energized state using documented
requirements outlined in NFPA 70E-2009, lockout and tagout procedures.
Standard for Electrical Safety in the
■ Wearing the appropriate PPE, including
Workplace.
protective clothing, nonconductive Class E

4
 hardhat, electrical hazard (EH) rated foot safe operation of any test instruments.
protection, and safety glasses at all times. ■ Only use test instruments for their intended
■ Using electrically insulated hand tools and purpose, within their established limits and
properly grounded or double-insulated ratings.
power tools maintained in good condition. ■ Carefully inspect test equipment and leads
■ Avoiding contact with overhead power lines prior to each use.
and buried electrical conductors. ■ Properly maintain test instruments and
■ Using ladders with wooden or fiberglass rails recommended calibrations.
when working on or near energized ■ Plan and review all testing, safety and
conductors. emergency procedures in advance.
■ Mitigating fall hazards and using personal fall ■ Use appropriate personal protective
arrest systems (PFAS) whenever working at equipment, including electrical insulating
unprotected heights of 6 feet or more. gloves.
■ Maintaining an orderly work site and ■ Work with a partner.
cautious approach.
In some cases, working on energized equipment 2 PV SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS
is unavoidable, for example when making
Photovoltaic systems convert solar radiation into
measurements on PV arrays that are always
electrical energy suitable for powering electrical
energized when exposed to sunlight. Certain test
loads or other utilization equipment. A fundamental
equipment, such as megohmmeters and
understanding of PV device performance and
insulation testers also produce high test voltages,
system designs is essential for conducting
and appropriate safety precautions must be
meaningful tests and evaluations and interpreting
observed when using this equipment. Proper
the results.
electrical insulating gloves and other applicable
PPE should always be worn when working on or 2.1 PV Module Performance
testing energized circuits. The level of PPE
required depends on the voltage levels and fault Photovoltaic cells, modules and arrays produce
currents for the circuits under test. Particular care dc power when exposed to sunlight. Their
should be exercised whenever touching a PV electrical performance is represented by their
array or associated conductive surfaces to current-voltage (I-V) characteristic. An I-V curve
protect against electrical shock, especially when represents an infinite number of current and
faults are suspected. voltage operating point pairs for a PV generating
device, at a given solar irradiance and
General safety recommendations for using temperature operating condition. See Figure 2.
electrical test equipment include: PV modules produce voltage and current output
that varies with solar irradiance and temperature.
■ Follow manufacturer’s instructions for the
Key operating points along the I-V curve are

5
 rated by the manufacturer at specified test ■ Short-circuit current (Isc) is the maximum
conditions and affixed on product labels. These current on an I-V curve. Isc corresponds to a
rated I-V parameters are the basis for sizing and zero resistance and short-circuit condition, at
designing the photovoltaic source and output zero voltage and zero power output. Short-
circuits, and for comparing with field circuit current is directly proportional to solar
measurements on PV arrays. irradiance, and rated values are used to size
PV circuit conductors and overcurrent
Figure 2. I-V curves represent the electrical devices. Because PV modules are inherently
performance for PV modules and arrays. current-limited, PV modules can be short-
circuited for testing using an appropriately
Current vs. voltage
Power vs. voltage rated shorting device. Individual solar cells
may produce Isc be up to and over in area,
Pmp
Isc
with Isc ratings 8 A and higher.
Imp ■ The maximum power point (Pmp) of a PV
device is the operating point where the
product of current and voltage is at its
Current (A)

Pmp = Imp x Vmp

Power (W)

maximum. The maximum power point is

located on the “knee” of the I-V curve, and
represents the highest efficiency operating
Vmp Voc
point for a PV device under the given
Voltage (V)
conditions of solar irradiance and cell
temperature. Typical PV modules have rated
■ Open-circuit voltage (Voc) is the maximum dc maximum power of 200 W to 300 W.
voltage on a given I-V curve, and is the ■ The maximum power voltage (Vmp) is the
operating point for a PV device with no corresponding operating voltage at Pmp,
connected load. Voc corresponds to an and is typically about 70% to 80% of the
infinite resistance or open-circuit condition, open-circuit voltage.
and zero current and zero power output.
■ The maximum power current (Imp) is the
Open-circuit voltage is independent of cell
operating current at Pmp, and typically
area and increases with decreasing cell
about 90% of the short-circuit current.
temperature, and is used to determine
maximum circuit voltages for PV modules The specific operating point on an I-V curve is
and arrays. For crystalline silicon solar cells, determined by the electrical load according to
the open-circuit voltage is typically on the Ohm’s Law. Consequently, the load resistance to
order of 0.5 V to 0.6 V at 25°C. Typical PV operate a PV module or array at its maximum
modules have between 60 and 72 series- power point is equal to the maximum power
connected cells with Voc ranging from about voltage divided by the maximum power current
34 V to 44 V. (Vmp/Imp). For example, consider a PV module

6
with maximum power voltage (Vmp) = 35.8 V, PV array source circuit combiner boxes.
and maximum power current (Imp) = 4.89 A. The Measurements of PV array operating points and
load resistance required to operate this module maximum power point tracking can be verified
at maximum power is equal to Vmp ÷ Imp = 35.8 during system testing.
V ÷ 4.89 A = 7.32 Ω. The maximum rated dc
power is simply the product of the maximum 2.1.1 Response to Irradiance
power current and voltage. See Figure 3. Changes in solar radiation have a linear and
proportional effect on the current and maximum
Figure 3. The operating point on an I-V power output of a PV module or array. See Figure
curve is determined by the electrical load 4.
resistance according to Ohm’s Law.
Figure 4. Changes in solar radiation have a
Decreasing direct linear and proportional effect on the
resistance
R=0 Increasing current and maximum power output of a
resistance
PV module or array.
Current

Maximum power increases with increasing irradiance

Load lines of Maximum power voltage changes little with irradiance
constant resistance

Current increases with

1000 W/m2 constant resistance

R=∞ 750 W/m2

Current

Voltage Constant
Temperature
500 W/m2

In application, the operating point on the I-V 250 W/m2

curve is determined by the specific equipment Voc changes little
with irradiance
connected to the output of the PV array. If the
load is a battery, the battery voltage sets the Constant
Temperature
Voltage
operating point on the I-V curve. If the PV array is
connected to an interactive inverter, the inverter Therefore, doubling the solar irradiance on the
seeks to operate the PV at its maximum power surface of the array doubles the current and
point as long as the array voltage operates within maximum power output (assuming constant
the inverter limits. Maximum power point tracking temperature). Changing irradiance has a smaller
(MPPT) refers to the process or electronic effect on voltage, mainly at lower irradiance
equipment used to operate PV modules or arrays levels. Because voltage varies little with changing
at their maximum power point under varying I-V irradiance levels over 200 W/m2, PV devices are
curve conditions. MPPT circuits are integral to well-suited for battery charging applications. See
interactive inverters, some charge controllers and Figure 5.
also available as separate equipment or part of

7
 Figure 5. PV module current and voltage Installers and commissioning specialists verify
are affected differently by solar irradiance. the performance of PV systems in the field by
measuring the solar irradiance incident on PV
arrays, and correlating the measured power
Voc changes little with
Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc)

output with specifications. For example, if it has

Short-Circuit Current (lsc)
irradiance above 200 W/m2

been established that the rated peak output of a

PV array is 10 kW under incident radiation levels
of 1000 W/m2 at normal operating temperatures,
then the output of the array should be expected
to be around 7 kW if the solar irradiance is 700
Isc increases with W/m2, assuming constant temperature.
increasing irradiance

0 200 400 600 800 1000 2.1.2 Response to Temperature

Constant
Irradiance (W/m2) Temperature The current and voltage output of a PV module
are temperature dependent. For crystalline silicon
The short-circuit current (Isc), maximum power
PV devices, increasing cell temperature results in
current (Imp), and maximum power (Pmp) at one
a measureable decrease in voltage and power,
condition of solar irradiance may be translated to
and a slight increase in current. Higher cell
estimate the value of these parameters at
operating temperatures also reduce cell
another irradiance level:
efficiency and lifetime. The temperature effects
Isc2 = Isc1 × (E2/E1) on PV module current are an order of magnitude
less than on voltage and power, and neglected
Pmp2 = Pmp1 × (E2/E1) as far as any installation or safety issues are
Imp2 = Imp1 × (E2/E1) concerned.

where Temperature coefficients relate the effects of

changing PV cell temperature on its voltage,
Isc1 = rated short-circuit current at irradiance E1 (A) current and power output. For crystalline silicon
PV devices, the temperature coefficient for
Isc2 = short-circuit current at new irradiance E2 (A)
voltage is approximately -0.4%/°C, the
E1 = rated solar irradiance (W/m2) temperature coefficient for short-circuit current is
approximately +0.04 %/°C, and the temperature
E2 = new solar irradiance (W/m2).
coefficient for maximum power is approximately -
Pmp1 = rated maximum power at irradiance E1 (W) 0.45 %/°C. Note that the power and voltage
temperature coefficients are negative, as these
Pmp2 = new maximum power at new irradiance E2 (W). parameters decrease with increasing
Imp1 = original maximum power current at irradiance E1 (A) temperature. See Figure 6.

Imp2 = new maximum power current at new irradiance E2 (A).

8
Figure 6. For crystalline silicon PV devices, is determined by multiplying the module rated
increasing cell temperature results in a open-circuit voltage (Voc) by the number of
decrease in voltage and power, and a small modules in series, and by a voltage correction
increase in current. factor [NEC Table 690.7]. Where other than
crystalline silicon (thin-film) PV modules are used,
or if temperature coefficients are provided with
Increasing
temperature
listed installation instructions, temperature
reduces
power output translations should follow manufacturer’s
Increasing
instructions using provided coefficients.
Current

temperature
increases current

Increasing temperature
reduces voltage
2.1.3 Rating Conditions
T=0°C Standard Test Conditions (STC) is a universal
T=25°C rating condition for PV modules and arrays, and
T=50°C
specifies the electrical output at a solar irradiance
level of 1000 W/m2 at AM 1.5 spectral
Voltage
distribution, and 25°C cell temperature. The
performance of PV modules and arrays is
Since PV modules produce their highest voltage
sometimes represented at other test conditions
at the lowest temperatures, this voltage
closer to actual field operations, such as PVUSA
determines the minimum voltage ratings required
Test Conditions (PTC), which is based on 1000
for the modules and associated dc circuit
W/m² solar irradiance, 45°C cell temperature,
components [NEC 690.7]. For crystalline silicon
1 m/s wind speed.
PV modules, the maximum voltage for PV arrays

Example: PV Module Voltage-Temperature Correction

Consider a crystalline silicon PV module with a rated open-circuit voltage of 44.4 V at 25°C,
and a voltage-temperature coefficient of –0.33% / °C. What would the open-circuit voltage be
at a cell temperature of 60°C?

