Introduction to Operating Systems

Stephen Kim
[email protected]
Outlines
 What is an Operating System?
 Mainframe Systems
 Desktop Systems
 Real-Time Systems
 Handheld Systems
 Computing Environments

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What is an Operating System?
 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware.
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier.
 Make the computer system convenient to use.
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.

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Computer System Components
 Hardware – provides basic computing resources (CPU,
memory, I/O devices).
 Operating system – controls and coordinates the use of the
hardware among the various application programs for the
various users.
 Applications programs – define the ways in which the
system resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users (compilers, database systems, video
games, business programs).
 Users (people, machines, other computers).

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Abstract View of System Components

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Operating System Definitions
 Resource allocator – manages and allocates resources.
 Control program – controls the execution of user programs
and operations of I/O devices .
 Kernel – the one program running at all times (all else
being application programs).

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Mainframe Systems
 Reduce setup time by batching similar jobs
 Automatic job sequencing – automatically transfers control
from one job to another. First rudimentary operating
system.
 Resident monitor
 initial control in monitor
 control transfers to job
 when job completes control transfers back to monitor

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Memory Layout for a Simple Batch System

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Multiprogrammed Batch Systems
 Several jobs are kept in main memory at the same time,
and the CPU is multiplexed among them.

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OS Features Needed for Multiprogramming
 I/O routine supplied by the system.
 Memory management – the system must allocate the
memory to several jobs.
 CPU scheduling – the system must choose among several
jobs ready to run.
 Allocation of devices.

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Time-Sharing Systems–Interactive Computing
 The CPU is multiplexed among several jobs that are kept in
memory and on disk (the CPU is allocated to a job only if
the job is in memory).
 A job swapped in and out of memory to the disk.
 On-line communication between the user and the system is
provided; when the operating system finishes the
execution of one command, it seeks the next “control
statement” from the user’s keyboard.
 On-line system must be available for users to access data
and code.

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Desktop Systems
 Personal computers – computer system dedicated to a
single user.
 I/O devices – keyboards, mice, display screens, small
printers.
 User convenience and responsiveness.
 Can adopt technology developed for larger operating
system’ often individuals have sole use of computer and do
not need advanced CPU utilization of protection features.
 May run several different types of operating systems
(Windows, MacOS, UNIX, Linux)

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Real-Time Systems
 Often used as a control device in a dedicated application
such as controlling scientific experiments, medical imaging
systems, industrial control systems, and some display
systems.
 Well-defined fixed-time constraints.
 Real-Time systems may be either hard or soft real-time.

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Handheld Systems
 Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
 Cellular telephones
 Issues:
 Limited memory
 Slow processors
 Small display screens.

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Migration of Operating-System Concepts

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Embedded Systems
 Electronic device + microprocessor
 Goals
 To simplify system design
 To provide flexibility
 Typical embedded systems can do
 Fix bugs
 Make modification
 Add new features
 Without re-making the system.
 They are everywhere even though we do not recognize
them.
 The average household in US in 1999 has 50 embedded-
microprocessors.

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Examples of Embedded Systems
 Aerospace - Navigation systems, automatic landing systems,
space exploration
 Automotive - Fuel injection control, antilock braking system, air
bag control
 Children Toys - Nintendos, Sony Playstations,
 Communications - Satellites, routers, switches, hubs, firewalls,
 Computer Peripherals - Printers, scanners, monitors, modems,
hard disk, CD-ROM
 Home - Dishwasher, microwave ovens, VCR, TV, DVD, camera,
MP3 players, clock,
 Industries – elevator controls, robot control,
 Medical – x-rays, MRI, pace makers
 Office – Fax, copiers, telephones, PDA, cellular phones

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Computer-System Architecture

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Computer-System Operation
 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.
 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device
type.
 Each device controller has a local buffer.
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local
buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt.

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Common Functions of Interrupts
 Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine
generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines.
 Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction.
 Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt
is being processed to prevent a lost interrupt.
 A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by
an error or a user request.
 An operating system is interrupt driven.

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Interrupt Handling
 The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by
storing registers and the program counter.
 Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
 polling
 vectored interrupt system
 Separate segments of code determine what action should
be taken for each type of interrupt

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Interrupt Time Line For a Single Process

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I/O Structure
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon
I/O completion.
 Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
 Wait loop (contention for memory access).
 At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no
simultaneous I/O processing.
 After I/O starts, control returns to user program without
waiting for I/O completion.
 System call – request to the operating system to allow user to
wait for I/O completion.
 Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating
its type, address, and state.
 Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine
device status and to modify table entry to include interrupt.

