Instructive/Direction keywords

What sort of essay do I have to write?

In an essay topic, these words tell you what type of essay your lecturer wants you to write.
Different instructive or task words have different meanings, so different instructive or task
words tell you to write different types of essays.

Instructive keyword Meaning

A question mark An implicit discussion essay – see Discuss

Analyse Break down the topic into its parts, explain the nature or relative
importance of components, definitions or concepts and explain
how they are interrelated and why certain outcomes occurred.

Comment Express an opinion on the issue or topic. Such an opinion should

draw upon both supporting and opposing evidence with your
preference clearly stated.

Compare Look for similarities and differences between propositions or

topics.

Contrast Identify aspects or characteristics of two or more concepts or

entities; discuss how they are similar and how they are different
then present your own evaluation.

Critically analyse Break down the topic into its component parts, explain the nature
or relative importance of components, definitions or concepts and
explain how they are interrelated. Also discuss the strengths and
weaknesses of the definitions and concepts.

Criticise Evaluate the merit and points out the strengths and weaknesses of
opinions, propositions and theories; evaluate the degree of truth
observed and support with evidence.

Define Set down the precise meaning and establish the boundaries of a
topic. Show that the distinctions implied in the definition are
necessary.

Describe To give a detailed account of the different aspects of the topic.

Discuss To consider a topic from various points of view; to reveal, consider

and represent aspects of an issue in general terms.

Enumerate Provide a listing of the representative facts or elements of a topic.

Evaluate Pass judgement on the worth on something. Such judgement

should be extensively supported by pertinent evidence.
Instructive keyword Meaning
Examine critically Present in depth and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the
topic.

Explain To make plain or clear; to advise the meaning; to interpret.

Illustrate Make clear or explain using examples, comparisons, diagrams or

graphs.

Interpret To bring out the meaning of a topic or proposition, usually also

giving your own judgement.

Justify Provide adequate grounds or examples to support conclusions or

decisions.

Outline Briefly identify and present systemically the most important

aspects or elements of a topic.

Relate Show how the facts are connected or interrelated.

Review Make a summary examining the topic critically.

State Present a topic succinctly and clearly.

Summarise Give a concise account, omitting details and examples.

Why See Discuss

Understanding the question

Introduction
Much of your writing will be prompted by an assignment, essay or exam
question. Students often do worse than they should in examinations or
when writing assignments in English in the UK, not because their writing
skills are weak or because their knowledge of the subject matter is
insufficient, but because they have not fully understood what they have
been asked to do. To score high marks in an examination or an assignmnet,
it is important to fully understand what a question or brief means and how it
should be answered.

In order to understand the question it is useful to analyse the questions and

to search for certain components. The following technique is very useful
(Swales, 1982).
^
The components of a question
Most assignment titles or examination questions contain the following
components:

1. Subject matter or topic. What, in the most general terms, is the

question about?
2. Aspect or focus. This is the angle or point of view on the subject
matter. What aspect of the subject matter is the question about?
3. Instruction or comment. This refers to the instruction word or phrase.
These instructions tell the student exactly what to do.

Some titles also contain the following components:

4. Restriction or expansion of the subject matter. This is the detailed

limitation of the topic. What, in specific terms, is the question about?
5. Viewpoint. This refers to the requirement, in the question, that the
writer writes from - or evaluates - a point of view given by the setter of
the question.

^
Analysing the title
To analyse the title, it is useful to follow the following steps:

1. Identify the topic.

2. If the topic has a restriction or expansion, identify it.
3. Search for the aspect. This is the angle or point of view on the subject
matter. Often, the aspect is a phrase ending in 'of', e.g. 'the
importance of', 'the contribution of'. Be sure you are clear about how
the aspect relates to the subject matter. It can be an example of it, a
stage in its sequence, the cause or effect, one of the solutions to it as
a problem etc.
4. Identify the instruction (which often comes at the beginning) and
decide what it means and what it requires you to do.
5. Check whether there is a viewpoint and if so, if it the same as your
own.
^

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The vocabulary of questions
Here is a list of the most common assignment instruction key-words with an
explanation for each.