Vtrans = Vstc + [Vstc x Cv x (Tpv – Tstc)]

Vtrans = 44.4V + [44.4V x – 0.0033 x (60 – 25)°C] = 39.2V

°C

If the same PV module operates at –10°C (35°C lower than the reference temperature), the
translated voltage is:

Vtrans = 44.4V + [44.4V x – 0.0033 x (–10 – 25)°C] = 49.6V

°C

9
 2.1.4 PV Arrays Figure 8. PV cells or modules are
Photovoltaic power sources are constructed configured electrically in series by
from the series and parallel connections of connecting the negative terminal of one
individual PV modules to achieve an intended dc device to the positive terminal of the next
current and voltage output. Photovoltaic source device, and so on.
circuits typically consist of individual modules
wired in series to achieve a desired output (+) 1 (-) (+) 2 (-) (+) n (-)
voltage intended for the connected dc utilization
equipment. PV source circuits are then
Pos (+) Neg (-)
connected in parallel at combiner boxes located
within the array or at inverters to build current Vseries string = V1 + V2 … + Vn
and power output to the desired levels. See Vseries string = V1 x n
Figure 7.
Iseries string = I1 = I2 … = In (for similar devices)
Figure 7. Photovoltaic power sources
consist of parallel-connected source
Figure 9. Connecting similar PV devices in
circuits of series-connected PV modules.
series increases voltage while current
Photovoltaic Power Source stays the same.
PV Array PV Source Circuits

PV For similar PV devices in series:

Module
PV Output Vseries string = V1 + V2 … + Vn
Circuits
Vseries string = V1 x n
To disconnect Iseries string = I1 = I2 … = In
means and
DC equipment
Current (A)

A string is a series connection of PV devices. PV

cells or modules are configured electrically in 1 device 2 device
in series
“n” devices
in series

series by connecting the negative terminal of one

device to the positive terminal of the next device, Voltage (V)

and so on. For the series connection of similar PV

Connecting PV modules in series with dissimilar
modules, the voltages add and the resulting
current ratings results in loss of power, similar in
string voltage is the sum of the individual module
effect to partially shading an array, or having
voltages. The resulting string current output
parts of a series source circuit located on
remains the same as the current output of an
surfaces facing different directions and receiving
individual module. See Figure 8 & Figure 9.
different levels of solar irradiance. The resultant

10
current output for a string of dissimilar current
output devices is ultimately limited to the lowest Module-Level Inverters
current output device in the entire string, and PV arrays designed using ac modules
should be avoided. However, it is acceptable to and micro-inverters are becoming
connect PV modules with different voltage output increasingly popular for smaller
in series, as long as each module has the same installations having non-homogeneous
rated current output. See Figure 10. arrays. Module-level inverters can
optimize the output for arrays located in
Figure 10. Avoid connecting dissimilar PV different planes receiving different
devices in series. amounts of solar radiation, or using
different types of modules, or for arrays
■ When dissimilar PV devices are with partial shading. These designs have
connected in series, the voltages still add, no field-installed PV dc source or output
but the current is limited by the lowest circuits, but rather combine the ac output
current output device in series. of multiple inverters in parallel at
■ Not acceptable. dedicated overcurrent device. These
designs are essentially feeder circuits
consisting of ac sources, as opposed to
Pos (+) (-) (+) Neg (-)
A B branch circuits supplying electrical
loads.

Figure 11. PV cells or modules are

Pos (+) Neg (-)
Vseries = VA + VB connected in parallel by connecting the
Iseries = IA < IB negative terminals together and the
positive terminals together at a common
point.
Series strings of PV modules are configured
Pos (+)
electrically in parallel by connecting the negative
terminals of each string together and the positive (+) (+) (+)
strings together. Usually, an overcurrent device is 1 2 n
required in each string [NEC 690.9]. For the (-) (-) (-)
parallel connection of strings, the string currents
add and the resulting string voltage is the Neg (-)

average of the individual string voltages. Parallel

connections of strings with different current For PV devices in parallel:
output, or from strings in different planes are Vparallel = V1 = V2 … = Vn (for similar devices)
acceptable, but may require different circuit Vparallel = (V1 + V2 … + Vn)/n
sizing as required. See Figs 11 & 12. Iparallel = I1 + I2 … + In

11
 Figure 12. Connecting similar PV devices in Bypass diodes are connected in parallel with
parallel increases current while voltage series strings of cells to prevent cell overheating
stays the same. when cells or parts of an array are shaded. See
Figure 14. Bypass diodes are essentially electrical
For PV devices in parallel: check valves that permit the flow of current in only
Vparallel = V1 = V2 … = Vn (for similar devices) one direction. When modules in series strings are
Vparallel = (V1 + V2 … + Vn)/n partially shaded, it may cause reverse voltage
Iparallel = I1 + I2 … + In across the shaded cells or modules. The bypass
diode shunts current around the shaded area and
Devices 1+2 in parallel prevents cells overheating. Most listed PV
modules are equipped with factory installed
bypass diodes. Bypass diodes may or may not
Current (A)

be serviceable via module junction boxes in the

field.
Device 1+2 independently

2.2 Types of PV Systems

Types of PV systems are classified based on the
Voltage (V) loads they are designed to operate, and their
connections with other electrical systems and
Monopole PV arrays consist of two output circuit
sources. The specific components needed
conductors, a positive and negative. Bipolar PV
depend on the type of system, and its functional
arrays combine two monopole arrays with a
and operational requirements.
grounded center tap. Consequently, bipolar
arrays have a positive and negative voltage Stand-alone PV systems operate independently
referenced to ground. Certain inverters are of other electrical systems, and are commonly
specifically designed and listed for use with used for remote power or backup applications,
bipolar arrays. See Figure 13. including lighting, water pumping, transportation
safety devices, communications, off-grid homes
Figure 13. Monopole PV arrays consist of
and many others. Stand-alone systems may be
two output circuit conductors; while
designed to power dc and/or ac electrical loads,
bipolar PV arrays combine two monopole
and with a few exceptions, use batteries for
arrays with a center tap.
energy storage. A stand-alone system may use a
PV array as the only power source, or may
additionally use wind turbines, an engine-
Pos (+) Neg (-) Pos (+) Center Tap Neg (-)
generator, or another auxiliary source in hybrid
applications. Stand-alone PV systems are not
PV Array PV Array PV Array
intended to produce ac output that operates in
parallel with the electric utility system or other
sources. See Figure 15.

12
Figure 14. Bypass diodes are connected in parallel with series strings of cells to prevent
cell overheating when cells or parts of an array are shaded.

When cells are not shaded, the bypass When a cell is shaded, the
diode is reverse biased and does not bypass diode is forward biased
conduct current and conducts current

Pos Neg
(+) (-)

Shaded
cell

Interactive PV systems operate in parallel and are output is greater than the site load demand. At
interconnected to and synchronized with the night, during cloudy weather or any other periods
electric utility grid. When connected to local when the electrical loads are greater than the PV
distribution systems, interactive PV systems system output, the balance of power required is
supplement utility-supplied energy to a building received from the electric utility. Interactive PV
or facility. The ac power produced by interactive systems are required to disconnect from the grid
systems either supplies on-site electrical loads or during utility outages or disturbances for safety
is back-fed to the grid when the PV system reasons. Only special battery-based interactive

Figure 15. Stand-alone PV systems operate autonomously and are designed to meet
specific electrical loads.

Stand-Alone System

DC AC
PV Source Circuits Loads Loads
Inverter DC
PV Output Circuit input Circuit
Inverter
Output
Source Circuit Ground Fault Inverter Fused Circuit
Combiner Box Protection Disconnect

Inverter/
Charger

Charge
PV Fused Controller
Disconnect Battery Fused
Disconnect
PV Array
Auxiliary
AC Source

Battery

13
 Figure 16. Utility-interactive PV systems operate in parallel with the electric utility grid
and supplement site electrical loads.

Interactive System

PV Output
PV Source Circuits Circuit Inverter Input Circuit Inverter Output Circuit

AC Fused Utility
Source Circuit Disconnect Disconnect
Ground Fault
Combiner Box Protection

DC
Inverter Loads

DC Fused
Disconnect

PV Array Integral components in many

small string inverters < 12 kW Electric Utility

inverters can provide stand-alone power for PV system documentation is a permanent record
critical loads independent from the grid during associated with a PV installation, including
outages. See Figure 16. maintenance and testing records. This
information is critical for the effective
maintenance and evaluation of the system over
3 SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION
time. Key components of a PV system
All PV installations should have adequate documentation package should include the
documentation providing details of the system following:
design and all components and materials used in
■ The system DC and AC power ratings; the
its construction. The documentation should also
manufacturer, model and quantity of PV
include safety information, and procedures for
modules, inverters, batteries, controllers and
operating and maintaining the system. Proper
all other major components, as applicable.
system documentation helps ensure safe and
The dates of the system installation,
reliable system operations, and is generally
commissioning and inspection should also
required for the following purposes:
be noted.
■ Plan review and permitting process with local ■ The names, postal addresses, phone
building officials numbers and email addresses for the
■ Interconnection approval from the local utility customer/owner, system designer,
installation contractor and any other
■ Installation and maintenance contractors
responsible parties or subcontractors.
■ Owners and caretakers
■ A site layout identifying equipment locations
■ Informing emergency services

14
 on buildings or relative to property lines or procedures should also be provided. A
easements. In some cases, a shading maintenance plan and intervals should be
analysis and performance estimates may be provided for all routine (scheduled) system
provided with project proposals, and should maintenance, such as array cleaning as
also be including with the final system required. Operating and maintenance
documents. guidelines should differentiate what tasks can
■ A single line diagram depicting the overall be performed by the owner or caretakers,
system design, including the types of from those that require professional service
modules, total number of modules, modules due to the complexity of the tasks, special
per string and total number of strings; the equipment needs, or safety concerns.
types and number of inverters; and any Maintenance agreements, plans and
other major components. For larger projects, recordkeeping forms or sheets should also
be provided to document maintenance
complete as-built electrical and mechanical
activities over time.
drawings are usually required at project close
out. ■ Warranty details on major components
indicating the terms and conditions, and how
■ The types, sizes and ratings for all balance-
the warranty process is handled and by
of-system components annotated on the
whom. System warranties should also be
single line diagram, or noted and provided in
addressed, including quality of workmanship,
a separate table, including specifications for
roof weathersealing or performance
all conductors, raceways, junction boxes,
warranties as applicable.
source circuit combiner boxes, disconnects,
overcurrent protection devices, and ■ Copies of all commissioning test reports and
grounding equipment, as applicable. verification data.