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Two I/O Methods

Synchronous Asynchronous

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Device-Status Table

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Direct Memory Access Structure
 Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit
information at close to memory speeds.
 Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer
storage directly to main memory without CPU intervention.
 Only on interrupt is generated per block, rather than the
one interrupt per byte.

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Storage Structure
 Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can
access directly.
 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that
provides large nonvolatile storage capacity.
 Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with
magnetic recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are
subdivided into sectors.
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between
the device and the computer.

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Moving-Head Disk Mechanism

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Storage Hierarchy
 Storage systems organized in hierarchy.
 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility
 Caching – copying information into faster storage system;
main memory can be viewed as a last cache for secondary
storage.

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Storage-Device Hierarchy

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Caching
 Use of high-speed memory to hold recently-accessed data.
 Requires a cache management policy.
 Caching introduces another level in storage hierarchy. This
requires data that is simultaneously stored in more than
one level to be consistent.

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Migration of A From Disk to Register

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Hardware Protection
 Dual-Mode Operation
 I/O Protection
 Memory Protection
 CPU Protection

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Dual-Mode Operation
 Sharing system resources requires operating system to
ensure that an incorrect program cannot cause other
programs to execute incorrectly.
 Provide hardware support to differentiate between at least
two modes of operations.
 User mode – execution done on behalf of a user.
 Monitor mode (also kernel mode or system mode) – execution
done on behalf of operating system.

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Dual-Mode Operation (Cont.)
 Mode bit added to computer hardware to indicate the
current mode: monitor (0) or user (1).
 When an interrupt or fault occurs hardware switches to
monitor mode.

Interrupt/fault

monitor user
set user mode

Privileged instructions can be issued only in monitor mode.

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I/O Protection
 All I/O instructions are privileged instructions.
 Must ensure that a user program could never gain control
of the computer in monitor mode (eg. a user program that,
as part of its execution, stores a new address in the
interrupt vector).

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Use of A System Call to Perform I/O

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Memory Protection
 Must provide memory protection at least for the interrupt
vector and the interrupt service routines.
 In order to have memory protection, add two registers that
determine the range of legal addresses a program may
access:
 Base register – holds the smallest legal physical memory
address.
 Limit register – contains the size of the range
 Memory outside the defined range is protected.

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Use of A Base and Limit Register

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Hardware Address Protection

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Hardware Protection
 When executing in monitor mode, the operating system
has unrestricted access to both monitor and user’s
memory.
 The load instructions for the base and limit registers are
privileged instructions.

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CPU Protection
 Timer
 An interrupt after a specified period to ensure operating system
maintains control.
 Timer is decremented every clock tick.
 When timer reaches the value 0, an interrupt occurs.
 Timer commonly used to implement time sharing.
 Time also used to compute the current time.
 Load-timer is a privileged instruction.

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Operating-System Structures
Outlines
 System Components
 Operating System Services
 System Calls
 System Programs
 System Structure
 Virtual Machines
 System Design and Implementation
 System Generation

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Common System Components
 Process Management
 Main Memory Management
 File Management
 I/O System Management
 Secondary Management
 Networking
 Protection System
 Command-Interpreter System

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Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. A process needs
certain resources, including CPU time, memory, files, and
I/O devices, to accomplish its task.
 The operating system is responsible for the following
activities in connection with process management.
 Process creation and deletion.
 process suspension and resumption.
 Provision of mechanisms for:
 process synchronization
 process communication

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Main-Memory Management
 Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each with its
own address. It is a repository of quickly accessible data
shared by the CPU and I/O devices.
 Main memory is a volatile storage device. It loses its
contents in the case of system failure.
 The operating system is responsible for the following
activities in connections with memory management:
 Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and by whom.
 Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes
available.
 Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.

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File Management
 A file is a collection of related information defined by its
creator. Commonly, files represent programs (both source
and object forms) and data.
 The operating system is responsible for the following
activities in connections with file management:
 File creation and deletion.
 Directory creation and deletion.
 Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories.
 Mapping files onto secondary storage.
 File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media.

