Sarah Sayah
Sarah Sayah
Sarah Sayah
UNIVERSITY OF TLEMCEN
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
Presented by Supervised by
Most thanks to Allah for blessing and helping us in realizing this work.
We would like to express our deep gratitude to our dear supervisor Dr. Faiza
Senouci as she has always been a source of insightful guidance and advice.
I
Dedications
I dedicate this modest work to my dearest parents for being always available
to push me further, with their sincere prayers and best wishes.
To my brothers: Ahmed and his wife Sarah, to Mustapha, to Habib and his
fiancé Rachida and to Boutkhil.
To Imene Chikh.
Djamila
II
Dedications
First of all, great thanks to the merciful, Allah, for his blessing.
I would like also to dedicate this work to all my classmates, and my teachers.
Sarah
III
List of Abbreviations
IV
List of Maps
V
List of Tables
VI
List of Figures
VII
Abstract
India as post-colonial country is of growing concern in the world due
to several criteria such as its economic development and others despite the
fact that it was colonized around two centuries by the British Empire. This
dissertation examines how India changed during the colonial and the post-
colonial periods in both economy and culture. The main argument of this
study is that radical changes have occurred in India both economically and
culturally during colonialism and after its demise. This dissertation meets this
research aims through an extensive study of relevant literature. This research
produces a number of key findings: recent research and surveys confirm a
significant development of India in different fields such as economic growth,
cultural upheavals and social structure during both the colonial era and more
in the post-colonial one. The main conclusions drawn from this research are:
first, colonialism reforms were efficient in some fields where we noticed a
hopeful development. Second, they were deficient because they fail to
embrace a holistic change instead it opted to make things more complicated.
VIII
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... I
Dedications ..................................................................................................................... II
Dedications ....................................................................................................................III
Table of Contents.......................................................................................................... IX
IX
1.4.2.2 Colonial Indian Women ........................................................................................... 18
X
2.4.2.5.1 Hinduism ............................................................................................................... 50
2.4.2.5.2 Islam..................................................................................................................... 50
2.4.2.5.2 Christianity............................................................................................................ 51
Bibliography ..................................................................................................................57
Glossary .........................................................................................................................63
Appendices ....................................................................................................................63
Appendix A....................................................................................................................64
Appendix B ....................................................................................................................70
XI
General Introduction
General Introduction
India is located in South Asia. It is the seventh largest country in the
world in terms of geographical territory. It has a rich history which is blended
by many historical events.
This research work deals with the case of Indian situation during
colonial and post-colonial periods. It tackles the changes occurred both in
economic, cultural and social sides. This research paper also tries to answer
the following questions:
2-What are the main strategies and policies adopted in the Indian
economy since the year of independence?
The main objective of this work maps India as a British colony and an
independent state from economic and cultural lenses. It attempts to identify
the different regulations adopted by the British colonialists and by the Indian
government since gaining independence in 1947, involving the agricultural
and industrial fields as well as some components of Indian culture as
education literature, women, social structure and religion.
2
syntactic resonances of postcolonialism and post-colonialism and shows the
difference between the hyphenated and non-hyphenated term. Moreover, it
presents the economic policies adopted by the Indian government as well as
reforms which took place in some parts of Indian culture since its
independence.
3
Chapter One: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-
1947)
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 6
2.4.2.5.2 Islam..................................................................................................................... 50
2.4.2.5.2 Christianity............................................................................................................ 51
Bibliography ..................................................................................................................57
Glossary .........................................................................................................................63
Appendices ....................................................................................................................63
Appendix A....................................................................................................................64
Appendix B ....................................................................................................................68
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
1.1 Introduction
This chapter sheds light on certain important features of colonialism. It refers first
to this period, second to its relationship with imperialism. It deals with the history of
the British rule in India and lists the main factors that led to its colonization. This
chapter also focuses on the effects of British colonial rule on the Indian economy in
general and Indian culture in particular.
The word “colonialism” comes from the Roman term “colonia” which means
“farm” or “settlement” to refer to the Romans who settled in lands. It is considered as
the expansion of a nation over foreign territories through forcible occupation. This
phenomenon began in the fifteenth century and developed in the late nineteenth
century.
Therefore, the history of colonialism has existed all over the parts of the world. She
also points out the relationship between colonialism and capitalism. She stated:
“colonialism was the midwife that assisted at the birth of European capitalism3, or that
without colonial expansion the transition to capitalism could not have taken place in
Europe.”4
„Colonialism‟ is sometimes replaced with the word „imperialism‟, but in fact the
terms mean different things.
2
Ania Loomba, Colonialism/Postcolonialism, (London and New York: Routledge, 1998),2
3
„Capital‟ is taken to mean capitalists, people whose actions propel accumulation process
whreas Capitalism is used to refer the properties of the social structure in which these actors
are located (Vivek Chibber,“ Making Sense of Postcolonial Theory: a Response to Gayatri
Chakravorty Spivak”, Cambridge Review of International Affairs, October 03, 2014, 621).
4
Ania Loomba, op.cit., p4.
5
Darrell J .Koslowski, Key Concepts in American History: Colonialism (New York: Chelsea
House Publishers, 2010), 1.
6
Jane Hidlesston, Understanding Postcolonialism (Stocksfield: Acumen, 2009), 2.
7
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
7
Elleke Bohemer, Colonial and Postcolonial Literature: Migrant Metaphors Second Edition
(Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 2.
8
Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, (London: Chatto and Windus, 1993), 9.