■ Data sheets and specifications for PV ■ Contracting and financial details are also an
modules, inverters and other major important part of system documentation, and
components, including module mounting may be included with the technical items
systems. For most inverters, installation and discussed above or under a separate file.
user/operator manuals are available and These documents would include construction
provide important information regarding the contracts, invoices and payments for
safe operation and maintenance of the materials and labor, building permits,
equipment. inspection certificates, interconnection
agreements, and applications and approvals
■ Operation and maintenance information
from incentive programs, such as rebates
including procedures for verifying proper
and tax forms.
system operation and performance, and how
to determine if there is a problem and what ■ A variety of aids are available for installers,
to do. Procedures for isolating/disconnecting including software products such as the
equipment and emergency shutdown SolarCert from Seaward Solar and testing
and commissioning report.

15
 complete before conducting any testing and
4 COMMISSIONING PV SYSTEMS
beginning operations. Typically, the installation
Commissioning of PV systems involves visual contractor will perform the final checkout, prior to
observations as well as tests and measurements to formal inspections by building officials. With the
verify the safe and proper operation of the system. exception of the PV array, all circuits should be
Commissioning is performed immediately after PV de-energized wherever possible in preparation
installations are completed, prior to being operated for system testing. A punch list can be used to
and put into service for the first time. A thorough help check off items as they are completed, and
commissioning process helps improve safety and typically includes the following items:
quality control, provides verification the installation
■ Verifying that all structural and electrical
matches the plans and code requirements, and is
components are properly installed and
performing as expected. Some of the tests
secured.
conducted during commissioning may be
repeated during periodic routine maintenance to ■ Verifying that all components are installed in
help ensure that the system remains in a a neat and workmanlike manner, including
satisfactory operating condition over its lifetime. wire management practices.
■ Verifying proper connections and
Key steps of a PV system commissioning terminations, including terminal torque
procedure typically include: specifications.
■ Completing final installation details. ■ Verifying that all required system and
■ Completing visual inspections. equipment labels, marking and placards are
correct and in the proper locations.
■ Verifying compliance with NEC requirements.
■ Verify that any calibrations or adjustments for
■ Conducting electrical verification tests.
inverters, charge controllers or other
■ Vo/c, Is/c, insulation resistance, polarity. equipment are properly set or programmed.
■ Verifying system functionality including ■ Verifying that all disconnects are open, fuses
start-up, operations, shut-down and are removed and lockout/tagout procedures
emergency procedures. are in place.
■ Verifying system power output and energy ■ Identifying and completing any unresolved
production meet performance expectations. items.
■ Completing system documentation, including ■ Completing site clean-up and restoring site
changes for as-built drawings. to original conditions.
■ Conducting user orientation and training on 4.2 Visual Inspection
system operations and safety.
Visual inspections of PV systems should be
4.1 Final Installation Checkout performed as part of commissioning and
A final checkout confirms that the installation is routinely over the system lifetime to verify and

16
ensure that the system remains in a safe and ■ All electrical terminations and connections
properly functioning condition. There are many shall be made using approved products and
areas to evaluate with visual inspections, with the installation methods [110.14]. This includes
frequency and level of detail depending on the consideration of conductor and terminal
type and size of the system involved. Visual materials, temperature ratings, and use of
inspections are supplemented with other specially approved terminals for use with fine
observations, test measurements and stranded conductors or more than a single
performance data to fully evaluate the safety and conductor. Pressure connectors using a set
condition of PV systems. screw have required tightening torques, and
these values should be recorded and verified
Initial inspections are primarily used to identify
at commissioning.
unfinished installation details and verify
compliance with the applicable code ■ All electrical equipment shall be marked with
requirements. Visual inspections conducted after the manufacturer’s identification and
installation during periodic routine maintenance applicable specifications and ratings
tend to look for physical damage or degradation [110.21].
of equipment from temperature extremes, ■ Sufficient working spaces shall be provided
moisture or other environmental conditions. about any electrical equipment that is likely
to be serviced or maintained while energized
Prior to initial operation, all PV systems should be [110.26]. Clear spaces and dedicated
inspected for full compliance with the many NEC spaces are also required about certain
requirements. Checklists are often used to review electrical equipment, such as panelboards or
and verify these requirements at the time of switchgear.
inspection, for examination and approval by local
NEC requirements covered in Article 690 Solar
authorities. Among the key NEC requirements
Photovoltaic Systems should also be evaluated
covered in Article 110 Requirements for Electrical
and verified during visual inspections. These
Installations include:
requirements address the following areas:
■ All equipment shall be properly listed,
■ Calculating circuit voltages and currents
identified and labeled, suitable for the
conditions of use, and be installed according ■ Determining conductor and over current
to the listed product instructions [110.3]. device sizes and ratings
■ All equipment shall be installed in a neat and ■ Locating disconnecting means
workmanlike manner, consistent with quality ■ Wiring methods and connectors
craftsmanship standards in the electrical ■ Equipment and system grounding
construction industry [110.12].
■ Markings and labels
■ All equipment shall be mechanically secured
■ Connecting to other sources (also Art. 705)
and provided with adequate ventilation or
cooling as required [110.13]. ■ Installing batteries and charge controllers

17
 Some sources for PV system inspection ■ Article 480 Storage Batteries
checklists and guidelines include: ■ Article 705 Interconnected Electric Power
■ http://www.nmsu.edu/~tdi/Photovoltaics/ Production Sources
Codes-Stds/Codes-Stds.html 4.2.1 Labels and Markings
■ http://irecusa.org/wp-content/ Numerous markings, labels and signs are
uploads/2010/07/PV-Field-Inspection-Guide- required to identify PV systems and their
June-2010-F-1.pdf components, and to warn operators, service
■ http://www.jimdunlopsolar.com/ personnel or emergency responders of
vendorimages/jdsolar/ hazardous conditions. Manufacturer markings
PVInspectionChecklist.pdf and labels identify the size, type, specifications
and ratings for PV modules, inverters, controllers,
Many articles in the first four chapters of the NEC
combiner boxes, conductors, raceways,
also apply to most PV installations, including but
overcurrent devices, switchgear and all other
not limited to:
electrical components. These markings are
■ Article 110 Requirements for Electrical placed on the product at the time of
Installations manufacture, and include listing marks from the
■ Article 230 Services approval agency. Building officials may verify
these markings during inspections, and rely on
■ Article 240 Overcurrent Protection
them for their approvals [110.2, 110.3, 100.21].
■ Article 250 Grounding and Bonding
Additional markings and labels are required for
■ Article 300 Wiring Methods
the overall system and certain components in PV
■ Article 310 Conductors for General Wiring systems, and are to be provided and placed by
■ Article 314 Outlet, Device, Pull, and Junction the installer. These include additional labels on dc
Boxes conductors and raceways [690.4, 690.31],
■ Article 338 Service-Entrance Cable: Types connectors [690.33], disconnecting means
SE and USE [690.14, 690.17], and at the point of utility
connection [690.54, 705.10, 705.12]. Labels and
■ Article 344 Rigid Metal Conduit: Type RMC
markings are also required on PV modules
■ Article 356 Liquidtight Flexible Nonmetallic [690.51], alternating-current modules [690.52],
Conduit: Type LFNC the PV power source [690.53], ground fault
■ Article 358 Electrical Metallic Tubing: protection equipment [690.5] and battery storage
Type EMT systems [690.55]. Special labeling is also
■ Article 400 Flexible Cords and Cables required for bipolar arrays [690.7], ungrounded
PV arrays [690.35], facility with either stand-alone
■ Article 408 Switchboards and Panelboards
systems or multiple power sources [690.56] and
■ Article 445 Generators stand-alone inverters providing a single 120-volt
■ Article 450 Transformers supply [690.10].

18
 5 SYSTEM TESTING AND MEASUREMENTS ■ Voltage and current testing verifies that PV
array and system operating parameters are
PV systems should be thoroughly tested at the within specifications.
time of commissioning and periodically over their ■ Insulation resistance testing verifies the
lifetime to ensure proper performance and safe integrity of wiring and equipment, and used
operation. Baseline measurements at the time of to detect degradation and faults to wiring
system commissioning are compared to the insulation.
system ratings and expectations for acceptance,
■ Performance testing verifies the system
and serve as a baseline for comparison with
power and energy output are consistent with
future measurements. Changes in test results
expectations. These tests also require
over time are used to track system degradation,
measurements of array temperature and
and identify problems that require attention or
solar irradiance.
service for safety or performance reasons.
Circuits or components that are modified or For stand-alone or hybrid PV systems
replaced should be retested accordingly. incorporating energy storage and additional
energy sources, the following additional tests
There are several types of electrical tests may be conducted:
conducted on PV systems that are used to verify
NEC requirements and system performance. ■ Measurements of battery voltage, capacity
Many of these tests can be conducted with and specific gravity.
common electrical test equipment, while some ■ Verification of charge controller set points
measurements require special meters and and temperature compensation.
instruments. In many cases, system performance ■ Verification of charging current and load
information is measured, recorded and displayed control functions.
by PV system inverters or charge controllers, and
■ Verification of performance and wiring
can be used to verify system functions and
integrity for other sources, such as
proper operation.
generators.
The following summarizes common types of Multi-function PV system testers are now
testing conducted on PV systems what available, such as the Seaward PV150, that
information it provides: conduct many of the recommended tests,
including continuity and resistance, polarity,
■ Continuity and resistance testing verifies
voltage and current tests, and insulation
the integrity of grounding and bonding
resistance tests. By combining these test
systems, conductors, connections and other
functions into single instruments, testing
terminations.
personnel avoid having to purchase, carry and
■ Polarity testing verifies the correct polarity maintain multiple meters. Multi-functional PV
for PV dc circuits, and proper terminations system testers simplify and speed up testing.
for dc utilization equipment. These instruments can also store data for later

19
 retrieval and processing into commissioning test 5.1 Continuity Testing
reports that become part of the system Continuity testing is commonly used to verify
documentation record. See Figure 17. grounding and bonding connections in electrical
systems. These tests also verify the proper
Figure 17. The Seaward PV150 handheld
operation of disconnecting means and the
meter provides multiple PV array testing
function of overcurrent protection devices like
functions.
fuses and circuit breakers. Measurements of
resistance can also be used for estimating
voltage drop in conductors, terminations and
other connections and for evaluating windings in
motors and transformers.

