Chapter 12

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LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS

CHAPTER 12: REFLECTIVE THINKING AND TEACHING REFLECTIVE


THINKING

Prof. Dr. Ali Murat Sünbül


Assist. Prof. Dr. Ahmet Kurnaz
Necmettin Erbakan University, Ahmet Keleşoğlu Education Faculty

(Translated by Dr. Öznur Ataş Akdemir)

THE MEANING OF REFLECTIVE THINKING

Reflection is the concept on the basis of reflective thinking. Reflection, the most general sense, is the
cognitive inquiry process that contains analyzing and finding ways which will lead to production of
new knowledge and experiences in the context of previous knowledge and development of alternative
ways1.

In the early 20th century, J. Dewey proposed an approach that all people learn from their experiences
in education and stated that life itself was training and development, and the real purpose of
education was to make development explicit. He also indicated that the most important need of the
society was students’ learning to reflect to life what they have learned at school. Dewey defines the
reflective thinking as active, persistent and careful consideration of knowledge structure supporting
any belief or knowledge and results that it aims to reach. According to Dewey2, in the process of
reflective thinking, the following two main stages are available:
1. A doubt, confusion and hesitation status in which thinking occurred.
2. A research and questioning aimed at finding ways to clarify this doubt and to solve this confusion.

Dewey focuses on the importance of action and describes a reflective practitioner as an individual
questioning his/her assumptions and practices as well as being active and determined. A reflective
practitioner’s attitudes can be summarized as open-mindedness, whole-heartedness and
responsibility3.

Later, this concept is discussed in detail by Schön4. Schön states that reflection contains an approach
based on close examination of what practitioners do in reality. Reflection includes questioning the
action: Did my practice work? Why did it work? Why didn’t it work? What else can be done?
Considering in this context, reflection covers re-thinking and re-formatting on the practice. Schön5,
developing Dewey’s ideas, suggests two types of reflection as reflection-in-action and reflection-on-
action. According to Schön, many experienced practitioners have knowledge by making reflection-in-
action for their own practices. In reflection-on-action, the practitioner has the opportunity of making a
more detailed reflection for a longer time about his/her experience since in this type of reflection,
individual analyzes these practices by making reflection about his/her practices after action and
reaches the conclusions. In short, practitioners, in both types of reflection, direct their future practices
by questioning their own practices. While they form their works in reflection-in-action, in reflection-on-
action they evaluate their practices by focusing on how knowledge about the practice reaches the
unexpected conclusions after the study6.

Considering the history of the reflection, we get the information that this concept is not new and it is
primarily defined as Socratic questioning and dialogues in the philosophy of Plato7. The method, which
Socrates used to elicit what his students know, is regarded as the first of the studies for the
development of thinking. In this method, questions rather than answers are given to students. The
answer to each question is another question. In other words, each question’s answer is a question to
be answered. Aristotle emphasized the importance of practice in learning by criticizing people
discussing the truth instead of behaving properly.

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LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN REFLECTIVE THINKING AND OTHER THINKING SKILLS

At the end of the reflective thinking, the individual sometimes tends to think creatively. Organizing,
reasoning, developing assumptions and predictive skills of critical thinking skills are within the scope of
questioning and evaluation skills of reflective thinking9. Like many other thinking skills, critical thinking
is a broader concept, which includes reflective thinking. In short, while a person thinks critically,
he/she thinks reflectively, too.

Reflective thinking has a very close relationship with metacognitive thinking. Metacognition is that
individual inspects his/her thinking process and distinguishes his/her thinking behavior. In reflective
thinking, the individual thinks about his/her thinking and learning styles. In addition, reflective and
metacognitive thinking require establishing a connection with past experiences, to ask questions about
the knowledge learned, and to ask questions himself/herself in learning process. Norton (1994)
concluded that there was a positive relationship between creative and reflective thinking, and also
stated that Dewey’s reflective thinking phases were similar to creative thinking phases10. Additionally,
reflective thinking is a skill which can be displayed in parallel with the development of individual’s self-
regulation processes.

DEVELOPING REFLECTIVE THINKING

The basic thinking skills and a supportive environment are necessary for transferring the reflective
thinking into education. In order to develop this style of thinking, studies like autobiographical writing,
using imagination, group discussions, analyzing and developing teaching programs should be
included11. Some methods, which can be used to develop reflective thinking skills, are ordered below
and then these methods are explained:
1. Writing Learning Texts
2. Keeping Reflective Diary
3. Preparing Portfolio
4. Constructing Concept Maps
5. Asking Question
6. Self-questioning
7. Joining Reflective Discussions
8. Negotiated Learning
9. Self-evaluation12.