9
Childs. P and Williams. P, An Introduction to Post-Colonial Theory (London and New
York: Prentice Hall, 1997), 227.
10
John McLeod, Beginning Postcolonialism (Manchester and New York: Manchester
University Press, 2000), 7.
11
Ania Loomba, Op.cit., p.4.
8
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
Therefore, the distinctive feature between them is that colonialism is associated with
the establishment of colonies but imperialism can be without them.13
During the British rule, the Indian subcontinent contained two different states.
The first one is known as “British India” which referred to the areas of the Indian
subcontinent which was under the direct control of the British colonial powers. The
second one is “Princely states” or “native states” which were under the rule of Indian
kings. The latter comprised of western and central parts of India. The following map
illustrates the direct and indirect British rule in the subcontinent.
12
Ibid., p. 6.
13
Ibid., p. 7.
14
Jane Hiddleston, Op.cit., p.2.
9
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
10
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
Thus, Great Britain took control of India during the nineteenth century (see appendix
A, map four).
The British were interested in India for many reasons. Firstly, it was a source of
raw materials, an area of investment, and a market for British goods. The following
quotation summarizes the importance of India in terms of her resources. As argued by
historian Jeff Hay
For the British, India‟s importance was strategic, symbolic and economic.
[…]. India also provided the British with large armies and inexpensive labor,
which exported around the world. Finally, Indian sources such as tea, cotton
and jute helped feed the British industrial machine, whereas the subcontinent
provided a huge field for the British interests seeking large returns in
agriculture or industrial enterprises or markets for their finished goods. 17
15
The English East India Company was officially founded in 1600 by royal charter. Its
significance in the seventeenth century, however, mainly derives from the fact that the East
India Company, perhaps more than any other contemporary commercial organization, was
at once a manifestation of and causal force behind the changes that were taking place in
structure of England‟s overseas trade (K. N. Chaudhuri, The Emergence of International
Business 1200-1800 (London: Routledge, Thoemmes Press, 1999), 3.)
16
P. J. Marshall, The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1996), 358.
17
Jeff Hay, the Partition of India, (United States of America: Chelsea House Publisher,
2006), 22.
11
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
Consequently, India was seen as a center for trade and raw materials. This is why
scholar Stuart Cary Welch explained: “Like the Mughals18, and other foreigners who
came to India, the British were attracted by her legendary riches.”19 Therefore, the
European and the British who came to India were interested and attracted by her
wealth.
The East India Company (1757-1858) dominated the subcontinent until the
20
1850.It succeeded to rule large areas of India after the Battle of Plassey and lasted
until 1858.When the British Crown21 took over direct control of India from the EIC.
Scholar Stuart Cary Welsh wrote: “This Company was founded in London 1599, and
in 1600 Queen Elizabeth granted a character “the Governor and company of merchants
of London trading into to the East Indies”.”22
Moreover, British trade with India gradually increased through the rise of
B.E.I.C which is the main factor that led the British to dominate and colonize India. It
was only in 1858 that India became a colony of the British Empire. Historian Jeff Hay
said: “in 1858, the British government took direct control of India and, soon after,
dissolved the East India Company.”23
18
The Mughal, or Timurid, state that was founded by Babur between 1526 and 1530 was by
the seventeenth century the largest and the most centralized state up to that time (Burton
stein, A History of India(United Kingdom: Willey- Blackwell, 1998), 159.
19
Stuart Cary Welsh, India: Art and Culture 1300-1900 (New York: the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, 1985), 418.
20
The Battle of Plassey began a 15-year period during which the company‟s new political
power allowed its servants to acquire great fortunes (Judith E. Walsh, Op. cit., p. 92.)
21
The symbol of the power British monarchy (www. The freedictionary. Com/ British+
Crown 02/05/2015).
22
Ibid., P.418.
23
Jeff Hay, Op.cit., p.29.
24
C. A. Bayly, The New Cambridge History of India: Indian Society and the Making of the
British Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 3.
12
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
The lack of Indian unity is one of the major issues that pushed Britain to
dominate them. As well as the diversity of the subcontinent helped the British in their
expansion. They exploited India‟s diversity to take control. Historians Waltraud Ernst
and Biswamoy Pati added: “each area of the subcontinent has, of course, its own
history of regional and cultural diversity and interaction with British expanding
rule.”25
Moreover, the revolt of 185726 is also considered as the first wide spread Indian
rebellion. It seems by many as a war of liberation. The Sepoy rebellion ended with
heavy loss of lives on both sides. It also increased distrust between Indians and British.
Historian D. J. Marshall claimed: “the empire was nearly destroyed by the great
rebellion of 1857, described inaccurately as the Mutiny”27. He added: “the rebellion
created a legacy of racial hatred which permeated all aspects of the relationship
between the ruler and the ruled.”28
All what has been stated above is considered as the main causes of the British
colonial rule in India. In addition to these factors, the Treaty of Paris 1763 29 is also
regarded as one of the causes since it gave Britain rights in India.
In fact, the British colonial rule in India began with trade and ended with
around 200 years control over the subcontinent. It has a diverse impact on several
25
Waltraud Ernst and Biswamoy Pati, India’s Princely States: People, Princes and
Colonialism (London and New York: Routledge, 2007), 1.
26
The Great Rebellion of 1857 or what was supposed to be a „sepoy mutiny‟ has
undoubtedly been a major landmark in colonial South Asian history. Besides posing what
was undoubtedly the most serious military challenge to the might of British colonialism
over the nineteenth century, its vibrations and memories lasted much longer than had been
expected by those carrying out the colonial counter-insurgency operations (Biswamoy pati,
The Great Rebellion of 1857 in India Exploring Transgressions, Contests and Diversities
(London and New York: Routledge, 2010), 1.