Proper grounding of PV systems reduces the risk

of electrical shock to personnel and the effects of
lightning and surges on equipment. The
grounding requirements for PV systems can be
quite complex to understand and installation
practices and hardware are continually evolving
and improving. There are two basic types of
grounding. System grounding connects a
current-carrying conductor in an electrical
system to ground, or earth potential. Equipment
grounding connects non-current carrying metal
parts to ground, such as PV module frames,
racks, enclosures, junction boxes, conduit and
other metallic components. All PV systems
require equipment grounding, and most also
require system grounding. Specific grounding
requirements for PV systems are addressed in
NEC Article 690, Part V and general grounding
A variety of instruments are available for the
and bonding requirements are covered in NEC
PV installer, but it is important to make sure
Article 250. See Figure 18.
the correct instrument is selected and avoid
products which only provide one or two tests, Most PV arrays in the U.S. today are installed
reducing the number of instruments needed with a grounded dc circuit conductor, either the
as well as calibration requirements. The positive or negative conductor, or the center tap
Seaward Solar PV150 is a hand held meter of bipolar arrays [690.41]. This connection must
that performs a variety of tests in a safe and be made at a single point on the photovoltaic
simple fashion. output circuit [690.42]. For interactive inverters

20
with ground-fault protection [690.5], this and ground-fault protection in both ungrounded
connection is usually made internal to the inverter array dc conductors [690.35]. Ungrounded PV
at dedicated terminals according to arrays are common in Europe, and expect to see
manufacturer’s instructions. more of these designs installed in the U.S. in
coming years, due to lower inverter costs and
The connection between the grounded capability for better array fault detection.
conductor and grounding electrode system is
made through the ground-fault protection device. Equipment grounding for PV systems is
When a ground-fault condition is detected by particularly challenging, due the large numbers of
current flow in this conductor, the circuit is individual PV modules in arrays, and their multiple
opened and the inverter displays a ground-fault connections to metallic support structures. PV
indication. Special labels are required to warn module manufacturers are required to provide
that normally grounded conductors may be details of acceptable equipment grounding
ungrounded and energized. Appropriate safety methods and components in their listed
precautions should be exercised around any PV installation instructions, according to the UL
arrays when ground-faults are suspected. 1741 standard for module safety. However,
different mounting structures supplied by
Ungrounded PV arrays are permitted by the different manufacturers often require specialized
NEC, but require specially listed inverters grounding practices and hardware. Be sure to
designed for use with ungrounded arrays, special follow module and mounting system
cabling or protection for wiring, and require manufacturer’s instructions for proper equipment
disconnecting means, overcurrent protection grounding practices.

Figure 18. All PV systems require equipment grounding, and most also require system
grounding.

Inverter:
240 VAC output, To Utility:
Lockable 240 VAC
with 690.5 GFPD Disconnect:
Utility required

PV Disconnect:
Fused disconnect
AC Disconnect: AC Mains
or breaker
2-pole breaker Panel:
Distribution
Photovoltaic Array: Four modules Bond electrodes together, or connect breakers
connected in series shown DC GEC to AC grounding electrode

Grounding Electrode: DC Grounding Electrode: AC Grounding Electrode:

8ft., copper-coated, 8ft., copper-coated 8ft., copper-coated
optionally supplementary
Note: No overcurrent protection
needed with some inverters

21
 Electrical resistance and continuity testing can be are joined into a continuous electrical
used to confirm the following NEC requirements: conductor [300.10]. Loss of mechanical
continuity, due to improper installation or
■ Verify the finish or anodizing on aluminum or inadequate support can also lead to loss of
other metallic components has been electrical continuity [300.11, 310.12].
satisfactorily removed or penetrated for
■ Verify that metal parts of all PV module
equipment bonding connections [250.12,
frames, support structures and other
250.96].
equipment are bonded to the equipment
■ Verify that all available grounding electrodes grounding system [690.43]. Special
in a building are bonded together and form a equipment bonding devices, listed and
single grounding electrode system [250.50]. identified for bonding grounding module
This includes underground metallic water frames to support structures are allowed
pipes; building structural steel; concrete- where approved for specific types of
encased electrodes; ground rings; and rod, modules and mounting structures. Refer to
pipe and plate electrodes, as available. PV module and mounting system
■ Verify the grounding electrode conductor is manufacturer’s instructions for additional
continuous and the viability of any irreversible information.
splices, welds or other connections are ■ Verify the continuity of equipment grounding
made using approved means where connections and bonding jumpers when PV
permitted [250.64]. Also verify the modules or inverters are removed from a
connection of the grounding electrode circuit for service [690.48]. Similar
conductor to the grounding electrode. requirements also apply to maintaining the
■ Verify that metal raceways, enclosures, continuity of equipment grounding
frames, fittings, and other components conductors to metallic boxes containing
serving as equipment grounding conductors receptacles, luminaires and other devices
are properly bonded together [250.86, that may be removed for service [250.148].
250.96]. Circuits operating over 250 volts to ■ Verify that continuity between the grounded
ground require special bonding methods to PV array source circuit and output circuit
ensure electrical continuity of metallic conductors remain bonded to the grounding
raceways, such as the use of listed bonding electrode conductor whenever an inverter or
lock nuts and bushing [250.97]. other equipment is removed for service
■ Verify the continuity of the equipment [690.49].
grounding conductor is first-make last-break Continuity tests can be conducted using a
for any plug and receptacle equipment, and conventional ohmmeter capable of measuring
is not opened by any disconnect device low resistances. Most digital multimeters also
[250.124]. include continuity test features that produce and
■ Verify that metallic raceways and enclosures indication of pass or fail, such as an audible

22
alarm when continuity is verified. Oftentimes, Reversing the polarity of a PV module within a
extra-long test leads may be required to verify the given series source circuit can occur for hard-
continuity of grounding connections in PV wired connections, although this problem has
systems due to the long separation distances been largely eliminated by factory-installed PV
between components. For accurate readings, module connectors and the requirement for them
the resistance of the test leads is accounted for to be polarized, marked and non-
or nulled by zeroing the ohmmeter prior to any interchangeable [690.33]. For PV modules using
resistance measurements. A clean surface and bypass diodes, reversing module polarity within a
reliable test lead connection to the circuit under series source circuit will force that module to
test is also crucial. Continuity and resistance operate at reverse voltage limited by the voltage
testing should only be performed on drop across the blocking diodes, usually around
de-energized circuits and conductors. 0.7 V for each diode. The result is the current
from other modules in the series string will
An instrument such as the Seaward Solar “bypass” the reversed module, and the net
PV150 is especially designed to provide voltage output for the entire string will be reduced
continuity and resistance testing on PV by the voltage of the reversed module plus the
installations. voltage drop across the bypass diodes. Bypass
diodes prevent PV modules from operating at
5.2 Polarity Testing
large reverse voltages that can result in high
As for any dc circuits, the polarity of array wiring power dissipation and damage to the module.
and dc equipment is a critical concern for PV
installations. The polarity of every source circuit Reversing the polarity of an individual PV source
and the entire PV power source must be verified circuit within a combiner box will simply cancel
prior to connecting to any dc utilization the current output from other parallel-connected
equipment, such as batteries, charge controllers, strings wired with proper polarity. For larger PV
inverters or electrical loads. Without required PV installations with dozens of source circuits
array source and output circuit overcurrent terminating at several combiner boxes
protection [690.9, 240], reversing the polarity of throughout the PV array, keeping track of each
an array connection to a battery can lead to source circuit and its polarity can be a challenge.
disastrous results and damage PV modules or To help reduce confusion and promote better
source circuit wiring. A reversed polarity array wire management practices, the 2011 NEC
can also act as a load, and discharge current requires all PV circuit conductors to be clearly
from a battery without some form of reverse identified by labeling, grouping, or color coding at
current protection like a blocking diode. Some all terminations, connections or splices [690.4].
inverters have rectifiers on their dc input to All source circuit fuses and module bypass
protect them from reverse polarity connections, diodes should be checked if modules or strings
but many do not and can be damaged by are ever connected in reverse polarity.
inadvertently reversing the connections.

23
 Polarity is verified by measuring the voltage on Polarity should be verified on the following dc
energized circuits, prior to closing disconnects components and circuits PV system:
and operating the system for the first time. Most
digital multimeters can be used for this purpose, ■ Photovoltaic modules
as well as specialized PV array testing equipment ■ Photovoltaic source circuits
capable of measuring dc voltage over the ■ Photovoltaic output circuits
appropriate range. Electronic meters typically
■ Disconnecting means
indicate the polarity of dc voltage measurements
with a plus (+) or minus (-) symbol on the display, ■ Battery and charge controller circuits
according to the connections of the positive and ■ Inverter input terminations
negative test leads. Analog voltmeters are not ■ Electrical loads
used for polarity testing, as the meter
movements on these instruments can be
damaged by connecting them in reverse polarity. 5.3 Voltage and Current Testing
Basic voltage and current tests are conducted on
Figure 19. PV String open circuit voltage
both dc and ac circuits in PV systems to verify
these parameters are within acceptable limits
Measured to ensure correct installation and
operation of each PV string. Measured values
prior to closing disconnects and beginning
should be compared with expected values. system operations. Detailed voltage and current
For systems with multiple identical strings, tests may be conducted on PV source circuits
values should be within 5% of other
and arrays for performance verification purposes.
PV strings in array.
Testing for performance verification requires
additional measurements of solar irradiance and
array temperatures, and translation of test results
to a reference test condition.