1. Writing Learning Texts


Learning texts are known as reflective writings, too. They are materials in which individual saves
his/her personal reactions, questions, feelings, changing views, thoughts, and information about
learning processes and content. In these writings, experiences cannot only be described but
explanation, analysis and reflections are also included. Previous texts written in this way will both
serve development of writers’ cognitive processes and undertake the task of being a model to readers
of these writings. Students gain the ability to reflect because they think of learning process while they
are writing learning texts. Students learn more effectively in this process. Teachers can get feedbacks
from students’ learning texts. Teachers can plan activities related to process more accurately. Like
students, teachers can make reflections by writing texts related to their own practices, and they can
develop themselves by this way. While students develop their thinking skills with learning texts, they
operate their mental repetition processes in learning subject.

2. Keeping Reflective Diary


Students’ keeping reflective diary about processes of practice plays an important role in their reflective
thinking. Through reflective diaries, students make reflection about their own learning processes by
establishing a relationship between theory and practice at a higher level. The main purpose of using
reflective diaries in education is to help students to gain awareness about what they do, how they do,

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LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS

why they do and to develop useful problem-solving strategies. Thus, students will be aware of their
strengths and weaknesses in the field of theoretical knowledge and practice13.
The effects of keeping diaries about reflective thinking on pre-service teachers are as follows:
 Being stimulant about starting to think questions and new issues,
 Helping to streamline thoughts,
 Having the opportunity to review learning material later,
 Being able to see changes in emotion and behavior,
 Preventing to repeat the same mistakes,
 Better self-monitoring.

A pre-service teacher who gets these skills, just like the students, will make reflection and evaluation
about his/her teaching practice and he/she will plan to develop these practices and to overcome
deficiencies of practices. Teachers’ keeping reflective diaries regularly will also help them to follow
their own developments.

3. Preparing Portfolio
Like keeping diary, preparing portfolio is one of the instruments to develop reflective thinking skills. A
portfolio is primarily created by the student; it allows students to select, to examine, to make
reflections on completed projects and to review the old products; it includes knowledge which is
meaningful for only student and help to plan his/her current and future requirements; it is collected to
demonstrate the student’ progress towards his/her development goals15. Through portfolios, students
can evaluate their practices and develop their reflective thinking skills by questioning their practices.

4. Constructing Concept Maps


The concept map is a visual design, which exposes events, facts, ideas and explains relationships
between them. The concept maps aim to establish relationships between concepts in the form of
suggestions. While concepts are taught with visual ways by concept maps, the level of learning
concepts can also be used for learning purposes. Concept maps prepared by students are also
important in the evaluation process. Students must have knowledge about the subject to prepare a
concept map.

Concept maps are taught to students at every stage of the educational process. These maps are
increasing their ability to design and to express thoughts16. In terms of reflective thinking, while
preparing a concept map, students determine the key concepts first and then they list the important
concepts by sorting from general to specific and show relations between concepts17. Thus, students
gain insight about their own learning by focusing on the relationships between concepts and make
queries about how to learn these concepts.

5. Asking Question
Asking question has a very important role in the development of thinking skills. Open-ended questions
posed to the students at teaching process will increase their awareness. Higher-order thinking
questions of students and teachers develop reflective thinking. Questions developing reflective
thinking should be prepared before the course, different questions for different purposes should be
chosen and they should be prepared at different cognitive stages. In short, the activity of asking
question should be carried out in a conscious way.

Teachers stimulate students’ reflective thinking by asking questions as the following:


 How did you carry out/do this task?
 What were you thinking when you do it?
 Why did you choose this approach/method etc.?
 Can you explain all the steps you followed in this task?
 What kind of changes do you make if you do it again? Why?

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LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS

6. Self-questioning
Students evaluate the process with questions, which they ask themselves along their learning process.
By these questions, students decide to what, when, why and how they have learned and will learn,
and also complete their deficiencies. Primarily teacher should be a model for students by using the
strategy of self-questioning aloud at the activities.

The following are examples of questions, which students can ask themselves:
What do I know about this subject?
What do I need to learn about this subject?
How much time will this subject take?
What should I do about the subject later?
Could I learn all the knowledge, which I need on this subject?
Could I reach my learning goals about this subject?