27
D. Marshall, op. cit., p. 359.
28
Ibid.,
29
The 1763 Treaty of Paris marked the end of the Seven Years‟ War, known in North
America as the French and Indian war. […]The most significant impact of the 1763 Treaty
on the First Nations was the transfer of Canada by France to Great Britain(a transfer based
on France‟s right of discovery, which Britain now claimed to inherit (Bruce E. Johansens
and Barry M. Pritzker , Encyclopedia of American Indian History (Oxford England: ABC
Clio, 2008), 21.
13
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
fields especially the economic and cultural sides which mostly affected all parts of
education, women, social class and religion.
The British entered India as traders. Their obvious purpose was trade. Then, it
became a control over the subcontinent. The British rule had a deep impact on the
economic and social life of Indians in general and the cultural side in particular.
Professor Amita Gupta stated “the process of colonization in India began with the
physical conquest of territories followed by the conquest of minds, selves and
cultures.”30 Furthermore, the British took full control of Indian political and economic
domains, acting as rulers rather than traders. Hence, the British colonialism had
positive and negative impacts on both economy and culture.
The Indians benefited from colonial rule in terms of goods and industrial mills.
They also experienced negative effects.
30
Amita Gupta, Early Childhood Education: Postcolonial Theory and Teaching Practices in
India (Palgrave: Macmillan, 2006), 10.
31
Tirthanker Roy, Traditional Industry in the Economy of Colonial India (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1999 ), 2
14
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
of goods such as cotton and textiles and has a source of export trade for
Britain and other European countries. Professor Amita Gupta viewed: “faster
and cheaper transport brought about agglomeration of trade, occasionally of
32
consumers as well.” The field of agriculture witnessed commercialization.
Economist Tirthanker Roy noticed: “industry probably employed about 15
percent of the workers in the middle of the nineteenth century that is about
10.5 million persons”33 Hence, investment in the field of industry contributed
to decrease the rate of unemployment. He also summarizes the main
characteristics of colonial India‟s industry in the following words
There are several features which set colonial India and successful
industrialization apart. Industrialization requires sustained and rapid growth
of markets for industrial goods. A common feature of successful
industrialization is a rise in agricultural productivity, raising internal demand
34
and initiating, in a number of senses, a rural industrialization.
The British presence in the subcontinent had also negative impacts. Indians
experienced famines and epidemic diseases which killed millions of Indians.
According to economist Charles Bettelheim: “the 1943 Bengal was then a relatively
recent catastrophe and the memories of the millions of deaths and the epidemics which
followed the famine were still present in the minds of those who were responsible for
economic planning.”35
Besides, the economic field saw radical changes in trade, industry and agriculture. For
most, the great influence of the colonialist was recognized in the scope of Indian
culture. They came with their own cultural values that affected clearly the different
aspects such as education, literature, women, social class and religion.
32
Amita Gupta, Op. cit., P .10.
33
Tirthanker , Op. cit., P.4.
34
Ibid. , p.57.
35
Charles Bettelheim, India Independent (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1968), 8.
15
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
A wider range of Indian culture indicators received the impact of the colonial
rule as education, literature, women, social class and religion.
The British policy brought two types of schools in education. The first one was
the elite religious schools. It was mainly concerned with students whose main aim was
to achieve a high level of education. The second type was concerned with village boys.
It is the local elementary school.
For the purpose of administration, trade and business, they needed a common
language. Thus, English language was introduced and taught as a medium of
instruction in schools to strengthen its power and since the introduction of this
language is a part of their strategy. First, English became the lingua franca for the
educated persons in the country. Then, it was introduced as an official language in
schools and colleges in 1835 by Governor General Bentick following Macaulay‟s
infamous minute37 that criticizes oriental languages and literature. Scholar Stuart Cary
Welch assumed.
36
A. L. Basham, A cultural History of India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975), 348.
37
Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800- 1859) was a dominant and advocate as well as
historian of imperial ambitions, both scholastic and political. His “minute” on Indian
education was and remains a critical and much cited contribution to the debate on the
respective roles of Indian and English traditions in issues of governments and instruction (
Barbara Harlow and Mia Carter, Archives of Empire from the East Indian Company to the
Suez Canal (United States of America: Duke University Press, 2003 ), 227.
16
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
English was declared the official language of India by the British in
1835 and English was made the language of instruction in higher
education, in as much as the purpose of education was seen as
dissemination of western knowledge. Lord Macaulay, in his Education
Minute, proposed the creation in India of an elite “Indian in blood and
colour, but English in taste, morals and intellect”38.
Macaulay‟s declaration was the starting point of a new system of English education
which replaced the former one. Later two types of schooling emerged in 1860 such as
private schools which involved aided and unaided schools as well as schools managed
by the government and local boards.
During the colonial period, child marriages were common in the Indian culture.
Girls would usually be married at the age of 10 or 11 and they were never sent to
schools. For them, women education was considered as much as dangerous and it also
brought disgrace to their families. He (William Adam) wrote: “a superstitious feeling
is alleged to exist in the majority of Hindu families, principally cherished by the
women and not discouraged by the men, that a girl taught to read and write will soon
after marriage become a widow.”39
The introduction of the English language in the Indian education made the
Indian inhabitants write and read in English. This is why many Indian writers began to
write poetry, short stories and novels in English. Therefore, British missionaries
increased during the imperial era, they brought new ideas such as liberty, equality and
freedom aiming at an exposure to western ideas. Historian A. L. Basham saw: “the
British administration, English education and European literature brought to India a
constellation of fresh ideas which constituted a challenge to the new intellects.”40
Hence, the British administration introduced an English education which contributed
38
Stuart Cary Welch, op. cit., p. 420.