Prior to operations, voltage should be verified for

the following circuits and sources in PV systems:

■ Verify ac voltage and correct phasing at

RPE Auto
utility supply, inverter ac terminals and
disconnects, and electrical generators as
NULL VSO applicable.
■ Verify dc voltage and correct polarity for PV
array source and output circuits and at dc
disconnects.
■ Verify dc voltage and correct polarity for
battery, charger and charge controller
subsystems.

24
Many PV inverters have integral data monitoring silicon PV modules, the corresponding voltage
that measures many system parameters on the change should be 2.5% for every 10°C change in
dc and ac sides of the inverter, including dc module temperature.
voltage, current and power. Usually, source
circuit measurements need to be made at 5.3.2 Short-Circuit Current Testing
combiner boxes located throughout the array Short-circuit current tests are conducted on PV
field in larger systems, where the source circuits string source circuits to verify proper readings
can be isolated and identified for testing. and that the circuits are clear from major faults.
Similar to the open-circuit voltage tests, these
5.3.1 Open-Circuit Voltage Testing tests are only intended to verify proper system
Prior to closing the PV array dc disconnects, the operation, not performance. Suitable test
open-circuit voltage (Voc) for each PV array equipment, capable of safely short-circuiting
source circuit should be tested and compared high-voltage dc circuits is required. Most digital
with expectations. This test can also be used to multi-meters can measure dc current up to 10 A,
verify proper polarity. These tests simply verify but require a suitable shorting device to safely
correct installation, and are not intended to verify measure the current. Clamp-on ammeters are
performance. Open-circuit voltage tests require a also available for dc current measurements, and
suitable voltmeter capable of reading AC and DC require and external shorting device as well.
voltages of 600 V to 1000 V. Some circuit breakers and disconnect switched
may have appropriate DC current and voltage
Most PV systems have identical strings load-break ratings for shorting array source
consisting of the same number of series circuits. The ideal solution is a tester such as the
connected modules. In these cases, similar Seaward PV150.
open-circuit voltage readings should be
expected under the same testing conditions, Short-circuit current is directly proportional to the
typically within 5% of each other. Lower than solar irradiance incident on the array.
expected voltage can be due to improper array Consequently, these tests must be done quickly,
wiring, failed modules or shorted bypass diodes. under steady clear sky conditions at as close to
The string open-circuit voltage measurements the same irradiance level as possible. Make sure
should also be verified to operate within the dc the array is not shaded or particularly soiled prior
voltage limits for inverters, charge controllers or to testing. Short-circuit current readings taken
any other dc utilization equipment. under steady conditions should typically be
within 5% or one another for acceptance. If
If average cell temperatures are also measured, irradiance measurements are also made
the open-circuit voltage measurements can be simultaneously with short-circuit current
easily translated to a reference temperature measurements, the results can easily be
condition for comparison with system translated to a reference irradiance condition, for
specifications. Based on a standard -0.4%/°C example 1000 W/m2, to compare with
voltage-temperature coefficient for crystalline specifications.

25
 The Seaward Solar PV150 performs a short through the insulation increases. The higher its
circuit test at the touch of a button and resistance value, the better the conductor
avoids situations where installers are insulating quality. Excessive leakage current can
exposed to the possibility of arcing or present an electrical shock hazard, damage
exposure to high voltages in the equipment and degrade system performance.
measurement process.
Damage to wiring insulation can result from
5.4 Insulation Resistance Testing improper installation, or any number of
environmental factors, including from impacts or
Insulation resistance tests are used to verify and
vibration, from animals or insects, or
demonstrate the integrity of electrical wiring
deterioration from temperature or sunlight, or
systems and equipment, as required by the NEC
other adverse conditions. Due to the degradation
[110.7]. These tests can be used to assess
of PV modules and wiring systems over many
degradation or damage to wiring insulation and
years of direct exposure to the elements, older
to locate faults within PV arrays and other system
PV arrays will naturally have lower insulation
circuits. Insulation tests are an important element
resistance than when they were new. Insulation
of commissioning, acceptance testing and
resistance tests are recommended on a 3-year
preventative maintenance for PV systems.
maintenance interval, or more frequently as
Electrical conductors are usually insulated with circumstances dictate.
an outer covering to protect them from coming
Insulation resistance is measured between the
into contact with personnel, equipment or other
conductors under test and ground, or between
conductors. Where conductors are exposed at
other conductors. Insulation resistance and
termination points or on busbars, the terminal
leakage current testing are used to verify the
spacing and air gaps provide insulating
integrity of the following PV system circuits and
properties. Compared to conductors that that
components:
have very low resistance on the order of a few
ohms or less, insulators have very high resistance ■ Verifying integrity of PV modules and array
measured in megohms (MΩ). source and output circuit conductors.
The quality of conductor insulation can be ■ Measuring the leakage current through
determined by measuring its resistance. overcurrent and disconnect devices,
Insulation resistance is determined by applying a including fuses, switches and circuit
constant test voltage to a conductor and breakers.
measuring the current flow between the ■ Measuring the insulation resistance for any
conductor and ground, or between other de- equipment with windings, such as motors,
energized system conductors. This is analogous generators, transformers and inductors.
to pressure testing a plumbing system for water
■ Testing the grounding electrode resistance.
leaks. As wiring insulation degrades, its
resistance decreases and the small current flow

26
To maintain safety and avoid damaging Test Equipment
components during testing, the following Insulation resistance testing is commonly measured
guidelines and precautions apply to insulation with a megohmmeter. A megohmmeter is a special
testing of PV system circuits and associated type of ohmmeter that measures very high values of
equipment: resistance by applying high test voltages between
conductors and measuring the leakage current.
■ Always use insulated rubber gloves with
Megohmmeters may be powered by an external
leather protectors when conducting
source, internal batteries or by a hand crank. Test
insulation tests. Make sure test area and
voltages range from 50 Vdc to 5000 Vdc
equipment are protected from access by
depending on the instrument and its purpose.
unauthorized persons.
■ Isolate circuits for testing by opening Handheld insulation multimeters often combine
disconnects, and verify that circuits are de- insulation test functions with voltage, resistance
energized using LOTO procedures prior to and continuity measurements. This test
connecting insulation tester. The exception is equipment is lightweight and easy to use, and can
for PV dc source circuits which are always accommodate a variety of electrical system
energized when exposed to light. testing requirements. Specialized multi-function
■ Grounded test lead should always be the insulation multimeters are available that are
first to make, and last to break any circuit purposely designed for testing PV arrays. See
measurement. Never use insulation testers in Figure 20.
an explosive environment or around
Figure 20. The Seaward PV150 Photovoltaic
combustible materials.
Tester measures and stores data for
■ Never use insulation testers on circuits with verifying PV electrical system integrity and
any electronic equipment, including inverters, performance.
charge controllers, or instrumentation, or
surge suppression equipment, as the
application of high test voltages can damage
this equipment.
■ Never conduct insulation tests on batteries
or other energy storage systems.
■ Always ensure that circuits are properly
discharged before and after insulation tests,
either through the test equipment or
externally with a load resistor. This is
particularly important for PV modules, motor
windings and parallel wiring methods with
capacitive characteristics.

27
 Testing Considerations The test voltage depends on the circuits or
Insulation resistance varies with the type of equipment tested. It is usually higher than the
insulation and is inversely proportional to the operating voltages for the circuits or equipment
volume of insulation tested. For example, an under test, but not higher than the voltage ratings
insulated conductor 500 feet long would typically of the equipment or conductor. Higher test
have one one-fifth the insulation resistance as the voltages may be used for proof testing of
same insulated conductor of only 100 feet in equipment by manufacturers than for field tests.
length. Insulation resistance also decreases with Note that the maximum system voltage rating for
age as the insulation degrades, and is also most PV modules in the U.S market is 600 V. The
affected by temperature and moisture. Insulation IEC 62446 standard recommends a test voltage
resistance is inversely proportional to of 250 V for PV arrays with maximum voltage less
temperature; as temperature decreases by 10°C, than 120 V, a test voltage of 500V for PV arrays
insulation resistance effectively doubles. For 120 V to 500 V, and a test voltage of 1000 V for
example, a conductor having an insulation arrays greater than 500 V (ensure that modules
resistance of 4 MΩ at 20°C would have a are rated for 1000 V for this test).
resistance of 1 MΩ at 40°C. Consequently, it is
Insulation resistance and other electrical tests on
important to measure and evaluate insulation
PV arrays are generally measured at source
resistance readings at constant temperatures
circuit combiner boxes, where the individual array
and record this information with test results. To
circuits can be accessed. The tests can be
avoid condensation and moisture effects, dry
conducted dry, or a wetting agent can be
insulation resistance tests should only be
sprayed on portions of an array to better pinpoint
conducted when the conductor temperature is
fault locations. Insulation tests may be performed
above the dew point.
using either of the following two methods:
Test Procedures
1. Between the positive dc conductor and
Insulation resistance testing is conducted by ground, and between the negative dc
applying high voltages to conductors and conductor and ground.
equipment, and determining the resistance by
2. Between the shorted positive and negative
measuring the leakage current. All circuits must
dc conductors and ground. Requires an
be isolated from others for testing and
appropriate shorting device rated for circuit
discharged before and after testing. Grounding
current and voltage.
or bonding connections are left connected. Any
surge suppression equipment must be removed The grounding connection is made to metallic
from the circuits. The test leads must make a module frames or support structures, the
reliable connection with the circuit under test, building grounding electrode systems, or directly
and may require filing or grinding some coated to earth. Some modules and supports structure
metal components. may not have a metallic support structure or
frames.