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I/O System Management
 The I/O system consists of:
 A buffer-caching system
 A general device-driver interface
 Drivers for specific hardware devices

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Secondary-Storage Management
 Since main memory (primary storage) is volatile and too
small to accommodate all data and programs permanently,
the computer system must provide secondary storage to
back up main memory.
 Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle
on-line storage medium, for both programs and data.
 The operating system is responsible for the following
activities in connection with disk management:
 Free space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling

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Protection System
 Protection refers to a mechanism for controlling access by
programs, processes, or users to both system and user
resources.
 The protection mechanism must:
 distinguish between authorized and unauthorized usage.
 specify the controls to be imposed.
 provide a means of enforcement.

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Command-Interpreter System
 Many commands are given to the operating system by
control statements which deal with:
 process creation and management
 I/O handling
 secondary-storage management
 main-memory management
 file-system access
 protection
 networking

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Command-Interpreter System (Cont.)
 The program that reads and interprets control statements
is called variously:
 command-line interpreter
 shell (in UNIX)

 Its function is to get and execute the next command

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Operating System Services
 Program execution – system capability to load a program into
memory and to run it.
 I/O operations – since user programs cannot execute I/O
operations directly, the operating system must provide some
means to perform I/O.
 File-system manipulation – program capability to read, write,
create, and delete files.
 Communications – exchange of information between processes
executing either on the same computer or on different systems
tied together by a network. Implemented via shared memory or
message passing.
 Error detection – ensure correct computing by detecting errors
in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, or in user
programs.

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Additional Operating System Functions
 Additional functions exist not for helping the user, but
rather for ensuring efficient system operations.
 Resource allocation – allocating resources to multiple users or
multiple jobs running at the same time.
 Accounting – keep track of and record which users use how
much and what kinds of computer resources for account billing
or for accumulating usage statistics.
 Protection – ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled.

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System Calls
 System calls provide the interface between a running
program and the operating system.
 Generally available as assembly-language instructions.
 Languages defined to replace assembly language for systems
programming allow system calls to be made directly (e.g., C,
C++)
 Three general methods are used to pass parameters
between a running program and the operating system.
 Pass parameters in registers.
 Store the parameters in a table in memory, and the table address
is passed as a parameter in a register.
 Push (store) the parameters onto the stack by the program, and
pop off the stack by operating system.

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Passing of Parameters As A Table

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Types of System Calls
 Process control
 File management
 Device management
 Information maintenance
 Communications

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MS-DOS Execution

At System Start-up Running a Program

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UNIX Running Multiple Programs

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Communication Models

Communication may take place using either message

Msg Passing Shared Memory

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System Programs
 System programs provide a convenient environment for
program development and execution. They can be divided
into:
 File manipulation
 Status information
 File modification
 Programming language support
 Program loading and execution
 Communications
 Application programs
 Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by
system programs, not the actual system calls.

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MS-DOS System Structure
 MS-DOS – written to provide the most functionality in the
least space
 not divided into modules
 Although MS-DOS has some structure, its interfaces and levels of
functionality are not well separated

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MS-DOS Layer Structure

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UNIX System Structure
 UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX
operating system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS
consists of two separable parts.
 Systems programs
 The kernel
 Consists of everything below the system-call interface and above the
physical hardware
 Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory management, and
other operating-system functions; a large number of functions for one
level.

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Layered Approach
 The operating system is divided into a number of layers
(levels), each built on top of lower layers. The bottom layer
(layer 0), is the hardware; the highest (layer N) is the user
interface.
 With modularity, layers are selected such that each uses
functions (operations) and services of only lower-level
layers.

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An Operating System Layer

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UNIX System Structure

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System Design Goals
 User goals – operating system should be convenient to use,
easy to learn, reliable, safe, and fast.
 System goals – operating system should be easy to design,
implement, and maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-
free, and efficient.

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Mechanisms and Policies
 Mechanisms determine how to do something, policies
decide what will be done.
 The separation of policy from mechanism is a very
important principle, it allows maximum flexibility if policy
decisions are to be changed later.

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System Implementation
 Traditionally written in assembly language, operating
systems can now be written in higher-level languages.
 Code written in a high-level language:
 can be written faster.
 is more compact.
 is easier to understand and debug.
 An operating system is far easier to port (move to some
other hardware) if it is written in a high-level language.

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System Generation (SYSGEN)
 Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of
machines; the system must be configured for each specific
computer site.
 SYSGEN program obtains information concerning the
specific configuration of the hardware system.
 Booting – starting a computer by loading the kernel.
 Bootstrap program – code stored in ROM that is able to
locate the kernel, load it into memory, and start its
execution.

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