39
Cited in Aparna Basu, “A Century of a Half‟s Journey: Women‟s Education in India,
1850s to 2000,” History of Science: Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, ed.
Bharati Ray (New Delhi: PHISPC- Conssavy Series, 2005), 183.
40
A. L. Basham op. cit., p. 366.
17
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
In India, women had less rights than men mainly because there were certain
social practices in the late of nineteenth century such as female infanticide41, child
marriage and sati42. Even education was limited to men rather than women. These
practices and superstitions were considered as obstacles to the development of India.
Reforms were needed to bring a change in the social and religious lives of people.
The British introduced many legal measures and regulations in order to improve
the position of women. For example, the practice of Sati was banned in 1829. Another
Act called Shadra Act in 1929 prevented child marriage. This act provided that it was
illegal to marry a girl below 14 and a boy below 18 years old. Sociologist Flavia
Agnes assumed
41
Female infanticide (traditional methods of killing new-born female infants practiced in
northwest India) reappears as modern femicide (scientific methods of aborting female fetus
combined with traditional methods of killing through neglect and discrimination). Rashmi
Dube Bhatnagar, Renu Dube and Reena Dube, Female Infanticide in India: Feminist
Cultural History (U.S.A: State University of New York Press, 2005), 11.
42
Sati is the practice of “self-immolation” among widows of a few Hindu communities.
Jyotsna G. Singh, Colonial Narratives/Cultural Dialogues “Discoveries” of India in the
Language of Colonialism (London and New York: Routledge, 1996), 82.
43
Amartya Sen and Sumil Gengupta, Malnutrition of Rural Children and the Sex Bias (New
Delhi: Shahti Book, 1985), 24.
18
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
The much acclaimed Sati Regulation Act of 1829 was followed by
other legislations such as the Widow Remarriage Act 1856, the age of
Consent Act of 1860 and the prohibition of Female Infanticide Act of
1872.44
All these acts criticized the Indian social practices over women and aimed at
improving women‟s situation in India.
From the 1820‟s to the 1850‟s, the British wanted to change Indian
social institutions. They focused on women as the particular element of
society. They considered it as a “civilizing mission”.
44
Flavia Agnes, “Politicization of Personal Laws: a Study of Colonial India,” History of
Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, ed, Bharati Ray (New Delhi:
PHISPC-Conssavy Series, 2005), 6.
45
Untouchable is clearly an English word, the word the British used to refer to outcaste
communities considered by so called caste Hindus to be polluting to touch. We have also
seen how S. C, or Scheduled Caste, is the government designation for Untouchable castes
all over Indian. Harijan was Gandhi‟s term, literally “son of god”, which was intended to
rhetorically include Untouchables within the Hindu fold (Diane P. Mines, Caste in India
(USA: Association for Asian Studies, 2009), 57).
19
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
Hence, English education and western ideas had benefited all parts of
the subcontinent. It also improved the social, cultural and economic
conditions of the untouchables or dalits.
Caste system is one of the most unique and complex features of the
Indian culture. It was based on hierarchy where individuals can not change
their social status. In the census, caste48 was defined as:
46
Aloysius Irudayam S. J Jayshree P. Mangubhai and Joel G. Lee , Dalit Women Speak out
Violence against Dalit Women in India (New Delhi: National Campaign on Dalit Human
Rights, 2006), 2.
47
Samita Sen, Women and Labour in Late Colonial India (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1999), 2.
48
Caste is derived from a Portuguese term meaning “color” […]. In Sanskrit, the term Varna
also means “color” and refers to the textual division of persons into four categories:
Brahman, Ksatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. These names are still used by many Indians to
designate the general place in a caste-defined society. (Diane P. Mines, Op.cit., p. 14-15).
20
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
An endogenous group or collection of some groups bearing a common
name and having the same traditional occupation, who are so linked
together by these and other ties, such as tradition of a common origin
and possession of the same tutelary deity, and the same social status,
ceremonial observances and family priests, that they regard
themselves, and are regarded by others, as forming a single
homogeneous community.49
In the colonial period, there were four main distinct castes which are arranged
in hierarchical manner from the top to the low. The first group is called
Brahman in which priests and scholars are belonging. The second group is
known as Rajanya including rulers. The third one is named Vaisya comprising
commoners and the last one is Shudra as servants.
Each caste has its own different religious and social practices. Each
group of one caste shares the same origin, tradition and social status. The
members of each group form a homogeneous community. Two types of
culture had existed: one of the lower castes and the other of the upper castes.
The impact of British rule on India has also brought changes in Indian
society. The class structure is mainly concerned. During colonial rule, some
opportunities were opened for the lower caste due to the introduction of
English education because education was limited to men who belonged to the
upper castes in the subcontinent. One of the important changes in the social
structure which the British did, was the emergence of the middle class.
Under the colonial rule, the fields of commerce and industry created a class of
traders and merchants. The emergence of such new class contributed to the growth of
commercial middle class in India. With the rise of British interests in the field of
commerce, new chances were opened to small part of Indian people. Sociologist
Surinder S. Jodhka and Professor Aseem Prakash claimed: “the middle class in India
49
Pradipta Chaudhury, Political Economy of Caste in Northern India: 1901-1931: Centre for
Economic Studies and Planning, School of Social Sciences (New Delhi 110067: India
Jawaharlal Nehru University), 8.
21
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
During the later phase of British colonial rule over the subcontinent,
the beginning of such middle class contributed in a modern and democratic
nation state. By 1880, this new social class had arisen since these people got
some English education became the new elite in the country. It has been an
important historical and sociological type in the Indian social structure.
50
Surinder S. Jodhka and Aseem Prakash, “The Indian Middle Class: Emerging Cultures of
Politics and Economics”, Kas International Report, (12/2011): 45.
51
James Elisha Taneti, Caste, Gender and Christianity in Colonial India: Telugu Women in
Mission (United States: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 2.
52
Geraldine Forbes, The New Cambridge History of India IV.2: Women in Modern India
(Cambridge Histories online: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 17.
22
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
1.5 Conclusion
The first chapter involves data about the notion of colonialism and imperialism
as related concepts to it. Besides, it comprises an overview about colonial India from
1857 to 1947 as well it states the factors that pushed the British to colonize the
country. In addition, it investigates the different effects of British rule on the Indian
economy in general and the different aspects of Indian culture in particular. It also
53
Esther Bloch et. al, Rethinking Religion in India: the Colonial Construction of Hinduism
(London and New York: Routledge, 2010), 66-67.
54
Fred W. Clothey, Religion in India: A Historical Introduction (London and New York:
Routledge, 2006), 175.
23
Chapter one: Understanding Colonialism and its Impact on Indians (1857-1947)
The next chapter will discuss post-colonial India as an independent state from
1947. It will tackle a glance about the changes concerning the Indian economy the
essential mentioned aspects of culture in the previous chapter.
24
Chapter Two: Post-colonial India since Independence
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................26
2.4.2.5.2 Islam..................................................................................................................... 50
2.4.2.5.2 Christianity............................................................................................................ 51
2.1 Introduction
This chapter gives the meaning of postcolonialism and post-
colonialism. It introduces the partition of India in order to make a clear
understanding about the subcontinent as independent state and how their
leaders struggled to get freedom and independence as post-colonial India. It
also displays the main changes and strategies adopted by the Indian
constitution in the economic field to challenge the agricultural difficulties.
26
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
We can see that this term is ambiguous and complex, because of its
implications. It is a heterogeneous field where even the use of the hyphen in
the term creates several meanings
1
Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin, Key Concepts in Post-colonial Studies
(London and New York: Routledge, 1998), 187.
2
Ibid., p.186.
3
Bill Ashcroft, Writing Past Colonialism: On Post- Colonial Futures (London and New
York: Continuum, 2001), 24.
4
Ania Loomba, Beyond What? An Introduction in Postcolonial Studies (Durham, NC.: Duke
University, 2005), 35.
27
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
concerned above all with the empirical, material effects of colonialism and its
aftermath.”5
Whereas, the term “post-colonialism” marks the use of prefix “post” this
means “after”. Professors Childs and Williams acknowledged: “the obvious
implication of the term post-colonial is that it refers to a period coming after
the end of colonialism.”6 Thus, the term “post-colonialism” addresses a
historical period meaning “after colonialism” and “after independence”.
The main factor that pushed Indians for independence was that Britain
had to rely heavily on Indian armies during the First World War (1914-1918)
5
Jane Hiddleston, Understanding Postcolonialism, (Stocksfield: Acumen, 2009), 5.
6
Childs. P and Williams. P, An Introduction to Post-colonial Theory (London and New
York: Prentice Hall, 1997), 1.
7
Paul. R. Brass, Politics of India since Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1994), 5.
8
Diane P. Mines, Caste in India (U.S.A: Association for Asian Studies, 2009), 48.
28
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
and the Second World War (1939-1945). Among the members of this
Congerss Mohandas Gandhi9 (see appendix B, figure one) who emerged in
1920‟s as the leader and the voice of the Indian Congress. He called for unity
between Muslims and Hindus through using very affective politics and non-
violent resistance. Anthropologist Diane P. Mines assumed: “Congress
needed to unite Indians behind the movement for self-rule”.10 The reason
behind this was that Muslims were a minority within the subcontinent.
Historian Jeff Hay listed the main leaders of the congress and
summarizes its main aim in the following quotation:
The issue between Muslims and Hindus led to violent clash between the two
groups, it have continued to the present day and still threaten the peace of
South Asia. Therefore, India fought four wars since its independence.
9
Mohandas K. Gandhi is, of course, one of India‟s most famous figures. Born in western
India in 1869, died in 1948 (Diane P. Mines, Op. cit., p. 50).
10
Diane P. Mines, Op.cit., p. 49.
11
Jeff Hay, The Partition of British India (U.S.A: Chelsea House Publishers, 2006), 38.
29
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
30
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
Nowadays, India is the world‟ largest democratic country and has the
fourth largest economy in the world (see appendix A, map five). Recently, she
has become a favorite example to describe the development of economy,
globalization, population growth and global cultural production. Historian Jeff
Hay affirmed
12
The imagined state had even been given a name by a Muslim student at Cambridge in
1933: he called it “Pakistan,” a pun that meant “pure land” and was also an acronym for the
major regions of the Muslim North (P stood for the Punjab, a for Afghanistan, k for
Kashmir, s for Sindh, and tan for Baluchistan) (Judith E. Walsh, A Brief History of India,
(U.S.A, Facts on File, 2006), 198.
13
Kavita Daiya, Violent Belongings: Partition, Gender and National Culture in Postcolonial
India (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008), 5.
14
Judith E. Walsh, Op. cit., p.179.
15
Kavita Daiya, Op.cit., p. 7.
31
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
Jawaharlal Nehru17 (see appendix B figure two) served as Prime minister from
1947 till 1964. After his death, Indira Gandhi occupied her father‟s place in
1966.Both of them emphasized on state planning for economic growth as the
keys to progress and social justice after the independence from the British
imperialism.
16
Jeff Hay, Op.cit., p. 98.
17
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1940), born in Allahabad in India (“Jawaharlal Nehru”, The
Biography Channel Website, http: //www. biography. Com/people/ jawaharlal-nehru-
9421253(accessed Nov30, 2012)).
32
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
The next table represents the rapid growth of Indian population that
apparently increased around 10 percent per decade, starting from the year of
1951 to the year of 2001.
Population Growth
Year Total Population Growth over Preceding
(Rounded to thousands) 10 Years (%)
1881 250,160, 000*
1901 283,870, 000*
1951 361, 108, 000
1961 439, 235,000 +21. 64
1971 548, 160, 000 +24. 80
1981 684, 329, 000 +24.66
1991 886, 362, 000 +23.86
2001 1, 028, 610, 000 +21. 43
18
B. R. Tomlinson, the New Cambridge History of India III.3: the Economy of Modern India
1860-1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 22.
19
Charles Bettelheim, India Independent (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1968), XV.
33
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
2.4.1.1 Agriculture
34
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
Bettelheim indicated: “there are three ways of measuring the plans‟ financial
dimensions: by calculating, first, the volume of public spending; secondly, the
volume of public investment; thirdly, the total sum of investment.”20
Just before the start of the first plan, four technical factors were
considered to have a direct influence on the yield of corps in India:
firstly, the lack of water and its irregular supply; secondly, the lack of
fertilization; thirdly, the excessive number of cattle; and fourthly, the
peasants poor understanding of agricultural techniques.21
The year 1966 is a decisive year for India because the economic crises
were mainly apparent in the food shortage. Different states began to pass
agrarian reform laws. The first one eliminates the worst form of the feudal
exploitation and the other eliminates exploitation by big landowners. The
former one is concerned with places where Zamindari system existed whereas
the latter is applicable to all regions.
20
Charles Bettelheim, Op. cit., p. 150.
21
Ibid, p. 10.
22
The term ‟green revolution‟ came into use in the late 1960‟s and refers to the introduction
of higher yielding varieties (HYVS) of wheat and rice in „developing countries‟ (Harmik
Deol, Religion and Nationalism in India: the Case of the Punjab(London and New York:
Routledge, 2000),160.)
35
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
successful of the Green Revolution, which for a while turned India from a
food importing to a food exporting nation, encouraged a mood of hubris.”23
Before the end of the first plan, there was a shift in the investments for
development of industrial field.
2.4.1.2 Industry
The industrial resources of India make her one of the richest countries
in the world. They provide her a leading position in the world industry (the
steel and engineering industries and the chemical industries based on coal).
Textiles and silver were the main exports of India. Besides, the
construction of railways, the stream of silver and the expansion of foreign
trade in the second half of the nineteenth century contributed to the
emergence of India as a home market.
23
Burton Stein, A History of India: Second Edition (U.S.A: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 2010),
377.
24
Ibid., p. 368.
25
Charles Bettelheim, Op.cit., p. 50.
36
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
per cent and agricultural production by 33 per cent. This could be taken as a
moderate, but well-balanced growth.”26
To protect India from the imperialism of the West, Nehru and Gandhi
promoted the independence, autonomy and self-reliance. They were fully
aware of the need for better and wider education as an instrument of social
and economic progress, equalization of opportunity and the building up of
democratic society.
26
Dietmar Rothermund, An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991:
Second Edition (London and New York: Routledge, 1993), 145.
27
Burton Stein, Op.cit., p. 366.
37
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
Thus, India has paid a considerable attention to education at all levels since
1947. Improvement in the reduction of literacy rates and enrolments at
different levels of education reveals that these efforts have been rewarded to
some extent as it is shown in this table.
28
India, National Policy on Education (Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1968), 1.
38
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
Hence, the English language plays a key role in every trend of daily life,
including the field of literature. In the post-colonial period, the country
encouraged translations of various genres of literary works into English.
Professors Nalini Iyer and Bonnie Zare asserted: “since 1947it has also
published translations, mainly of short stories and poems, in its journal Indian
32
Bipan Mukherjee, India after Independence (New Delhi: Penguin Book, 1999), 144.
33
Aparna Basu, “a Century and a Half‟s Journey: Women‟s Education in India, 1850‟s to
2000”, Women of India: Colonial and Post-Colonial Period, ed. Bharati Ray (New Delhi:
PHISPC-Conssavy Series, 2005), 203.
34
Asha Kasbekar, Pop Culture India! Media, Arts and Lifestyle (U.S.A: ABC Clio, 2006),
77.
40
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
The 1950‟s and the 1960‟s era was not a period of great innovation for
Indian writing in English, but they did witness the emergence of many
women writers who explored the conflict between tradition and
37
modernity directly in relation to the condition of women.
35
Nalini Iyer and Bonnie Zare, Cross/ Cultures99: Other Tongues Rethinking the Language
Debates in India (Amsterdam- New York: Rodopi B.V, 2009), xvii- xviii.
36
Priyamvada Gopal, the Indian English Novel: Nation, History and Narration (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2009), 1.
37
Asha Kasbekar, Op.cit., p. 85.
41
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
The first two Five Years Plan (1955-1960) sought to link women‟s
education to training them for professions. The Second Five Year Plan
emphasized on the need for creating a public awareness on the importance of
girls education whereas the Third Five Year Plan had little to say about
women‟s education.
38
Aparna Basu, Op.cit., p. 196.
42
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
twenty-five years after independence, the focus being on urban middle class
women but here also more said than done.”39
Other law were passed mainly in order to realize equality between men
and women in terms of their properties and to prohibit dowry. For more
explanation, historian Sita Raman explained
39
Aparna Basu, Op.cit., p. 197.
40
Burton Stein, Op.cit., p.384.
41
Bharati Ray, Op.cit., p. xxx.
42
Sita Anantha Raman, Women in India: a Social and Cultural History: vol2 (Santa Barbara
and California ABC Clio, 2009), 189.
43
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
After being a democratic state, the Indian women can vote and stand
for elections as men do. Therefore, Women are also engaged in the political
field. They occupy different jobs as ambassadors, ministers,…etc. One of the
most political women who recorded her deep presence in politics is Indira
45
Gandhi (see appendix B, figure Three). Historian Geraldine Forbes
considered
43
Ibid.,
44
Geraldine Forbes, the New Cambridge History of India: Women in Modern India. IV. 2
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 64.
45
The most political women in India was Mrs. Indira Gandhi (1917-84), India‟s only woman
Prime Minister and the second woman to head a state in the twentieth century (Ibid.,).
44
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
Gandhi‟s long tenure in office, from 1966 to 1977 and 1980 to 1984,
ended with her association on October 31, 1984. Her one political
defeat was in 1977 following her declaration of an “emergency” in
India and the suspension of a number of constitutionally guaranteed
civil liberties. 46
Moreover, women contributed to the economic field as men did. They worked
and occupied several occupational works.
46
Geraldine Forbes, Op.cit., p.231-232.
47
Bharati Ray, Op.cit., p. xxxvii.
48
Bipan Mukherjee, Op.cit., p. 143.
45
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
49
Diane P. Mines, Op.cit., p.2.
50
Ibid., p. 65.
46
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
education all over the country. They aim at justice including the demands of
oppressed people which is the main issue for this category.
51
Burton Stein, Op.cit., p.390.
52
The most prominent advocate of a different, political solution was B. R. Ambedkar. He was born in
1891. He died in 1956. Diane P. Mine. Op. cit., p.52.
53
Surinder S. Jodhka and Asseem Prakash, “the Indian Middle Class: Emerging Cultures
Politics and Economics” ( Kas Internationa Reports, 12/2011),44.
47
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
Hence, the evolution of the Indian middle class and the bourgeoisie is very
large and very important in the construction of the nation. Moreover, the
social structure saw also changes in caste especially the position of Dalit in
the 1970‟s.
54
Ayesha Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: a Comparative and
Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 124.
48
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
Even the year of 1947 marked the independence of India from British
rule, it also marked India‟s partition into two different states, India and
Pakistan, where religions lines were concerned. India is a place where people
of different cultures and religions live in harmony. Even though, India is a
secular state, the Muslim population is more in comparison with Pakistan.
Therefore, they are facing several religious conflicts which are considered as
decisive conflicts in the social history of India. Professor Upamanyu Pablo
Mukherjee showed
55
Upamanyu Pablo Mukherjee, Postcolonial Environments: Nature, Culture and the
Contemporary Indian Novel in English (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 112.
56
Gail Omvedt, Buddhism in India: Challenging Brahmanism and Caste (New Delhi: Sage
Publication India, 2003), 243.
57
Crista N. Anderson, “the Origins of Christian Society in Ancient India” (Honors Scholar
Theses, Paper 282, Spring 5-6. 2012), 3.
49
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
2.4.2.5.1 Hinduism
2.4.2.5.2 Islam
58
Diane P. Mines, Op.cit., p.67.
59
Max Weber, the Religion of India: the Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism (United State
of America: the Free Press, 1958), 25.
60
Sri Swami Sivananda, All about Hinduism (India: the Divine Life Society, 1999), 1.
61
Ibid.,
62
Fred W. Clothey, Religion in India: a Historical Introduction (London and New York:
Routledge, 2006), 122.
50
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
2.4.2.5.2 Christianity
2.4.2.5.3 Sikhism
This religion mingles the first two preceding religions which are
Hinduism and Islam. India‟s Sikhs are about 1, 9℅. Anthropologist Diane P.
Mines declared: “some scholars describe Sikhism as a syncretic blend of
Islam and Hinduism, Sikhs see their religion as unique and definable in its
own terms.”63
2.5 Conclusion
The second chapter defines the concept of postcolonialism as well as
post-colonialism. It displays a glance about post-colonial India referring to
two main historical events. The first is India‟s independence in 1947 followed
by its partition.
Concerning the social structure, this chapter involves the growth of the
Indian middle class, followed by the appearance of metropolitan bourgeoisie
in addition to the situation of Dalit which marks the achievements of their
63
Diane P. Mines, Op.cit., p. 68.
51
Chapter two Post-colonial India since Independence
52
General Conclusion
General Conclusion
This modest work attempts to spot light on colonial India and the
impacts of colonialism. Then, it stresses the different changes that occurred in
post-colonial India, concentrating on economic and cultural perspectives. It
endeavors to look at the strategies managed by the state in the scope of
economy and culture.
The second chapter presents the case study of India as an independent state. It
includes a detailed notion of postcolonialism and post-colonialism. It also shows the
situation of India after the year of independence, mentioning the division of the
subcontinent. It explores the different cultural reforms since 1947; stressing
educational regulations, the development of Indian literature written in English and the
improvement of women‟s position in several contexts. Furthermore, it presents the
shift witnessed by the Indian social structure. Finally, this chapter describes the major
religions practiced actually in India
The conclusions of this present study proves the fact that the newly-
industrialized country is a result of the considerable efforts and continuous progress
that distinguishes the post-colonial era. Simultaneously, the cultural scale realizes a
potential achievement. Educational stages are nearly available all over the country, the
government granted even higher education through the establishment of a number of
universities as well as it encourages the technique of translation in India‟s journals;
54
Internationally, a wider range of Indian writers become popular through their English
writings. Some of them received even Noble prizes. Women take part in politics and
economy. Hence, they occupy a significant role socially. On the social structure, a
slight change occurred in renaming the second category of the Indian caste but the
middle class has done an enormous augmentation. As far as religion is concerned the
greater part of Indians are Hindus.
55
Bibliography
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57
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Social Sciences. New Delhi 110067: India: Jawaharlal Nehru
University.
Clothey, Fred W. Religion in India: a Historical Introduction (London
and New York: Routledge, 2006.
Daiya, Kavita. Violent Belongings: Partition, Gender and National
Culture in Postcolonial India. Philadelphia: Temple University Press,
2008.
Deol, Harmik. Religion and Nationalism in India: the Case of the
Punjab. London and New York: Routledge, 2000.
58
India, National Policy on Education. Ministry of Education, New Delhi,
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Irudayam S. J, Aloysius and Mangubhai, Jayshree P. and Lee, Joel G.
Dalit Women Speak out Violence against Dalit Women in India. New
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Iyer, Nalini and Zare, Bonnie. Cross/ Cultures 99: Other Tongues
Rethinking the Language Debates in India. Amsterdam-New York:
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Jalal, Ayesha. Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: a
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University Press, 1996.
Jha, Praveen et. al .Public Provisioning for Elementary Education in
India. New Delhi: Sage Publication, 2008.
Johansens, Bruce E. and Pritzker, Barry M. Encyclopedia of American
Indian History. Oxford England: ABC Clio, 2008.
Kasbekar, Asha. Pop Culture India! Media, Arts and Lifestyle. U.S.A:
ABC Clio, 2006.
Kattackal, Joseph. A. Educational Development in the Post-colonial
Period in India: Problems and Prospects. Ottawa: Ontaria, Canada Kin
6NS, 1975.
Koslowski, Darrell J. Key Concepts in American History: Colonialism.
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59
Mines, Diane. P. Caste in India. U.S.A: Association for Asian Studies,
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60
Sivananda, Sri Swami. .All about Hinduism. India: he Divine Life
Society: India, 1999.
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Weber, Max. The Religion of India: the Sociology of Hinduism and
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Anderson, Crista. N. “The Origins of Christian Society in Ancient
India.” Honors Scholar Theses, Paper 282, Spring 5-6. 2012
Chibber, Vivek. “Making Sense of Postcolonial Theory: a Response to
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak.” Cambridge Review of International
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Horvath, Ronald J. “A Definition of Colonialism: Current
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61
Websites:
62
Glossary
Glossary: Indian terms
Brahman: the varna or status category identified in the classical Sanskrit
tradition as most pure and entitled to perform priestly duties.
Dharma: Hindu concept of duty and rightness that govern all actions, the
same word is used for religion.
Harijan: “people of god,” Gandhi‟s term for the “untouchable” caste, the
lowest in the caste hierarchy.
Rajanya: warrior.
Shudra: the lowest varna or status category identified in the classical Sanskrit
tradition, required to perform services for the three higher and pure varnas.
64
Appendices
Appendix A
Appendix A: Maps related to colonial and post-colonial India.
Map Three: The British Penetration of India (1750- 1860)
67
Map Four: The British Indian Empire, C. 1900.
68
Map Five: India Today.
69
Appendix B
Appendix B: A brief Biography of Indian famous personalities.
71
Figure One: Jawaharlal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru was born in
Allahabad, India on November 14, 1889, he
was eventually elected as independent
India‟s first prime minister, following in the
political footsteps of Mahatma Gandhi.
In 1919, Nehru vowed to fight the British, he joined the Indian National
Congress. He is a key figure in the Indian Independence Movement of the
1930 and 1940s, Jawaharlal Nehru served as the first prime minister of
independent India. He died on May 27, 1964.
72
Figure Three: Indira Gandhi
Indira Gandhi was born on
November 19, 1917, in Allahabad, India.
She was born in the politically
prominent Nehru family. Indira Gandhi
served three consecutive terms as prime
minister, between 1966 and 1977, and
another term beginning in 1980. She is
the only child of Jawaharlal Nehru and
the first prime minister of independent
India. She enjoyed an excellence
education in Swiss schools and at
Somerville College, Oxford.
Indira Gandhi was elected president of
the Indian National Congress in 1960. After her father‟s death, Indira was
appointed minister of information and broadcasting. She was assassinated by
her Sikh bodyguards on October 31, 1984.
73
Figure Four: Bhimrao Ramj Ambedkar
74