28
For systems not bonded to ground, the tests proper operation during functional tests. Most
should be carried out between array cables and inverters and charge controllers provide some
ground, and also between array cables and indication of performance and operating status,
frame. such as power output or energy production, as
well as fault or error indications such as out of
The IEC 62446 standard recommends 0.5 MΩ limit parameters or array ground faults. This
as an acceptable minimum insulation resistance information is extremely helpful in verifying proper
value for PV arrays operating at less than 120 V. system operation, and may reduce the need to
For system voltages higher than 120 V, 1 MΩ or make hand measurements on energized circuits.
higher is considered acceptable. Tests
conducted during system commissioning may System functional tests ensure that the system
be used as a baseline for which later starts and operates properly, and can be safely
measurements can be compared to evaluate disconnected. Among the types of functional
wiring condition and degradation. tests conducted on PV systems include:

ASTM E2047, Standard Test Method for Wet ■ Verifying the proper operation of
Insulation Integrity Testing of Photovoltaic Arrays disconnecting means and component
provides guidelines on test procedures and connection and disconnection sequences.
interpretation of results for wet insulation ■ Verify that interactive inverters and ac
resistance testing of PV arrays. This standard modules de-energize their output to utility
can be used in conjunction with the IEC 62446 grid upon loss of grid voltage [690.61]. This
standard for conducting insulation resistance is a safety requirement to prevent interactive
testing on PV arrays. inverters from operating as an islanded
electrical system without voltage or
5.5 System Functional Testing
frequency control, and preventing them back
System functional testing verifies proper system feeding de-energized electrical systems.
operation, including start-up, shut-down and These functions are performed internally by
nominal operating conditions. These tests all utility-interactive inverters listed according
confirm that system operating parameters are to the IEEE 1547 and UL1741 standards.
within expected and nominal limits, but are not
■ Verify that interactive inverters automatically
intended to verify system ratings in accordance
reconnect to their output to the grid once
with specifications or warranty provisions.
the voltage has been restored for at least 5
Additional detailed testing, using additional
minutes [690.61].
measurements and normalizing data are required
to verify performance with system ratings. ■ Verify that battery-based interactive inverters
disconnect ac loads from the utility source
Knowledge of the specific equipment used and when operating in stand-alone mode
the product installation and operation [690.61].
instructions are crucial to verifying their safe and

29
 ■ Verify the proper grid voltage and frequency as expected, based on component and system
to operate inverters, including evaluating ratings and the given operating conditions.
voltage drop between the inverter ac output Performance data can also help identify problems
and point of connection to the grid. that require service or maintenance, and may also
be used for determining system financial
5.5.1 Test Reports
revenues and warranty provisions.
Measurements and test results for PV systems
should be clearly summarized in a test report that 6.1 Verifying Power and Energy Production
includes the following information: Power and energy production are the
■ System information. fundamental metrics for PV system performance.
The methods and procedures to verify PV system
■ Visual inspection record and observations.
performance are based on the principles of PV
■ Identification of circuits tested, tests device operation, and accounting for the effects
performed, and record of measurements. of temperature and solar radiation. Many
■ Interpretation and summary of results, parameters may be monitored automatically and
identifying special maintenance needs or displayed by meters, inverters, controllers or
corrective actions. other power processing equipment in the system.
■ Signatures of responsible person(s) and For interactive PV systems, the key indicators for
date(s) of tests. system performance are ac power output (kW)
An example test report format is presented in the and energy production (kWh). Measurement and
annex of the IEC 62446 standard. verification of ac power output can be done at
any time when the system is operating under
Seaward Solar provides a wide range of
steady sunlight conditions near peak output
reports which are especially designed to
levels. Energy production is measured over longer
meet the requirements of IEC 62446,
periods of months and years to compare with
simplifying the record keeping process.
expectations and the available solar resource.
SolarCert Elements is an inexpensive
software product, especially designed to Performance verification for stand-alone PV
produce test reports of PV systems and can systems is inherently more complex, involving
be used in conjunction with the PV150 more measurements and multiple interactions
SolarlinkTM Test Kit. between energy storage, charge control and
system loads that affect PV system production.
Battery health is the key to stand-alone PV system
6 SYSTEM PERFORMANCE TESTING
performance, and battery failure is often the
PV systems are designed to produce a specified indicator of many other system problems. Usually
electrical output under certain operating stand-alone PV systems are designed to produce
conditions. Performance testing verifies the a specified amount of energy on an average daily
system power output and energy production are basis to meet system loads. Measurements of

30
daily energy consumption can be used by the module nameplate maximum power ratings (Pmp)
system owner/operators to control their loads and at STC. The product of the derating factors and dc
manage the available energy. Measurements of rating give the estimated system ac power output.
daily minimum daily battery voltage and the net Translations for temperature and solar radiation
amp-hours delivered to and withdrawn from a provide an estimate for actual operating
battery can also be used to assess whether the conditions.
battery is receiving enough charge. Deficit
charging will usually be indicated by declining Following are the primary derating factors used to
minimum battery voltages. The performance of estimate the ac power output of PV systems
electrical loads can be verified by measuring their under given operating conditions.
current or power consumption, and if they ■ Nameplate Ratings: This derating factor
function as intended. accounts for the accuracy of the
manufacturer’s power rating and guaranteed
6.1.1 Verifying AC Power Output
performance. Manufacturing tolerances result
The ac power output for interactive systems is in most PV modules producing less than their
related to the rated maximum dc power output of rated power at STC, and the UL 1703
the array adjusted by a number of derating module listing standard only requires module
factors. The factors include several types of ac power to be within ±10% of the module
and dc system losses and the inverter power rating. Additional design qualification tests
conversion efficiency, which in combination result covered in IEC 61215 may establish power
in ac power output normally 70 to 85 percent of tolerance within 3 percent of nameplate
the PV array dc rating at Standard Test Conditions ratings. A derate factor of 0.95 represents
(STC). The actual ac output of an interactive PV that the array power output at STC is 5% less
system at any moment can be compared with than the manufacturer’s nameplate rating.
expectations, using the basic translation formulas
■ Inverter and Transformer: The derating
for solar radiation and temperature.
factor for the inverter and transformer is their
Accurate simultaneous measurements of module combined efficiency in converting dc power
temperature and inplane solar radiation are to ac power. Modern interactive inverters
required if power measurements are to be have weighted efficiencies on the order of
compared with reference data at STC. This can be 95%. The efficiencies of transformers
achieved using an instrument such as the Solar separate from inverters need to be
Survey 100 and 200R. considered additionally. This factor should
also include the array maximum power point
The typical procedure for verifying the expected ac tracking efficiency for the inverter, which is
power output for interactive PV systems begins generally around 98% to 100%.
with the nameplate dc ratings for the PV array and
applying applicable derating factors. The array dc
rating is usually taken as the sum of all individual

31
 ■ Module Mismatch: The derating factor for ■ AC Wiring: This derating factor accounts for
PV module mismatch accounts for losses in the ac circuits from the inverter to
manufacturing tolerances that yield PV the point of utility interconnection, or where
modules with slightly different current-voltage the system output is measured. It includes
characteristics. Consequently, when voltage drops in wiring, fuses and
connected together electrically, usually in disconnects, and is usually on the order of
series, the modules do not operate at their 1% or less for most PV systems, resulting in
respective peak efficiencies. A derating factor a derating factor of 0.99.
of 0.98 represents a loss of 2% due to
mismatch, and is a reasonable assumption.
■ Soiling: This factor accounts for the
PV systems using ac modules or micro-
accumulation of dirt, snow and other foreign
inverters would not have any module
matter on the surfaces of PV modules that
mismatch, because PV modules are
reduces the amount of solar radiation
individually connected to maximum power
received. PV arrays located in arid, dusty
point tracking inverters.
areas with infrequent rain can experience
soiling losses 20% a year or higher.
■ DC Wiring: This derating factor accounts for
losses in the dc circuits from the PV array to
■ Routine maintenance and array cleaning as
the inverter. It includes voltage drops in
required can largely eliminate soiling losses,
wiring, connections, fuses, diodes, switches
and a default derating factor of 1.0 may be
or any other components, as applicable.
used for clean arrays.
These losses can be determined in the field,
by measurements of the current and voltage
drops through the entire dc circuit. Losses in ■ Age: The derate factor for age accounts for
dc circuit conductors can be easily losses in performance over time due primarily
calculated from Chapter 9 Table 8 in the to degradation of the PV modules. The loss
NEC. Total DC wiring and connection losses in performance is typically 0.5% to 1% per
will usually be on the order of 2% for most year for most crystalline silicon PV arrays.
PV systems, resulting in a derating factor of
0.98. Systems using ac modules or micro-
inverters have insignificant DC wiring and
connection losses, and ac modules are rated
for ac, not dc specifications.

32
Example: Verifying AC Output for Interactive direction and unshaded. The inverter must be
PV Systems operating the array at its maximum power point,
The following worksheet can be used to estimate and not exceeding inverter ratings within
the expected ac power output for interactive PV prescribed voltage limits. Measurements of solar
systems without energy storage. This procedure radiation, temperature and power output must
is only valid for interactive systems using flat- be done simultaneously. For best results,
plate crystalline silicon PV arrays (no special measurements should be within ±2 hours of solar
bifacial modules or concentrating modules). The noon with incident solar radiation levels 800
entire PV array must be oriented in the same W/m2 or higher and under clear sky conditions.