7. Joining Reflective Discussions


Reflective discussions are seen as a beneficial activity which students are aware of similarities and
differences in their practices18. In classroom discussions, students’constructive criticism about each
other’s practices will gird for correcting their errors and consolidating right activities. In these
discussions, providing an environment which develops to reflect and creating an atmosphere in which
students can talk comfortably without trial of their applications will facilitate that they behave
sincerely, in other words, they make higher level of reflections. For this purpose, large group
discussion techniques, circle discussion technique and inner-outer circle activities can be used.

8. Negotiated Learning
Negotiated learning is students’ participation in decisions related to the learning process. The students
involved in this process are more effective in the learning process. Agreements can be done with the
whole class or groups. Signing an agreement is an example of negotiated learning. Learning contracts
play a role in students’ responsibility for their own learning.

Negotiated learning can be applied as individual and group. Applied as individual, learning contract
can be used as a tool for supporting negotiated learning. Diverse learning needs of different students
can be specified at learning contract. When students practice their contracts, they study at different
speeds, levels and tasks on common goals, and develop their learning and thinking skills.

Learning Contract
Acquisition Topic: Group or Learning Achievement Student
Student Features Standard inventions
and
suggestions
1
2

9. Self-evaluation
In order to develop reflective thinking, students should evaluate their friends and themselves
withinthe process and at the end of process. Students develop and motivate themselves with this
process. A student having self-evaluation skills will play an active role in the process of his/her own
learning. He/she will have a critical perspective on his/her own learning and will gain responsibility
about his/her development.

REFLECTIVE TEACHING

Henderson (1996) describes reflective teaching as creative problem-solving activities and an inquiry
approach caring to constructivism at teaching and giving priority to give attention to the feelings of
others. All teachers can benefit from reflective teaching. Teachers think about what they want to

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accomplish in the classroom before the practice and they try to supply materials needed to achieve
their purposes. These preparations relieve teachers before coming to class. So they can regularly
reflect what happened in the past, what is happening now and what will happen in the future about
subject. At reflective thinking practices, it is observed that students’ motivation, willingness to take
risks, self-esteem and independence increase20.

According to the model of reflective teacher education, pre-service teacher transfers his/her
knowledge of theoretical and teaching experience into practice. He/she makes practices benefiting
from his/her theoretical and teaching experience knowledge. He/she think about any problem at
practice effectively, persistently, and systematically to solve the problem or to make the practice more
effective. He/she uses new knowledge and skills, which he/she configures at the end of thinking
process again at practice. The cycle continues in the same way. After performing reflective thinking
and teaching, he/she gains professional qualification and becomes a teacher21.

One of the important aspects of teacher education is reflective diary, which helps pre-service teachers
to think and to reveal the practical problems, which they experienced at schools. Reflective diaries are
used in studies for pre-service teachers’ understanding their practices and being understood by
others. Such diaries help them to see their practical problems more systematically, carefully and
persistently. These issues are the basis for teacher educators to understand how pre-service teachers’
experience22.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TEACHER THINKING REFLECTIVE

Norton (1997) lists the characteristics of teachers adopting reflective thinking as follows:
 He/she always evaluates the teaching process, thinks for making changes or reflects his/her
thoughts.
 Teachers are open-minded. They are always open to questions and reactions about their ideas
and teaching practices, and produce alternative solutions.
 They feel responsible for students’ personal, educational and emotional needs. They control of
each student’s development stages.
 Teachers thinking reflective are interested in science and art of teaching. They enjoy this attitude
because it helps them to understand who they are.
 Reflective teachers foresee and they help their students to foresee.
 Reflective teachers not only make generalizations by identifying the problems but also they use it
to change their professional development and understanding of practice.

Action of reflective thinking is characterized as continuous evaluation and willingness to development.


According to this definition, a reflective practitioner or teacher evaluates the practices within the
framework of a specific plan in accordance with the information obtained from a variety of data,
makes reflection and questioning about his/her studies and develops these practices. The stages,
which a teacher will follow in reflective teaching process, are as follows:

A reflective teacher thinks about his/her practices by looking at them again during the day: “Did my
practice work? What could I do to help that student?”. Reflective thinking is an ongoing process that
involves teacher’s questioning before school, at school and after school. Teacher constantly controls
the development of each student and continues to reflect even if there is not any data obtained from
students24.

A teaching program to develop thinking skills, teachers whose reflections can be an example to
students, curriculum which supports students’ reflective, critical and creative thinking skills, evaluation
which reveals students’ multi-faceted development, method and materials will be effective for
students to gain reflective thinking skills. Democratic and collaborative classroom environment in
which scientific thinking is supported can also be effective to develop reflective thinking skill25.
Feedback is important at teaching process based on reflection and students need to make sense of

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LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS

feedback presented by teacher and to implement this feedback to improve their performance in the
future.

Figure: Reflective Teaching Process

THE ROLE OF STUDENT IN REFLECTIVE THINKING

In a teaching process supporting reflective thinking, it should be provided that students are
confronted with pre-determined problems and they transform their theoretical knowledge into
practice. Students facing new problems and practices will be able to develop their reflective thinking
skills which organize and query actions such as asking question, studying, discussing. Students’
associating the school learning with out-of-school life will greatly contribute to development of
thinking.

THE CHALLENGES AT TEACHING REFLECTIVE THINKING

In general, teaching of thinking and reflective thinking will be time-consuming in parallel with the
process of skill teaching. Exams of the existing educational structure may limit the time for teaching
activities. As a result of this, families may react. Furthermore, in the present classes, the problems
about performing the student activities, which are required for the teaching of thinking, arise. The
deficiency of materials or budget problems in teaching process is one of the obstacles about the
teaching of thinking. That teachers who will ensure the students’ development of reflective thinking do
not have enough knowledge about teaching of thinking can be seen as a major obstacle for reflective
teaching.

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LEARNING AND TEACHING : THEORIES, APPROACHES AND MODELS

REFERENCES

1. Dewey, J. (1933). How WeThink, Boston, HealthandCompany.


2. Dewey, J. Mentioned Source.
3. Dewey, J. Mentioned Source.
4. Shön, D.A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professional Think in Action. New York: Basic
Books.
5. Shön, D.A. Mentioned Source.
6. Shön, D.A. Mentioned Source.
7. Özden (a). Y. (2003). Eğitimde Yeni Değerler, Ankara: PegemA Publication.
8. Perkins, D.N. (1986). Thinking Frames: An Integrative Perspective On Teaching Cognitive Skills.
New York: W.H. Freeman.
9. Ünver, G. (2003). Yansıtıcı Düşünme. Ankara: PegemA Publication.
10. Yorulmaz, M. (2006). İlköğretim I. Kademesinde Görev Yapan Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Yansıtıcı
Düşünmeye İlişkin Görüş ve Önerileri (Diyarbakır İli Örneği), Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Fırat
Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Elazığ.
11. Demirel, Ö.,Başbay, A. and Erdem, E. (2006). Eğitimde Çoklu Zeka: Kuram ve Uygulama. Ankara:
PegemA Publication.
12. Ünver,G. Mentioned Source.
13. Burgess, J.M.C. (1999). Reflections of Student Teachers: Comparisons Among Five Models of
Reflective Thought, Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation, University Of North Carolina.
14. Bağcıoğlu, G. (2000). Öğretmen Adaylarında Yansıtıcı Düşünceyi Geliştirici Etkinlikler. VIII. Ulusal
Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi Bilimsel Çalışmaları, Cilt I, Trabzon.
15. Ünver,G. Mentioned Source.
16. Yorulmaz, M. Mentioned Source.
17. Campbell, L. (1997). Variations on a Theme: How Teachers Interpret Multiple Intellegences.
Educational Leadership, Cilt:55, Sayı:1.
18. Erginel, S.Ş. (2006). Developing Reflective Teachers: A Study on Perception and Improvement of
Reflection in Pre-Service Teacher Education. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, ODTÜ Sosyal Bilimler
Enstitüsü, Ankara.
19. Yorulmaz, M. Mentioned Source.
20. Yorulmaz, M. Mentioned Source.
21. Ekiz, D. (2003). Sınıf Öğretmeni Adaylarının Öğretmen Eğitimindeki Modeller Hakkındaki
Düşünceleri. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 158.
22. Ekiz, D. Mentioned Source.
23. Demirel, Ö.,Başbay, A. and Erdem, E. Mentioned Source.
24.Stoddart, T. (1993). The Proffesional Development School: Building Bridges Between Cultures.
25. Miller, J.L. (1990). Creating Spaces and Finding Voices: Teachers Collaborating for
Empowerment.Albany: State University of New York.

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