Note: The explanations given for these words can be a rough guide only.
You must always go by the total meaning of the title or question. Read the
question carefully: do not jump to conclusions about what is required on the
basis of these words only.

Account for
 requires an answer that gives the reasons for the subject of the
question.
Analyse
requires an answer that takes apart an idea, concept or statement in
order to consider all the factors it consists of. Answers of this type
should be very methodical and logically organised.
Compare
requires an answer that sets items side by side and shows their
similarities and differences. A balanced (fair, objective) answer is
expected.
Consider
requires an answer in which the students describe and give their
thoughts on the subject.
Contrast
requires an answer that points out only the differences between two
items.
Criticise
requires an answer that points out mistakes or weaknesses, and that
also indicates any favourable aspects of the subject of the question. It
requires a balanced answer.
Define
requires an answer that explains the precise meaning of a concep. A
definition answer will include a definition, probably expanded.
Describe
requires an answer that says what something is like, how it works and
so on.
Discuss
requires an answer that explains an item or concept, and then gives
details about it with supportive information, examples, points for and
against, and explanations for the facts put forward. It is important to
give both sides of an argument and come to a conclusion.
Elucidate
requires an answer that explains what something means, makes it
clear (lucid).
Evaluate/Assess
require an answer that decides and explains how great, valuable or
important something is. The judgement should be backed by a
discussion of the evidence or reasoning involved.
Explain
requires an answer that offers a rather detailed and exact explanation
of an idea or principle, or a set of reasons for a situation or attitude.
Explore
requires an answer that examines the subject thoroughly and
considers it from a variety of viewpoints.
Illustrate
 requires an answer that consists mainly of examples to demonstrate
or prove the subject of the question. It is often added to another
instruction.
Justify
requires an answer that gives only the reasons for a position or
argument. Answer the main objections likely to be made of them.
Note, however, that the proposition to be argued may be a negative
one (e.g. Justify the abolition of the death penalty.)
Prove/Disprove
both of these require answers that demonstrate the logical arguments
and/or evidence connected with a proposition prove requires the 'pro'
points, and disprove requires the 'contra' points.
State
requires an answer that expresses the relevant points briefly and
clearly without lengthy discussion or minor details.
Summarise/Outline
require an answer that contains a summary of all the available
information about a subject, i.e. only the main points and not the
details should be included. Questions of this type often require short
answers.
Trace
is found most frequently in historical questions (but not only in History
courses); it requires the statement and brief description in logical or
chronological order of the stages (steps) in the development of e.g. a
theory, a person's life, a process, etc.
To what extent is X true?
requires an answer that discusses and explains in what ways X is
true and in what ways X is not true.

Sometimes you may find several different instruction words combined innto
one composite question. For example:

Define financial accounting. Compare and contrast the Anglo-

American and Continental approaches to financial
accounting. Explain the role that the invididual accountants
play in each approach.
Some other important words used in questions.

concept
an important idea
concise
short, brief
in the context of
referring to, inside the subject of
criteria
what standards you would expect; what questions you would expect
to be answered
deduction
the conclusion or generalisation you come to after looking carefully at
all the facts
factor(s)
the circumstances bringing about a result
function
what something does its purpose or activities
implications
results that are not obvious, long term, suggested results
limitations
explain where something is not useful or not relevant
with/by reference to
make sure you write about the following subject
in relation to
only a certain part of the first topic is needed
role
what part something plays, how it works, especially in co-operation
with others
scope
the area where something acts or has influence
significance
meaning and importance
valid/validity
is there evidence and are there facts to prove the statement?

^
Examples of questions
1. Account for the large-scale immigration into Malaya in
the late 19th Century.
2. Analyse the changes in US policy towards China during
the 1970s.
3. Assess the contribution of Asoka to the spread of
Buddhism in India.
4. Explain the concept of 'role'. Of what use is the concept
to a practising manager?
5. Compare and contrast cellulose and lignin decomposition
in soil.
6. List the criteria you would apply to the presentation of
government expenditure policy.
7. Critically discuss economies and diseconomies of scale.
8. What deductions can be made after studying the cell
exhibited at C?
9. Evaluate the contribution of political parties to the
development of public policy in the United States and
Canada.
10. To what extent does the British public participate in
the political process?
11. What factors determine the elasticity of demand
curves?
12. Describe the histology and functional importance of
striated muscle.
13. Illustrate your answer by typical temperature
profiles.
14. Discuss the implications of the Milgram and
Zimbardo experiments for understanding people's
behaviour in situations involving authority.
15. Discuss the use of behaviour therapy in clinical
psychology and comment on its limitations.
16. Illustrate the diversity of anaerobic bacteria by
reference to either practical importance or mechanism of
energy generation.
17. Outline the requirements as to 'locus standi' in
relation to injunctives and declaratives.
18. Discuss the role of international capital movements
in a world payments system.
19. Define Administrative Law indicating its general
scope and function.
20. Consider the significance of the year 1848 for the
Hapsburg Empire.
 21. Summarise the main requirements of the law in
respect of the employer-employee relationship.
22. 'They are often at a disadvantage in dealing with
industry at a technical level.' How valid is this criticism
of British Civil Servants?
23. To what extent is an understanding of the various
approaches to industrial relations useful in allowing us to
make better sense of the changing nature of the
employment relationship?
24. Discuss the extent to which Human Resource
Management and its associated individualism has led to a
demise in collectivism and the role of trade unions.
25. Discuss the respective influences of states and
markets in the contemporary world economy
characterised by globalisation.
26. Analyse the process of transition from a command
economy to a market economy, drawing upon the many
recent examples.

^
Planning the answer
In planning the answer, the instruction decides the text-type (discussion,
explanation, etc.); the topic (with its restriction or expansion if there is one)
determines the overall range of the subject matter but
the aspect determines the particular content; viewpoint dictates which
arguments, for or against, to use. The interaction
between instruction and aspect will lead to decisions about the organisation
of the essay.
See Organising the answer for more information on essay organisation.

^
Exercise
Analyse the example questions above.

1. Identify the topic.

2. If the topic has a restriction or expansion, identify it.
3. Search for the aspect.
4. Identify the instruction.
5. Check whether there is a viewpoint.

Questions.
1. Identify the topic.
2. If the topic has a restriction or expansion, identify it.
3. Search for the aspect.
4. Identify the instruction.
5. Check whether there is a viewpoint.

Answers.
1. Account for the large-scale immigration into Malaya in the late 19th
Century.
2. Analyse the changes in US policy towards China during the 1970s.
3. Assess the contribution of Asoka to the spread of Buddhism in India.
4. Explain the concept of 'role'. Of what use is the concept to a
practising manager?
5. Compare and contrast cellulose and lignin decomposition in soil.
6. List the criteria you would apply to the presentation of government
expenditure policy.
7. Critically discuss economies and diseconomies of scale.
8. What deductions can be made after studying the cell exhibited at C?
9. Evaluate the contribution of political parties to the development
of public policy in the United States and Canada.
10. To what extent does the British public participate in the political
process?
11.What factors determine the elasticity of demand curves?
12. Describe the histology and functional importance of striated
muscle.
13. Illustrate your answer by typical temperature profiles.
14. Discuss the implications of the Milgram and Zimbardo
experiments for understanding people's behaviour in situations
involving authority.
15. Discuss the use of behaviour therapy in clinical
psychology and commenton its limitations.
16. Illustrate the diversity of anaerobic bacteria by reference to
either practical importance or mechanism of energy generation.
17. Outline the requirements as to 'locus standi' in relation to
injunctives and declaratives.
18. Discuss the role of international capital movements in a world
payments system.
19. Define Administrative Law indicating its general scope and
function.
20. Consider the significance of the year 1848 for the Hapsburg
Empire.
21. Summarise the main requirements of the law in respect of the
employer-employee relationship.
22. 'They are often at a disadvantage in dealing with industry at a
technical level.' How valid is this criticism of British Civil Servants?
23. To what extent is an understanding of the various
approaches to industrial relations useful in allowing us to make better
sense of the changing nature of the employment relationship?
24. Discuss the extent to which Human Resource Management and
its associated individualism has led to a demise in collectivism and
the role of trade unions.
25. Discuss the respective influences of states and markets in the
contemporary world economy characterised by globalisation.
26. Analyse the process of transition from a command economy to
a market economy, drawing upon the many recent examples.