Example

INTERACTIVE PV SYSTEM PERFORMANCE WORKSHEET

Estimating and Verifying System AC Power Output
PV Array DC Power Rating at STC - 1000 W/m2, 25 °C (kW) .............................................10
Derating Factors
Nameplate Ratings ...........................................................................................................0.95
Inverter and Transformer ...................................................................................................0.95
Module Mismatch .............................................................................................................0.98
DC Wiring .........................................................................................................................0.98
AC Wiring .........................................................................................................................0.99
Soiling ...............................................................................................................................1.00
Age ...................................................................................................................................1.00
Combined Derating Factors ...................................................................................................0.86
Estimated System AC Power Output at STC - 1000 W/m2, 25 °C (kW) ...............................8.6
Temperature Adjustments
Array Power-Temperature Coefficient (%/°C) ....................................................................-0.5
Measured Array Operating Temperature (°C) ...................................................................60
Estimated System AC Power Output at 1000 W/m2 and Operating Temperature (kW) ........7.1
Solar Radiation Adjustments
Measured Solar Irradiance in Plane of Array (W/m2) ......................................................850
Estimated System AC Power Output at Operating Temperature and Solar Irradiance (kW) ..6.0

33
 6.1.2 Verifying AC Energy Production transformers to measure these parameters
A key metric for PV system performance is the ac separate from the meter.
energy (kWh) it produces over time. Energy
Multiply Kh by the disk revolution rate to calculate
production for interactive PV systems depends
average power through the meter. The disk has
on many factors, including the size of the array,
markings on the top and sides with a scale of 0
the local solar energy resource, and the array
to 100. For example, the average power through
operating temperatures. It also depends on
a meter with Kh=14.4 that makes 20 complete
inverter efficiencies in converting dc to ac power,
revolutions in one minute is calculated by: Pavg =
its effectiveness in tracking array maximum
14.4 Wh/rev × 20 rev/60 sec x 3600 sec/hr =
power, and other losses in the system, including
6480 W.
voltage drop, shading and soiling of the array.
Energy production is measured over periods of Example: Estimating and Verifying ac Energy
months and years to compare with sizing and Production
long-term performance expectations. The following spreadsheet presents a simplified
Watt-hour meters measure electrical energy, and method for estimating the ac energy production
are commonly used by utility companies for for interactive PV systems without energy
revenue purposes. They are also used to record storage. This procedure requires data for the
energy produced by PV systems, and integral to total solar energy received on the array surface,
most interactive inverters. Traditional electro- as well as for the average array operating
mechanical types are being replaced by temperatures. Solar radiation and temperature
electronic types with capability for many data can be obtained from historical databases,
additional power system measurements, or better yet, from actual site measurements in
including multi-directional and time of use power the plane of the array.
flows, and other electrical properties such as Average array operating temperatures are difficult
reactive power, power factor and peak power to quantify without measurements, but can be
demand. estimated by the site average daytime ambient
Watt-hour meters can also be used to measure temperature and array temperature rise. As with
average power over brief intervals. The watt-hour power or any other estimates, these results
constant (Kh) indicates the watt-hours provide a general approximation, and the validity
accumulated per revolution of the meter disk. of the results depend on how accurate the user
Electronic meters use progressing LCD hash assumptions are. Generally, results using this
marks to simulate disk revolutions and the rate of procedure are acceptable if they are within 10%
energy flow. Most residential meters have Kh = of expectations. Of course, whenever the
7.2. The smaller the constant, the faster the parameters can be measured rather than
meter spins for a given amount of power passing estimated will yield more accurate results.
through it. Larger and higher voltage meters have
larger Kh, and use current and voltage

34
Example

INTERACTIVE PV SYSTEM PERFORMANCE WORKSHEET

Verifying System AC Energy Production
PV Array DC Power Rating at STC - 1000 W/m2, 25°C (kW) ..............................................10
Derating Factors
Nameplate Ratings ...........................................................................................................0.95
Inverter and Transformer ...................................................................................................0.95
Module Mismatch .............................................................................................................0.98
DC Wiring .........................................................................................................................0.98
AC Wiring .........................................................................................................................0.99
Soiling ...............................................................................................................................1.00
Shading ............................................................................................................................0.85
Sun Tracking .....................................................................................................................1.00
Age ...................................................................................................................................1.00
Combined Product Derating Factors .....................................................................................0.73
Estimated System AC Power Output at STC - 1000 W/m2, 25°C (kW) ................................7.3
Temperature Adjustments
Array Power-Temperature Coefficient (%/°C) ....................................................................-0.5
Average Array Operating Temperature (°C) ......................................................................45
Estimated System AC Power Output at 1000 W/m2 and Average Operating Temperature (kW) ..6.6
Solar Radiation Received
Solar Irradiation in Plane of Array (kWh/m2/day) [Peak Sun Hours per Day] ......................5
Estimated System AC Energy Output at Average Operating Temperature (kWh/day) ..........29.5

6.2 Array I-V Measurements load. The load can be a variable resistor, or a
To evaluate the performance of PV modules and variable dc power supply that can sink current
arrays for rating purposes, their I-V curves can be from the PV device. Some, array I-V testers use
measured. This requires specialized test a capacitive load that quickly charges from zero
equipment that can load the module or array over voltage up to the array open-circuit voltage while
the full range of the I-V curve, from short-circuit the current and voltage point are recorded with a
(zero resistance load) to open circuit condition high speed data acquisition system. Concurrent
(infinite resistance load). The array can be loaded with the I-V measurements, the cell temperature
with any device that is rated for the voltage and for the PV device under test and the incident
power of the PV device under, and can vary the solar irradiance are also recorded. I-V data points

35
 are then processed and normalized to a errors due to voltage drop in the test leads. Additional
reference rating condition for comparison with resistance in the test circuit from conductors and
module or array ratings. connections will ultimately affect the I-V curves for
arrays. Caution should be taken to never coil the test
In addition to obtaining all the current and voltage data leads, as the inductance may clamp the voltage
discussed previously, detailed I-V curves can help during the high speed I-V measurement.
evaluate the following for PV modules and arrays:
The solar irradiance in the plane of the array and
■ Determine the true array maximum power point array temperature are measured concurrent with
in relation to the operating voltage for inverters, the I-V measurements and used to translate the
battery systems and other dc utilization actual output of PV arrays and systems to a
equipment. reference condition to verify performance. Some
■ Determine voltage and power degradation rates I-V testers can make these measurements from
from baseline measurements and subsequent external sensors attached to the I-V tester and
measurements over time. include these parameters with the recorded I-V
■ Determine changes in array series and shunt data, or may be measured by separate
resistance over time. instruments and the data entered separately.
■ Identify array wiring problems or module failures. There are different types of solar irradience
■ Analyze the effects of shading on electrical instruments, some much more expensive and
output. more accurate than others for scientific
■ Evaluate losses due to module mismatch and measurements. A pyranometer measures full
array wiring methods. spectral irradiance, whereas PV modules only
respond to a section of it. This makes
■ Establish module or array ratings for performance
pyranometers unsuitable for accurately
guarantees or warranty purposes.
calculating array output. Since PV device short-
■ Locate open bypass diodes; requires I-V curve circuit current is directly proportional to solar
test or dc power supply that reverse biases irradiance, a small PV reference cell can also be
(applies negative voltage) to the module under used to measure solar radiation levels. Small
test. inexpensive meters using calibrated PV cells as
I-V testers are rated for maximum current and voltage sensors are available.
inputs from PV arrays, and measure and record the I-
V data points for each curve. I-V data or the I-V curve
may be displayed on the tester, and the data can
usually be downloaded to personal computers for
translation to reference rating conditions. Most I-V
testers use a 4-wire test lead measurements, one set
of leads simply measures voltage while the other set
measures the current, which eliminates measurement

36
Figure 21. Handheld solar meters use a to Standard Test Conditions. This standard only
small PV cell to measure solar irradiance. addresses performance, and not safety. The
translation methods prescribed are quite
complex, and typically used in spreadsheets or
computer programs to produce the results.

6.3 Other Tests

Special testing may also be conducted on PV
systems, for preventative maintenance or to
troubleshoot specific problems. These tests
require the use of specialized equipment.

6.3.1 Power Quality Analysis

Power analyzers are multi-function test
instruments used to diagnose a number of issues
with electrical systems. In addition to a basic
digital multimeter, power quality analyzers have
data acquisition capabilities and oscilloscope
The Seaward Solar Survey 200R features a functions to evaluate waveforms. They can be
digital compass and thermometer as well as used to monitor grid conditions, such as voltage
USB download of results and wireless sags and surges, power factor and phase
SolarlinkTM connectivity with the PV150 angles, harmonics and other conditions over
tester. time. They can also be used to measure ac ripple
currents on dc circuits that may need to be
Test Procedures
considered for conductor sizing and selection of
Accurate I-V measurements in the field require overcurrent protective devices.
ideal test conditions and an organized testing
approach. For best results and to minimize errors The Seaward Solar Power Clamp is a multi-
in data translations, measurements should be functional clamp meter which provides a wide
made at solar irradiance levels on the array over range of measurements of AC and DC power
800 W/m2 under steady, clear sky conditions systems and is supplied with the necessary
near solar noon, with minimal wind speed. connectors for solar PV systems.

ASTM E1036 Standard Methods for Testing 6.3.2 Thermal Imaging

Electrical Performance of Nonconcentrator IR thermography is becoming a very popular tool
Terrestrial PV Modules and Arrays Using for the evaluation of electrical systems and
Reference Cells provides guidelines for making I- particularly PV arrays. Thermal imaging can
V measurements on PV module and arrays in the identify hot spots or overheating equipment,
field, and specifically, for normalizing the results thermal gradients within PV arrays, and can help

37
 locate developing problems internal to individual of I-V testing. This measurement requires
PV modules before failure. Common problems operating the PV system under steady
that can be identified with thermal imaging conditions, and recording the operating voltage
including bad module connectors, shorted or and power output for the array, then immediately
failing bypass diodes, or module busbar failures. disconnecting the array and measuring its I-V
Thermal imaging can also identify bad or loose curve to determine the true maximum power. The
circuit breakers, fuses, or switchgear, or ratio of the operating power to the true maximum
connections to and dives or terminal to batteries power defines the MPPT efficiency.
or other equipment.

6.3.5 Shading Analysis

6.3.3 Inverter Efficiency Tests A shading analysis evaluates and quantifies the
Inverter efficiency is the ratio of the ac power impacts of shading on PV arrays. Shading may
output to the dc power input. Inverter efficiency be caused by any obstructions in the vicinity of
varies with power level and input voltage, and PV arrays that interfere with the solar window.
also affected by inverter temperature. Most
commercial utility-interactive inverters have Ideally, there should be no shading on arrays
weighted power conversion efficiencies of 95% between the hours of 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. solar
and higher over most of their operating range. time over the year, since the majority of solar
Sample efficiency measurement can be made in radiation and peak system output occur during
the field by simultaneously measuring the dc this period. Even a small amount of shading on
power input and ac power output at the inverter PV arrays during peak generation times can
terminals. Many inverters measure and display dramatically reduce the output of the system.
this data, or it can be measured with separate Sun path charts are the basis for conducting
equipment. The dc input voltage and current can shading evaluations. By measuring the worst-
also be measured to determine inverter input case altitude and azimuth angles of a shading
power, and for inverters with unity power factors object from an array location, a scale image of
the ac power can be determined by measuring the obstruction can be plotted on a sun position
the inverter ac voltage and current output as well. chart for the given latitude. This shows the
True watt-hour meters or power analyzers are portion of the solar window that is obstructed by
needed to determine power for reactive circuits shading. Knowing the amount of receivable solar
and components. energy during different periods of a day, the
shading analysis can be used to estimate the
reduction in solar radiation received during the
6.3.4 Maximum Power Point Tracking Tests shaded times of the day and year, and ultimately
estimate the reduced energy production for a PV
The effectiveness of maximum power point
system.
tracking (MPPT) circuits can be evaluated as part

38
Several devices and software tools have been shading is desired to be avoided. To avoid shading
commercially developed to simplify shading at the winter solstice between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m.
evaluations. These devices project or record solar time, the separation distance between PV
obstructions on sun path diagrams, and arrays and obstructions should be at least 2 times
estimate the net solar energy received after the height of the obstruction at latitudes around
shading. PV installers should be familiar with 30°, 21⁄2 times the height at latitudes around 35°, 3
these tools, their principles of operation and how times the height at 40° latitude and 4 times the
to obtain accurate results. Most system design height at 45° latitude. See Figure 23.
and performance estimating tools also
incorporate shading factors to derate the system Figure 23. Separation factor vs latitude for
output accordingly. south-facing array rows.

For larger PV systems with multiple parallel rows

12
one in front of another in the array, one row of
Separation Factor, Distance/Height (D/H)

8 am–4 pm

modules can shade the one in back during winter 10

9 am–3 pm

months if the rows are too closely spaced. 8 10 am–2 pm

11 am–1 pm
6
Multiple rows of PV arrays can be more closely
spaced at lower latitudes and using lower tilt 4

angles. The minimum required separation 2

distances between PV array rows and other 0

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
obstructions depends on latitude, the height of the Latitude (deg N)
obstruction, and the time of day and year that

Figure 22. Multiple rows of rack mounted PV arrays must be separated to prevent shading.

Sun

PV Array
H

39
 inspections, the code compliance aspects of the
7 SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
system do not necessarily need to be evaluated,
PV systems require periodic maintenance to as the equipment would not normally have been
ensure safe and reliable operations over the long- changed. However, the integrity of the electrical
term, and to maximize performance. A installation must be carefully evaluated for
maintenance plan ensures that essential service deteriorating effects over time, due to the site
and testing is performed on a regular schedule. conditions, or due to poor quality components or
Maintenance helps identify and avoid potential from physical damage.
problems that affect system functions,
Visual inspections and regular maintenance for
performance, or safety. When discrepancies are
PV modules and arrays should include the
identified through system testing or performance
following:
measurements, a systematic troubleshooting
process is used to diagnose and identify the ■ Inspect for any physical damage to PV
problems, and take corrective actions. modules or arrays, including bent frames or
broken glass. Modules with fractured or
The level and frequency of maintenance often
damaged laminates will eventually admit
depends on the size and type of system, and the
moisture and develop faults and high
consequences of system failure or under
leakage current, and should be removed
performance. A maintenance plan covers the
from the array and replaced.
types and schedule for all required system
maintenance and service, including: ■ Inspect for any delamination, moisture or
corrosion within modules, particularly near
■ Inspecting system components and wiring cell busbar connections and edges of
methods. laminates. Discolorations inside module
■ Evaluating of structural attachments and laminates may be an indicator of hot spots
weathersealing. and degrading internal cell connections that
can result in module failure, reduced system
■ Cleaning and removing debris around arrays.
performance and a fire hazard.
■ Performing maintenance on batteries or
■ Remove any leaves, trash or other debris
other equipment.
that collects around PV arrays during regular
■ Conducting electrical tests and verifying maintenance. These materials can also
system performance. present a fire hazard, as well as a problem
■ Replacing or repairing damaged or failed for proper drainage and can lead to mildew
system components. and insect problems, or the degradation of
Visual inspections of the complete system should wiring systems.
be performed with regular maintenance, similar ■ Evaluate any conditions that contribute to
to the inspections during commissioning. The increased shading of PV arrays, including
main difference is that during maintenance growing vegetation and other obstructions.

40
 Where visual observations cannot determine maintenance testing depends on the installation
the extent of shading problems, a solar requirements.
shading evaluation should be conducted.
Maintenance testing is primarily intended to
■ Clean PV array surfaces as required to
evaluate trends in certain measurements, and to
minimize soiling from bird droppings,
assess degradation over time. For example, the
emissions, dust or dirt that settles and
power and voltage output of most PV arrays is
accumulates on the array surface. Extensive
expected to degrade by between 0.5% and 1%
soiling can reduce array output by 10 to
per year, consistent with manufacturer
20% or more in arid dusty regions with
performance warranties. Soiling or shading on
infrequent rainfall.
PV arrays will also decrease expected current
■ Inspect the quality of all attachment points and power output accordingly.
and building penetrations for signs of
degradation or water leakage, including 7.2 Troubleshooting
weathersealing and structural security, and Troubleshooting problems with PV system
make repairs as required. requires skilled individuals having a detailed
Visual inspections and observations are understanding of system designs and
supplemented with electrical tests and fundamentals of component and system
measurements to fully verify system integrity and operations. Most PV system power processing
performance. Many of the electrical tests components, including charge controllers and
conducted during commissioning are also inverters generally include integral data
conducted during maintenance testing. In monitoring and display functions, and this data
particular, tests that help assess problems or can often be used to identify system problems.
degrading effects over time, like insulation PV installation contractors often use these
resistance testing, grounding system continuity monitoring systems to track the performance of
testing and performance verification are key their installed systems, and review the data to
indicators of system safety and health. Other verify performance and initiate service and
specific tests may be repeated as necessary, maintenance activities as required. Experienced
depending on the project requirements. PV installers will be able to recognize certain
trends and data to indicate specific problems with
7.1 Testing the systems, and dispatch an effective and quick
Testing during maintenance activities should solution to the problem.
include many of the tests conducted during
system commissioning, including voltage and
current testing, insulation resistance testing,
continuity testing and performance verification.
Polarity testing is generally not required, unless
problems are suspected. The frequency of

41
The Seaward Solar range enables PV
installers to meet all testing and
certification requirements safely
and efficiently.
For an installer to deliver an effective The PV150 photovoltaic installation tester
photovoltaic solution the system must be features a comprehensive range of test
carefully designed and installed to a standard functions, as well as USB download of results.
which complies with the relevant State,
Federal or International requirements (IEC The unique Solar Survey multifunction survey
62446). The only realistic way to demonstrate tools record compass bearing, inclination and
this is to rigorously test and document the temperature measurements, in addition to
results. irradiance. Featuring the new Solarlink™
wireless connectivity, this truly is a versatile
At Seaward, we have over 75 years’ of solution to site surveys.
experience in all aspects of electrical safety
testing, not least in product innovation. The SolarCert Elements software program
enables test results to be downloaded so that
Specialized test equipment for photovoltaic you can produce professional test reports and
installations has been long-anticipated within certificates.
the industry. Now we have applied our
expertise and responded with a product range A host of accessories complements the solar
which helps solar installers to quickly and range, and an advanced Solar Power Clamp
easily meet the requirements of customers is ideal for power analysis, troubleshooting
and state or national regulators. and efficiency measurements.

From site survey through to performance With our complete range of PV electrical test
testing and documentation, the range covers equipment, you can be sure we have a
all bases. solution for you.
SolarCert Elements
Software
Survey 100/200R
Irradiance Meters AC/DC
Power Clamp

PV150 Installation Tester

Welcome to the Seaward Solar Range.
The total solution to Solar PV testing.

PV150 Solar Installation Tester

The PV150 solar PV tester makes electrical safety testing of PV installations fast, easy and
safe. It combines all of the required electrical tests into one handheld unit, and enables
readings to be stored and downloaded to PC for certification and record keeping.

In addition, at the same as electrical tests are conducted, the PV150 is able to wirelessly
capture and record real-time irradiance, ambient and PV module temperature readings from
the Solar Survey 200R multifunction irradiance meter. This ensures total confidence and
traceability for the installer, who can report on PV system outputs based on true environmental
factors at the time the system was checked.

✔ Ground continuity ✔ Open circuit voltage

✔ Insulation resistance ✔ Wirelessly connects with Solar Survey 200R
✔ Short circuit current ✔ Data logger with USB download
Solar Survey 100/200R Power Clamp SolarCert Elements
Multifunction Irradiance Meters PV Power Analysis Tool PV Record-keeping and
Certification Software

The Solar Survey irradiance This advanced tool enables PV SolarCert Elements offers the perfect
meters combine accurate irradiance system efficiency to be quickly and software solution for storing and
measurement with compass bearing, easily determined. reporting on PV systems for absolute
inclination, PV module and ambient The Solar Power Clamp can be traceability of results.
temperature into one small rugged unit applied to both the AC and DC Electrical safety test and environ-
– Ideal for conducting solar sides of the inverter to give mental measurements can be
site surveys. In addition, the Solar true RMS readings of current, downloaded from the PV150 tester or
Survey 200R wirelessly transmits voltage and power whilst the entered manually into this easy-to-use
measurements to the PV150 tester system is operational. PV system program. As well as storing test results,
at the same time as electrical tests troubleshooting is also possible with the software enables other docum-
are performed, allowing system the harmonic analysis feature. entation such as photographs, system
performance to be analyzed. schematics and datasheets to be
stored in individual project folders.

■ Rugged handheld multifunction ■ High performance AC and DC ■ Fast and simple record-keeping
meter power clamp for PV installations

■ Accurate irradiance measurement ■ Power factor measurement and ■ Produce professional test
via PV reference cell harmonic analysis up to 25th reports and certificates
harmonic
■ Compass bearing, inclination, ■ Create comprehensive project
ambient and PV module ■ Built in cable illuminating torch folders
temperature measurements
■ Back-lit LCD ■ Downloads from PV150 tester
■ 200R model features data logger,
real time clock and USB download ■ Full clamp-on multimeter ■ Total traceability and auditability
capabilities
■ 200R model wirelessly transmits
readings to PV150 tester
USA Office: Part of
Seaward Group USA
6304 Benjamin Road, Suite 506, Tampa, Florida, 33634

Tel: +1 (813) 886-2775 Email: [email protected]

Web: seawardsolar.com/usa

Your local Seaward distributor is: