Contents

MATLAB Tutorial ..................................................................................................................................... 2

MATLAB - Overview ................................................................................................................................ 3
MATLAB - Environment Setup ................................................................................................................ 5
MATLAB - Basic Syntax ............................................................................................................................ 9
MATLAB - Variables............................................................................................................................... 14
Creating Vectors.................................................................................................................................... 19
MATLAB - Commands ........................................................................................................................... 21
MATLAB - M-Files .................................................................................................................................. 29
MATLAB - Data Types ............................................................................................................................ 32
MATLAB - Operators ............................................................................................................................. 40
MATLAB - Decision Making ................................................................................................................... 47
MATLAB - Loop Types ........................................................................................................................... 49
MATLAB - Vectors ................................................................................................................................. 51
MATLAB - Matrix ................................................................................................................................... 54
MATLAB - Arrays ................................................................................................................................... 58
MATLAB - Colon Notation ..................................................................................................................... 67
MATLAB - Numbers ............................................................................................................................... 69
MATLAB - Strings................................................................................................................................... 74
MATLAB - Functions .............................................................................................................................. 82
MATLAB - Data Import .......................................................................................................................... 89
MATLAB - Data Output.......................................................................................................................... 97
MATLAB - Plotting ............................................................................................................................... 101
MATLAB - Graphics ............................................................................................................................. 109
MATLAB - Algebra ............................................................................................................................... 114
MATLAB - Calculus .............................................................................................................................. 123
MATLAB - Differential ......................................................................................................................... 129
MATLAB - Integration.......................................................................................................................... 145
MATLAB - Polynomials ........................................................................................................................ 153
MATLAB - Transforms ......................................................................................................................... 156
MATLAB - GNU Octave Tutorial .......................................................................................................... 162
MATLAB - Simulink .............................................................................................................................. 165
 MATLAB Tutorial

MATLAB is a programming language developed by MathWorks. It started

out as a matrix programming language where linear algebra programming
was simple. It can be run both under interactive sessions and as a batch
job. This tutorial gives you aggressively a gentle introduction of MATLAB
programming language. It is designed to give students fluency in MATLAB
programming language. Problem-based MATLAB examples have been
given in simple and easy way to make your learning fast and effective.

Audience
This tutorial has been prepared for the beginners to help them understand
basic to advanced functionality of MATLAB. After completing this tutorial
you will find yourself at a moderate level of expertise in using MATLAB
from where you can take yourself to next levels.

Prerequisites
We assume you have a little knowledge of any computer programming and
understand concepts like variables, constants, expression, statements,
etc. If you have done programming in any other high-level programming
language like C, C++ or Java, then it will be very much beneficial and
learning MATLAB will be like a fun for you.
 MATLAB - Overview

MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a fourth-generation high-level

programming language and interactive environment for numerical
computation, visualization and programming.
MATLAB is developed by MathWorks.

It allows matrix manipulations; plotting of functions and data;

implementation of algorithms; creation of user interfaces; interfacing with
programs written in other languages, including C, C++, Java, and
FORTRAN; analyze data; develop algorithms; and create models and
applications.

It has numerous built-in commands and math functions that help you in
mathematical calculations, generating plots, and performing numerical
methods.

MATLAB's Power of Computational

Mathematics
MATLAB is used in every facet of computational mathematics. Following
are some commonly used mathematical calculations where it is used most
commonly −

 Dealing with Matrices and Arrays

 2-D and 3-D Plotting and graphics

 Linear Algebra

 Algebraic Equations

 Non-linear Functions

 Statistics

 Data Analysis

 Calculus and Differential Equations

  Numerical Calculations

 Integration

 Transforms

 Curve Fitting

 Various other special functions

Features of MATLAB
Following are the basic features of MATLAB −

 It is a high-level language for numerical computation, visualization and

application development.

 It also provides an interactive environment for iterative exploration, design

and problem solving.

 It provides vast library of mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics,

Fourier analysis, filtering, optimization, numerical integration and solving
ordinary differential equations.

 It provides built-in graphics for visualizing data and tools for creating custom
plots.

 MATLAB's programming interface gives development tools for improving code

quality maintainability and maximizing performance.

 It provides tools for building applications with custom graphical interfaces.

 It provides functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external

applications and languages such as C, Java, .NET and Microsoft Excel.

Uses of MATLAB
MATLAB is widely used as a computational tool in science and engineering
encompassing the fields of physics, chemistry, math and all engineering
streams. It is used in a range of applications including −

 Signal Processing and Communications

 Image and Video Processing

 Control Systems

 Test and Measurement

 Computational Finance

 Computational Biology
 MATLAB - Environment Setup

Local Environment Setup

Setting up MATLAB environment is a matter of few clicks. The installer can
be downloaded from here.

MathWorks provides the licensed product, a trial version and a student

version as well. You need to log into the site and wait a little for their
approval.

After downloading the installer the software can be installed through few
clicks.
Understanding the MATLAB Environment
MATLAB development IDE can be launched from the icon created on the
desktop. The main working window in MATLAB is called the desktop. When
MATLAB is started, the desktop appears in its default layout −

The desktop has the following panels −

 Current Folder − This panel allows you to access the project folders and files.
 Command Window − This is the main area where commands can be entered
at the command line. It is indicated by the command prompt (>>).

 Workspace − The workspace shows all the variables created and/or imported
from files.

 Command History − This panel shows or return commands that are entered
at the command line.
 MATLAB - Basic Syntax

MATLAB environment behaves like a super-complex calculator. You can

enter commands at the >> command prompt.

MATLAB is an interpreted environment. In other words, you give a

command and MATLAB executes it right away.

Hands on Practice
Type a valid expression, for example,

5 + 5

And press ENTER

When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it
immediately and the result returned is −
ans = 10

Let us take up few more examples −

3 ^ 2 % 3 raised to the power of 2

When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it
immediately and the result returned is −
ans = 9

Another example,

sin(pi /2) % sine of angle 90o

When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it
immediately and the result returned is −
ans = 1

Another example,

7/0 % Divide by zero

When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it
immediately and the result returned is −
ans = Inf
warning: division by zero
Another example,

732 * 20.3

When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it
immediately and the result returned is −
ans = 1.4860e+04

MATLAB provides some special expressions for some mathematical

symbols, like pi for π, Inf for ∞, i (and j) for √-1 etc. Nan stands for 'not
a number'.

Use of Semicolon (;) in MATLAB

Semicolon (;) indicates end of statement. However, if you want to
suppress and hide the MATLAB output for an expression, add a semicolon
after the expression.

For example,

x = 3;

y = x + 5

When you click the Execute button, or type Ctrl+E, MATLAB executes it
immediately and the result returned is −
y = 8

Adding Comments
The percent symbol (%) is used for indicating a comment line. For
example,

x = 9 % assign the value 9 to x

You can also write a block of comments using the block comment operators
% { and % }.

The MATLAB editor includes tools and context menu items to help you add,
remove, or change the format of comments.

Commonly used Operators and Special

Characters
MATLAB supports the following commonly used operators and special
characters −
Operator Purpose

+ Plus; addition operator.

- Minus; subtraction operator.

* Scalar and matrix multiplication operator.

.* Array multiplication operator.

^ Scalar and matrix exponentiation operator.

.^ Array exponentiation operator.

\ Left-division operator.

/ Right-division operator.

.\ Array left-division operator.

./ Array right-division operator.

: Colon; generates regularly spaced elements and represents

an entire row or column.

() Parentheses; encloses function arguments and array indices;

overrides precedence.

[] Brackets; enclosures array elements.

. Decimal point.

… Ellipsis; line-continuation operator

 , Comma; separates statements and elements in a row

; Semicolon; separates columns and suppresses display.

% Percent sign; designates a comment and specifies formatting.

_ Quote sign and transpose operator.

._ Nonconjugated transpose operator.

= Assignment operator.

Special Variables and Constants

MATLAB supports the following special variables and constants −

Name Meaning

ans Most recent answer.

eps Accuracy of floating-point precision.

i,j The imaginary unit √-1.

Inf Infinity.

NaN Undefined numerical result (not a number).

pi The number π

Naming Variables
Variable names consist of a letter followed by any number of letters, digits
or underscore.

MATLAB is case-sensitive.
Variable names can be of any length, however, MATLAB uses only first N
characters, where N is given by the function namelengthmax.

Saving Your Work

The save command is used for saving all the variables in the workspace,
as a file with .mat extension, in the current directory.

For example,
save myfile

You can reload the file anytime later using the load command.
load myfile
 MATLAB - Variables

In MATLAB environment, every variable is an array or matrix.

You can assign variables in a simple way. For example,

x = 3 % defining x and initializing it with a value

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
x = 3

It creates a 1-by-1 matrix named x and stores the value 3 in its element.
Let us check another example,

x = sqrt(16) % defining x and initializing it with an expression

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
x = 4

Please note that −

 Once a variable is entered into the system, you can refer to it later.

 Variables must have values before they are used.

 When an expression returns a result that is not assigned to any variable, the
system assigns it to a variable named ans, which can be used later.

For example,

sqrt(78)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans = 8.8318

You can use this variable ans −

sqrt(78);

9876/ans
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans = 1118.2

Let's look at another example −

x = 7 * 8;

y = x * 7.89

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
y = 441.84

Multiple Assignments
You can have multiple assignments on the same line. For example,

a = 2; b = 7; c = a * b

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
c = 14

I have forgotten the Variables!

The who command displays all the variable names you have used.
who

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
Your variables are:
a ans b c

The whos command displays little more about the variables −

 Variables currently in memory

 Type of each variables

 Memory allocated to each variable

 Whether they are complex variables or not

whos

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
Attr Name Size Bytes Class
==== ==== ==== ==== =====
a 1x1 8 double
ans 1x70 757 cell
b 1x1 8 double
c 1x1 8 double

Total is 73 elements using 781 bytes

The clear command deletes all (or the specified) variable(s) from the
memory.
clear x % it will delete x, won't display anything
clear % it will delete all variables in the workspace
% peacefully and unobtrusively

Long Assignments
Long assignments can be extended to another line by using an ellipses
(...). For example,

initial_velocity = 0;

acceleration = 9.8;

time = 20;

final_velocity = initial_velocity + acceleration * time

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
final_velocity = 196

The format Command

By default, MATLAB displays numbers with four decimal place values. This
is known as short format.

However, if you want more precision, you need to use

the format command.

The format long command displays 16 digits after decimal.

For example −

format long

x = 7 + 10/3 + 5 ^ 1.2

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result−
x = 17.2319816406394
Another example,

format short

x = 7 + 10/3 + 5 ^ 1.2

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
x = 17.232

The format bank command rounds numbers to two decimal places. For
example,

format bank

daily_wage = 177.45;

weekly_wage = daily_wage * 6

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
weekly_wage = 1064.70

MATLAB displays large numbers using exponential notation.

The format short e command allows displaying in exponential form with

four decimal places plus the exponent.

For example,

format short e

4.678 * 4.9

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans = 2.2922e+01

The format long e command allows displaying in exponential form with

four decimal places plus the exponent. For example,

format long e

x = pi

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
x = 3.141592653589793e+00

The format rat command gives the closest rational expression resulting
from a calculation. For example,

format rat

4.678 * 4.9

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans = 34177/1491
 Creating Vectors

A vector is a one-dimensional array of numbers. MATLAB allows creating

two types of vectors −

 Row vectors

 Column vectors

Row vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square

brackets, using space or comma to delimit the elements.

For example,

r = [7 8 9 10 11]

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
r =

7 8 9 10 11

Another example,

r = [7 8 9 10 11];

t = [2, 3, 4, 5, 6];

res = r + t

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
res =

9 11 13 15 17

Column vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square

brackets, using semicolon(;) to delimit the elements.

c = [7; 8; 9; 10; 11]

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
c =
7
8
9
 10
11

Creating Matrices
A matrix is a two-dimensional array of numbers.

In MATLAB, a matrix is created by entering each row as a sequence of

space or comma separated elements, and end of a row is demarcated by
a semicolon. For example, let us create a 3-by-3 matrix as −

m = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9]

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
m =
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
 MATLAB - Commands

MATLAB is an interactive program for numerical computation and data

visualization. You can enter a command by typing it at the MATLAB prompt
'>>' on the Command Window.

In this section, we will provide lists of commonly used general MATLAB

commands.

Commands for Managing a Session

MATLAB provides various commands for managing a session. The following
table provides all such commands −

Command Purpose

clc Clears command window.

clear Removes variables from memory.

exist Checks for existence of file or variable.

global Declares variables to be global.

help Searches for a help topic.

lookfor Searches help entries for a keyword.

quit Stops MATLAB.

who Lists current variables.

whos Lists current variables (long display).

Commands for Working with the System
MATLAB provides various useful commands for working with the system,
like saving the current work in the workspace as a file and loading the file
later.

It also provides various commands for other system-related activities like,

displaying date, listing files in the directory, displaying current directory,
etc.

The following table displays some commonly used system-related

commands −

Command Purpose

cd Changes current directory.

date Displays current date.

delete Deletes a file.

diary Switches on/off diary file recording.

dir Lists all files in current directory.

load Loads workspace variables from a file.

path Displays search path.

pwd Displays current directory.

save Saves workspace variables in a file.

type Displays contents of a file.

what Lists all MATLAB files in the current directory.

 wklread Reads .wk1 spreadsheet file.

Input and Output Commands

MATLAB provides the following input and output related commands −

Command Purpose

disp Displays contents of an array or string.

fscanf Read formatted data from a file.

format Controls screen-display format.

fprintf Performs formatted writes to screen or file.

input Displays prompts and waits for input.

; Suppresses screen printing.

The fscanf and fprintf commands behave like C scanf and printf
functions. They support the following format codes −

Format Code Purpose

%s Format as a string.

%d Format as an integer.

%f Format as a floating point value.

%e Format as a floating point value in scientific notation.

%g Format in the most compact form: %f or %e.

 \n Insert a new line in the output string.

\t Insert a tab in the output string.

The format function has the following forms used for numeric display −

Format Function Display up to

format short Four decimal digits (default).

format long 16 decimal digits.

format short e Five digits plus exponent.

format long e 16 digits plus exponents.

format bank Two decimal digits.

format + Positive, negative, or zero.

format rat Rational approximation.

format compact Suppresses some line feeds.

format loose Resets to less compact display mode.

Vector, Matrix and Array Commands

The following table shows various commands used for working with arrays,
matrices and vectors −

Command Purpose

cat Concatenates arrays.

 find Finds indices of nonzero elements.

length Computes number of elements.

linspace Creates regularly spaced vector.

logspace Creates logarithmically spaced vector.

max Returns largest element.

min Returns smallest element.

prod Product of each column.

reshape Changes size.

size Computes array size.

sort Sorts each column.

sum Sums each column.

eye Creates an identity matrix.

ones Creates an array of ones.

zeros Creates an array of zeros.

cross Computes matrix cross products.

dot Computes matrix dot products.

 det Computes determinant of an array.

inv Computes inverse of a matrix.

pinv Computes pseudoinverse of a matrix.

rank Computes rank of a matrix.

rref Computes reduced row echelon form.

cell Creates cell array.

celldisp Displays cell array.

cellplot Displays graphical representation of cell array.

num2cell Converts numeric array to cell array.

deal Matches input and output lists.

iscell Identifies cell array.

Plotting Commands
MATLAB provides numerous commands for plotting graphs. The following
table shows some of the commonly used commands for plotting −

Command Purpose

axis Sets axis limits.

fplot Intelligent plotting of functions.

grid Displays gridlines.

 plot Generates xy plot.

print Prints plot or saves plot to a file.

title Puts text at top of plot.

xlabel Adds text label to x-axis.

ylabel Adds text label to y-axis.

axes Creates axes objects.

close Closes the current plot.

close all Closes all plots.

figure Opens a new figure window.

gtext Enables label placement by mouse.

hold Freezes current plot.

legend Legend placement by mouse.

refresh Redraws current figure window.

set Specifies properties of objects such as axes.

subplot Creates plots in subwindows.

text Places string in figure.

 bar Creates bar chart.

loglog Creates log-log plot.

polar Creates polar plot.

semilogx Creates semilog plot. (logarithmic abscissa).

semilogy Creates semilog plot. (logarithmic ordinate).

stairs Creates stairs plot.

stem Creates stem plot.

 MATLAB - M-Files

So far, we have used MATLAB environment as a calculator. However,

MATLAB is also a powerful programming language, as well as an interactive
computational environment.

In previous chapters, you have learned how to enter commands from the
MATLAB command prompt. MATLAB also allows you to write series of
commands into a file and execute the file as complete unit, like writing a
function and calling it.

The M Files
MATLAB allows writing two kinds of program files −

 Scripts − script files are program files with .m extension. In these files, you
write series of commands, which you want to execute together. Scripts do not
accept inputs and do not return any outputs. They operate on data in the
workspace.

 Functions − functions files are also program files with .m extension.

Functions can accept inputs and return outputs. Internal variables are local to
the function.

You can use the MATLAB editor or any other text editor to create
your .mfiles. In this section, we will discuss the script files. A script file
contains multiple sequential lines of MATLAB commands and function calls.
You can run a script by typing its name at the command line.

Creating and Running Script File

To create scripts files, you need to use a text editor. You can open the
MATLAB editor in two ways −

 Using the command prompt

 Using the IDE

If you are using the command prompt, type edit in the command prompt.
This will open the editor. You can directly type edit and then the filename
(with .m extension)

edit
Or

edit <filename>

The above command will create the file in default MATLAB directory. If you
want to store all program files in a specific folder, then you will have to
provide the entire path.

Let us create a folder named progs. Type the following commands at the
command prompt (>>) −

mkdir progs % create directory progs under default directory

chdir progs % changing the current directory to progs

edit prog1.m % creating an m file named prog1.m

If you are creating the file for first time, MATLAB prompts you to confirm
it. Click Yes.

Alternatively, if you are using the IDE, choose NEW -> Script. This also
opens the editor and creates a file named Untitled. You can name and save
the file after typing the code.

Type the following code in the editor −

NoOfStudents = 6000;

TeachingStaff = 150;

NonTeachingStaff = 20;
Total = NoOfStudents + TeachingStaff ...

+ NonTeachingStaff;

disp(Total);

After creating and saving the file, you can run it in two ways −

 Clicking the Run button on the editor window or

 Just typing the filename (without extension) in the command prompt: >>
prog1

The command window prompt displays the result −

6170

Example
Create a script file, and type the following code −

a = 5; b = 7;

c = a + b

d = c + sin(b)

e = 5 * d

f = exp(-d)

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
c = 12
d = 12.657
e = 63.285
f = 3.1852e-06
 MATLAB - Data Types

MATLAB does not require any type declaration or dimension statements.

Whenever MATLAB encounters a new variable name, it creates the variable
and allocates appropriate memory space.

If the variable already exists, then MATLAB replaces the original content
with new content and allocates new storage space, where necessary.

For example,
Total = 42

The above statement creates a 1-by-1 matrix named 'Total' and stores the
value 42 in it.

Data Types Available in MATLAB

MATLAB provides 15 fundamental data types. Every data type stores data
that is in the form of a matrix or array. The size of this matrix or array is
a minimum of 0-by-0 and this can grow up to a matrix or array of any size.

The following table shows the most commonly used data types in MATLAB
−

Sr.No. Data Type & Description

1 int8

8-bit signed integer

2 uint8

8-bit unsigned integer

3 int16

16-bit signed integer

4 uint16

16-bit unsigned integer

5 int32

32-bit signed integer

6 uint32

32-bit unsigned integer

7 int64

64-bit signed integer

8 uint64

64-bit unsigned integer

9 single

single precision numerical data

10 double

double precision numerical data

11 logical

logical values of 1 or 0, represent true and false respectively

12 char

character data (strings are stored as vector of characters)

13 cell array

array of indexed cells, each capable of storing an array of a different

dimension and data type

14 structure

C-like structures, each structure having named fields capable of storing

an array of a different dimension and data type
 15 function handle

pointer to a function

16 user classes

objects constructed from a user-defined class

17 java classes

objects constructed from a Java class

Example
Create a script file with the following code −

str = 'Hello World!'

n = 2345

d = double(n)

un = uint32(789.50)

rn = 5678.92347

c = int32(rn)

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
str = Hello World!
n = 2345
d = 2345
un = 790
rn = 5678.9
c = 5679

Data Type Conversion

MATLAB provides various functions for converting, a value from one data
type to another. The following table shows the data type conversion
functions −

Function Purpose

char Convert to character array (string)

 int2str Convert integer data to string

mat2str Convert matrix to string

num2str Convert number to string

str2double Convert string to double-precision value

str2num Convert string to number

native2unicode Convert numeric bytes to Unicode characters

unicode2native Convert Unicode characters to numeric bytes

base2dec Convert base N number string to decimal number

bin2dec Convert binary number string to decimal number

dec2base Convert decimal to base N number in string

dec2bin Convert decimal to binary number in string

dec2hex Convert decimal to hexadecimal number in string

hex2dec Convert hexadecimal number string to decimal number

hex2num Convert hexadecimal number string to double-precision

number

num2hex Convert singles and doubles to IEEE hexadecimal strings

cell2mat Convert cell array to numeric array

 cell2struct Convert cell array to structure array

cellstr Create cell array of strings from character array

mat2cell Convert array to cell array with potentially different sized

cells

num2cell Convert array to cell array with consistently sized cells

struct2cell Convert structure to cell array

Determination of Data Types

MATLAB provides various functions for identifying data type of a variable.

Following table provides the functions for determining the data type of a
variable −

Function Purpose

is Detect state

isa Determine if input is object of specified class

iscell Determine whether input is cell array

iscellstr Determine whether input is cell array of strings

ischar Determine whether item is character array

isfield Determine whether input is structure array field

isfloat Determine if input is floating-point array

ishghandle True for Handle Graphics object handles

 isinteger Determine if input is integer array

isjava Determine if input is Java object

islogical Determine if input is logical array

isnumeric Determine if input is numeric array

isobject Determine if input is MATLAB object

isreal Check if input is real array

isscalar Determine whether input is scalar

isstr Determine whether input is character array

isstruct Determine whether input is structure array

isvector Determine whether input is vector

class Determine class of object

validateattributes Check validity of array

whos List variables in workspace, with sizes and types

Example
Create a script file with the following code −

x = 3

isinteger(x)

isfloat(x)

isvector(x)
isscalar(x)

isnumeric(x)

x = 23.54

isinteger(x)

isfloat(x)

isvector(x)

isscalar(x)

isnumeric(x)

x = [1 2 3]

isinteger(x)

isfloat(x)

isvector(x)

isscalar(x)

x = 'Hello'

isinteger(x)

isfloat(x)

isvector(x)

isscalar(x)

isnumeric(x)

When you run the file, it produces the following result −

x = 3
ans = 0
ans = 1
ans = 1
ans = 1
ans = 1
x = 23.540
ans = 0
ans = 1
ans = 1
ans = 1
ans = 1
x =
 1 2 3

ans = 0
ans = 1
ans = 1
ans = 0
x = Hello
ans = 0
ans = 0
ans = 1
ans = 0
ans = 0
 MATLAB - Operators

An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific

mathematical or logical manipulations. MATLAB is designed to operate
primarily on whole matrices and arrays. Therefore, operators in MATLAB
work both on scalar and non-scalar data. MATLAB allows the following
types of elementary operations −

 Arithmetic Operators

 Relational Operators

 Logical Operators

 Bitwise Operations

 Set Operations

Arithmetic Operators
MATLAB allows two different types of arithmetic operations −

 Matrix arithmetic operations

 Array arithmetic operations

Matrix arithmetic operations are same as defined in linear algebra. Array

operations are executed element by element, both on one-dimensional and
multidimensional array.

The matrix operators and array operators are differentiated by the period
(.) symbol. However, as the addition and subtraction operation is same for
matrices and arrays, the operator is same for both cases. The following
table gives brief description of the operators −

Show Examples

Sr.No. Operator & Description

1 +

Addition or unary plus. A+B adds the values stored in variables A and B.
A and B must have the same size, unless one is a scalar. A scalar can be
added to a matrix of any size.
2 -

Subtraction or unary minus. A-B subtracts the value of B from A. A and B

must have the same size, unless one is a scalar. A scalar can be subtracted
from a matrix of any size.

3 *

Matrix multiplication. C = A*B is the linear algebraic product of the

matrices A and B. More precisely,

For non-scalar A and B, the number of columns of A must be equal to the

number of rows of B. A scalar can multiply a matrix of any size.

4 .*

Array multiplication. A.*B is the element-by-element product of the arrays

A and B. A and B must have the same size, unless one of them is a scalar.

5 /

Slash or matrix right division. B/A is roughly the same as B*inv(A). More
precisely, B/A = (A'\B')'.

6 ./

Array right division. A./B is the matrix with elements A(i,j)/B(i,j). A and B
must have the same size, unless one of them is a scalar.

7 \

Backslash or matrix left division. If A is a square matrix, A\B is roughly

the same as inv(A)*B, except it is computed in a different way. If A is an
n-by-n matrix and B is a column vector with n components, or a matrix
with several such columns, then X = A\B is the solution to the equation AX
= B. A warning message is displayed if A is badly scaled or nearly singular.

8 .\
 Array left division. A.\B is the matrix with elements B(i,j)/A(i,j). A and B
must have the same size, unless one of them is a scalar.

9 ^

Matrix power. X^p is X to the power p, if p is a scalar. If p is an integer,

the power is computed by repeated squaring. If the integer is negative, X
is inverted first. For other values of p, the calculation involves eigenvalues
and eigenvectors, such that if [V,D] = eig(X), then X^p = V*D.^p/V.

10 .^

Array power. A.^B is the matrix with elements A(i,j) to the B(i,j) power.
A and B must have the same size, unless one of them is a scalar.

11 '

Matrix transpose. A' is the linear algebraic transpose of A. For complex

matrices, this is the complex conjugate transpose.

12 .'

Array transpose. A.' is the array transpose of A. For complex matrices,

this does not involve conjugation.

Relational Operators
Relational operators can also work on both scalar and non-scalar data.
Relational operators for arrays perform element-by-element comparisons
between two arrays and return a logical array of the same size, with
elements set to logical 1 (true) where the relation is true and elements set
to logical 0 (false) where it is not.

The following table shows the relational operators available in MATLAB −

Sr.No. Operator & Description

1 <
 Less than

2 <=

Less than or equal to

3 >

Greater than

4 >=

Greater than or equal to

5 ==

Equal to

6 ~=

Not equal to

Logical Operators
MATLAB offers two types of logical operators and functions −

 Element-wise − These operators operate on corresponding elements of logical

arrays.

 Short-circuit − These operators operate on scalar and, logical expressions.

Element-wise logical operators operate element-by-element on logical

arrays. The symbols &, |, and ~ are the logical array operators AND, OR,
and NOT.

Short-circuit logical operators allow short-circuiting on logical operations.

The symbols && and || are the logical short-circuit operators AND and OR.

Bitwise Operations
Bitwise operators work on bits and perform bit-by-bit operation. The truth
tables for &, |, and ^ are as follows −

p q p&q p|q p^q

 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 0

1 0 0 1 1

Assume if A = 60; and B = 13; Now in binary format they will be as follows
−

A = 0011 1100

B = 0000 1101

-----------------

A&B = 0000 1100

A|B = 0011 1101

A^B = 0011 0001

~A = 1100 0011

MATLAB provides various functions for bit-wise operations like 'bitwise

and', 'bitwise or' and 'bitwise not' operations, shift operation, etc.

The following table shows the commonly used bitwise operations −

Function Purpose

bitand(a, b) Bit-wise AND of integers a and b

bitcmp(a) Bit-wise complement of a

bitget(a,pos) Get bit at specified position pos, in the integer array a

bitor(a, b) Bit-wise OR of integers a and b

 bitset(a, pos) Set bit at specific location pos of a

bitshift(a, k) Returns a shifted to the left by k bits, equivalent to

multiplying by 2k. Negative values of k correspond to shifting
bits right or dividing by 2|k| and rounding to the nearest
integer towards negative infinite. Any overflow bits are
truncated.

bitxor(a, b) Bit-wise XOR of integers a and b

swapbytes Swap byte ordering

Set Operations
MATLAB provides various functions for set operations, like union,
intersection and testing for set membership, etc.

The following table shows some commonly used set operations −

Show Examples

Sr.No. Function & Description

1 intersect(A,B)

Set intersection of two arrays; returns the values common to both A and
B. The values returned are in sorted order.

2 intersect(A,B,'rows')

Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns the
rows common to both A and B. The rows of the returned matrix are in
sorted order.

3 ismember(A,B)

Returns an array the same size as A, containing 1 (true) where the

elements of A are found in B. Elsewhere, it returns 0 (false).

4 ismember(A,B,'rows')
 Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns a
vector containing 1 (true) where the rows of matrix A are also rows of B.
Elsewhere, it returns 0 (false).

5 issorted(A)

Returns logical 1 (true) if the elements of A are in sorted order and logical
0 (false) otherwise. Input A can be a vector or an N-by-1 or 1-by-N cell
array of strings. A is considered to be sorted if Aand the output of
sort(A) are equal.

6 issorted(A, 'rows')

Returns logical 1 (true) if the rows of two-dimensional matrix A is in sorted

order, and logical 0 (false) otherwise. Matrix A is considered to be
sorted if A and the output of sortrows(A) are equal.

7 setdiff(A,B)

Sets difference of two arrays; returns the values in A that are not in B.
The values in the returned array are in sorted order.

8 setdiff(A,B,'rows')

Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns the
rows from A that are not in B. The rows of the returned matrix are in
sorted order.

The 'rows' option does not support cell arrays.

9 setxor

Sets exclusive OR of two arrays

10 union

Sets union of two arrays

11 unique

Unique values in array

 MATLAB - Decision Making

Decision making structures require that the programmer should specify

one or more conditions to be evaluated or tested by the program, along
with a statement or statements to be executed if the condition is
determined to be true, and optionally, other statements to be executed if
the condition is determined to be false.

Following is the general form of a typical decision making structure found

in most of the programming languages −

MATLAB provides following types of decision making statements. Click the

following links to check their detail −

Sr.No. Statement & Description

1 if ... end statement

An if ... end statement consists of a boolean expression followed by one

or more statements.
2 if...else...end statement

An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which

executes when the boolean expression is false.

3 If... elseif...elseif...else...end statements

An if statement can be followed by one (or more) optional elseif...and

an else statement, which is very useful to test various conditions.

4 nested if statements

You can use one if or elseif statement inside

another if or elseifstatement(s).

5 switch statement

A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a

list of values.

6 nested switch statements

You can use one switch statement inside another switchstatement(s).

 MATLAB - Loop Types

There may be a situation when you need to execute a block of code several
number of times. In general, statements are executed sequentially. The
first statement in a function is executed first, followed by the second, and
so on.

Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for

more complicated execution paths.

A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements

multiple times and following is the general form of a loop statement in
most of the programming languages −

MATLAB provides following types of loops to handle looping requirements.

Click the following links to check their detail −

Sr.No. Loop Type & Description

1 while loop

Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is

true. It tests the condition before executing the loop body.
2 for loop

Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the

code that manages the loop variable.

3 nested loops

You can use one or more loops inside any another loop.

Loop Control Statements

Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence.
When execution leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in
that scope are destroyed.

MATLAB supports the following control statements. Click the following links
to check their detail.

Sr.No. Control Statement & Description

1 break statement

Terminates the loop statement and transfers execution to the statement

immediately following the loop.

2 continue statement

Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and immediately retest
its condition prior to reiterating.
 MATLAB - Vectors

A vector is a one-dimensional array of numbers. MATLAB allows creating

two types of vectors −

 Row vectors

 Column vectors

Row Vectors
Row vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square
brackets, using space or comma to delimit the elements.

r = [7 8 9 10 11]

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
r =

7 8 9 10 11

Column Vectors
Column vectors are created by enclosing the set of elements in square
brackets, using semicolon to delimit the elements.

c = [7; 8; 9; 10; 11]

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
c =
7
8
9
10
11

Referencing the Elements of a Vector

You can reference one or more of the elements of a vector in several ways.
The ith component of a vector v is referred as v(i). For example −

v = [ 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6]; % creating a column vector of 6 elements

v(3)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans = 3

When you reference a vector with a colon, such as v(:), all the components
of the vector are listed.

v = [ 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6]; % creating a column vector of 6 elements

v(:)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
1
2
3
4
5
6

MATLAB allows you to select a range of elements from a vector.

For example, let us create a row vector rv of 9 elements, then we will

reference the elements 3 to 7 by writing rv(3:7) and create a new vector
named sub_rv.

rv = [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9];

sub_rv = rv(3:7)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
sub_rv =

3 4 5 6 7

Vector Operations
In this section, let us discuss the following vector operations −

 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

 Scalar Multiplication of Vectors

 Transpose of a Vector

 Appending Vectors

 Magnitude of a Vector
 Vector Dot Product

 Vectors with Uniformly Spaced Elements

 MATLAB - Matrix

A matrix is a two-dimensional array of numbers.

In MATLAB, you create a matrix by entering elements in each row as

comma or space delimited numbers and using semicolons to mark the end
of each row.

For example, let us create a 4-by-5 matrix a −

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8]

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
a =
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 6 7
4 5 6 7 8

Referencing the Elements of a Matrix

To reference an element in the mth row and nth column, of a matrix mx,
we write −
mx(m, n);

For example, to refer to the element in the 2nd row and 5th column, of the
matrix a, as created in the last section, we type −

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];

a(2,5)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans = 6

To reference all the elements in the mth column we type A(:,m).

Let us create a column vector v, from the elements of the 4 th row of the
matrix a −

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];

v = a(:,4)
MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
v =
4
5
6
7

You can also select the elements in the mth through nth columns, for this
we write −

a(:,m:n)

Let us create a smaller matrix taking the elements from the second and
third columns −

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];

a(:, 2:3)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
2 3
3 4
4 5
5 6

In the same way, you can create a sub-matrix taking a sub-part of a

matrix.

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];

a(:, 2:3)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
2 3
3 4
4 5
5 6

In the same way, you can create a sub-matrix taking a sub-part of a

matrix.

For example, let us create a sub-matrix sa taking the inner subpart of a −

3 4 5
4 5 6
To do this, write −

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];

sa = a(2:3,2:4)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
sa =
3 4 5
4 5 6

Deleting a Row or a Column in a Matrix

You can delete an entire row or column of a matrix by assigning an empty
set of square braces [] to that row or column. Basically, [] denotes an
empty array.

For example, let us delete the fourth row of a −

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];

a( 4 , : ) = []

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
a =
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 6 7

Next, let us delete the fifth column of a −

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];

a(: , 5)=[]

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
a =
1 2 3 4
2 3 4 5
3 4 5 6
4 5 6 7

Example
In this example, let us create a 3-by-3 matrix m, then we will copy the
second and third rows of this matrix twice to create a 4-by-3 matrix.
Create a script file with the following code −

a = [ 1 2 3 ; 4 5 6; 7 8 9];

new_mat = a([2,3,2,3],:)

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

new_mat =
4 5 6
7 8 9
4 5 6
7 8 9

Matrix Operations
In this section, let us discuss the following basic and commonly used
matrix operations −

 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

 Division of Matrices

 Scalar Operations of Matrices

 Transpose of a Matrix

 Concatenating Matrices

 Matrix Multiplication

 Determinant of a Matrix

 Inverse of a Matrix
 MATLAB - Arrays

All variables of all data types in MATLAB are multidimensional arrays. A

vector is a one-dimensional array and a matrix is a two-dimensional array.

We have already discussed vectors and matrices. In this chapter, we will

discuss multidimensional arrays. However, before that, let us discuss some
special types of arrays.

Special Arrays in MATLAB

In this section, we will discuss some functions that create some special
arrays. For all these functions, a single argument creates a square array,
double arguments create rectangular array.

The zeros() function creates an array of all zeros −

For example −

zeros(5)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

The ones() function creates an array of all ones −

For example −

ones(4,3)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

The eye() function creates an identity matrix.

For example −
eye(4)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

The rand() function creates an array of uniformly distributed random

numbers on (0,1) −

For example −

rand(3, 5)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
0.8147 0.9134 0.2785 0.9649 0.9572
0.9058 0.6324 0.5469 0.1576 0.4854
0.1270 0.0975 0.9575 0.9706 0.8003

A Magic Square
A magic square is a square that produces the same sum, when its
elements are added row-wise, column-wise or diagonally.

The magic() function creates a magic square array. It takes a singular

argument that gives the size of the square. The argument must be a scalar
greater than or equal to 3.

magic(4)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
16 2 3 13
5 11 10 8
9 7 6 12
4 14 15 1

Multidimensional Arrays
An array having more than two dimensions is called a multidimensional
array in MATLAB. Multidimensional arrays in MATLAB are an extension of
the normal two-dimensional matrix.
Generally to generate a multidimensional array, we first create a two-
dimensional array and extend it.

For example, let's create a two-dimensional array a.

a = [7 9 5; 6 1 9; 4 3 2]

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
a =
7 9 5
6 1 9
4 3 2

The array a is a 3-by-3 array; we can add a third dimension to a, by

providing the values like −

a(:, :, 2)= [ 1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9]

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
a =

ans(:,:,1) =

0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0

ans(:,:,2) =

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

We can also create multidimensional arrays using the ones(), zeros() or

the rand() functions.

For example,

b = rand(4,3,2)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
b(:,:,1) =
0.0344 0.7952 0.6463
0.4387 0.1869 0.7094
0.3816 0.4898 0.7547
0.7655 0.4456 0.2760

b(:,:,2) =
0.6797 0.4984 0.2238
 0.6551 0.9597 0.7513
0.1626 0.3404 0.2551
0.1190 0.5853 0.5060

We can also use the cat() function to build multidimensional arrays. It

concatenates a list of arrays along a specified dimension −

Syntax for the cat() function is −

B = cat(dim, A1, A2...)

Where,

 B is the new array created

 A1, A2, ... are the arrays to be concatenated

 dim is the dimension along which to concatenate the arrays

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

a = [9 8 7; 6 5 4; 3 2 1];

b = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9];

c = cat(3, a, b, [ 2 3 1; 4 7 8; 3 9 0])

When you run the file, it displays −

c(:,:,1) =
9 8 7
6 5 4
3 2 1
c(:,:,2) =
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
c(:,:,3) =
2 3 1
4 7 8
3 9 0

Array Functions
MATLAB provides the following functions to sort, rotate, permute, reshape,
or shift array contents.

Function Purpose

length Length of vector or largest array dimension

 ndims Number of array dimensions

numel Number of array elements

size Array dimensions

iscolumn Determines whether input is column vector

isempty Determines whether array is empty

ismatrix Determines whether input is matrix

isrow Determines whether input is row vector

isscalar Determines whether input is scalar

isvector Determines whether input is vector

blkdiag Constructs block diagonal matrix from input arguments

circshift Shifts array circularly

ctranspose Complex conjugate transpose

diag Diagonal matrices and diagonals of matrix

flipdim Flips array along specified dimension

fliplr Flips matrix from left to right

flipud Flips matrix up to down

 ipermute Inverses permute dimensions of N-D array

permute Rearranges dimensions of N-D array

repmat Replicates and tile array

reshape Reshapes array

rot90 Rotates matrix 90 degrees

shiftdim Shifts dimensions

issorted Determines whether set elements are in sorted order

sort Sorts array elements in ascending or descending order

sortrows Sorts rows in ascending order

squeeze Removes singleton dimensions

transpose Transpose

vectorize Vectorizes expression

Examples
The following examples illustrate some of the functions mentioned above.

Length, Dimension and Number of elements −

Create a script file and type the following code into it −

x = [7.1, 3.4, 7.2, 28/4, 3.6, 17, 9.4, 8.9];

length(x) % length of x vector

y = rand(3, 4, 5, 2);

ndims(y) % no of dimensions in array y

s = ['Zara', 'Nuha', 'Shamim', 'Riz', 'Shadab'];

numel(s) % no of elements in s

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

ans = 8
ans = 4
ans = 23

Circular Shifting of the Array Elements −

Create a script file and type the following code into it −

a = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9] % the original array a

b = circshift(a,1) % circular shift first dimension values down by 1.

c = circshift(a,[1 -1]) % circular shift first dimension values % down by 1

% and second dimension values to the left % by 1.

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

a =
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

b =
7 8 9
1 2 3
4 5 6

c =
8 9 7
2 3 1
5 6 4

Sorting Arrays
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

v = [ 23 45 12 9 5 0 19 17] % horizontal vector

sort(v) % sorting v

m = [2 6 4; 5 3 9; 2 0 1] % two dimensional array

sort(m, 1) % sorting m along the row

sort(m, 2) % sorting m along the column

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

v =
23 45 12 9 5 0 19 17
ans =
 0 5 9 12 17 19 23 45
m =
2 6 4
5 3 9
2 0 1
ans =
2 0 1
2 3 4
5 6 9
ans =
2 4 6
3 5 9
0 1 2

Cell Array
Cell arrays are arrays of indexed cells where each cell can store an array
of a different dimensions and data types.

The cell function is used for creating a cell array. Syntax for the cell
function is −

C = cell(dim)

C = cell(dim1,...,dimN)

D = cell(obj)

Where,
 C is the cell array;

 dim is a scalar integer or vector of integers that specifies the dimensions of

cell array C;

 dim1, ... , dimN are scalar integers that specify the dimensions of C;

 obj is One of the following −

o Java array or object

o .NET array of type System.String or System.Object

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

c = cell(2, 5);

c = {'Red', 'Blue', 'Green', 'Yellow', 'White'; 1 2 3 4 5}

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

c =
{
[1,1] = Red
 [2,1] = 1
[1,2] = Blue
[2,2] = 2
[1,3] = Green
[2,3] = 3
[1,4] = Yellow
[2,4] = 4
[1,5] = White
[2,5] = 5
}

Accessing Data in Cell Arrays

There are two ways to refer to the elements of a cell array −

 Enclosing the indices in first bracket (), to refer to sets of cells

 Enclosing the indices in braces {}, to refer to the data within individual cells

When you enclose the indices in first bracket, it refers to the set of cells.

Cell array indices in smooth parentheses refer to sets of cells.

For example −

c = {'Red', 'Blue', 'Green', 'Yellow', 'White'; 1 2 3 4 5};

c(1:2,1:2)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
{
[1,1] = Red
[2,1] = 1
[1,2] = Blue
[2,2] = 2
}

You can also access the contents of cells by indexing with curly braces.

For example −

c = {'Red', 'Blue', 'Green', 'Yellow', 'White'; 1 2 3 4 5};

c{1, 2:4}

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans = Blue
ans = Green
ans = Yellow
 MATLAB - Colon Notation

The colon(:) is one of the most useful operator in MATLAB. It is used to

create vectors, subscript arrays, and specify for iterations.

If you want to create a row vector, containing integers from 1 to 10, you
write −

1:10

MATLAB executes the statement and returns a row vector containing the
integers from 1 to 10 −
ans =

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

If you want to specify an increment value other than one, for example −

100: -5: 50

MATLAB executes the statement and returns the following result −

ans =
100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50

Let us take another example −

0:pi/8:pi

MATLAB executes the statement and returns the following result −

ans =
Columns 1 through 7
0 0.3927 0.7854 1.1781 1.5708 1.9635 2.3562
Columns 8 through 9
2.7489 3.1416

You can use the colon operator to create a vector of indices to select rows,
columns or elements of arrays.

The following table describes its use for this purpose (let us have a matrix
A) −

Format Purpose

A(:,j) is the jth column of A.

 A(i,:) is the ith row of A.

A(:,:) is the equivalent two-dimensional array. For matrices this is the same
as A.

A(j:k) is A(j), A(j+1),...,A(k).

A(:,j:k) is A(:,j), A(:,j+1),...,A(:,k).

A(:,:,k) is the kth page of three-dimensional array A.

A(i,j,k,:) is a vector in four-dimensional array A. The vector includes A(i,j,k,1),

A(i,j,k,2), A(i,j,k,3), and so on.

A(:) is all the elements of A, regarded as a single column. On the left side
of an assignment statement, A(:) fills A, preserving its shape from
before. In this case, the right side must contain the same number of
elements as A.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it −

A = [1 2 3 4; 4 5 6 7; 7 8 9 10]

A(:,2) % second column of A

A(:,2:3) % second and third column of A

A(2:3,2:3) % second and third rows and second and third columns

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

A =
1 2 3 4
4 5 6 7
7 8 9 10

ans =
2
5
8

ans =
2 3
5 6
8 9
ans =
5 6
8 9

MATLAB - Numbers
MATLAB supports various numeric classes that include signed and
unsigned integers and single-precision and double-precision floating-point
numbers. By default, MATLAB stores all numeric values as double-
precision floating point numbers.

You can choose to store any number or array of numbers as integers or as

single-precision numbers.

All numeric types support basic array operations and mathematical

operations.

Conversion to Various Numeric Data

Types
MATLAB provides the following functions to convert to various numeric
data types −

Function Purpose

double Converts to double precision number

single Converts to single precision number

int8 Converts to 8-bit signed integer

int16 Converts to 16-bit signed integer

int32 Converts to 32-bit signed integer

int64 Converts to 64-bit signed integer

uint8 Converts to 8-bit unsigned integer

uint16 Converts to 16-bit unsigned integer

uint32 Converts to 32-bit unsigned integer

 uint64 Converts to 64-bit unsigned integer

Example
Create a script file and type the following code −

x = single([5.32 3.47 6.28]) .* 7.5

x = double([5.32 3.47 6.28]) .* 7.5

x = int8([5.32 3.47 6.28]) .* 7.5

x = int16([5.32 3.47 6.28]) .* 7.5

x = int32([5.32 3.47 6.28]) .* 7.5

x = int64([5.32 3.47 6.28]) .* 7.5

When you run the file, it shows the following result −

x =

39.900 26.025 47.100

x =

39.900 26.025 47.100

x =

38 23 45

x =

38 23 45

x =

38 23 45

x =

38 23 45

Example
Let us extend the previous example a little more. Create a script file and
type the following code −

x = int32([5.32 3.47 6.28]) .* 7.5

x = int64([5.32 3.47 6.28]) .* 7.5

x = num2cell(x)

When you run the file, it shows the following result −

x =

38 23 45

x =

38 23 45

x =
{
[1,1] = 38
[1,2] = 23
[1,3] = 45
}

Smallest and Largest Integers

The functions intmax() and intmin() return the maximum and minimum
values that can be represented with all types of integer numbers.

Both the functions take the integer data type as the argument, for
example, intmax(int8) or intmin(int64) and return the maximum and
minimum values that you can represent with the integer data type.

Example
The following example illustrates how to obtain the smallest and largest
values of integers. Create a script file and write the following code in it −

% displaying the smallest and largest signed integer data

str = 'The range for int8 is:\n\t%d to %d ';

sprintf(str, intmin('int8'), intmax('int8'))

str = 'The range for int16 is:\n\t%d to %d ';

sprintf(str, intmin('int16'), intmax('int16'))

str = 'The range for int32 is:\n\t%d to %d ';

sprintf(str, intmin('int32'), intmax('int32'))

str = 'The range for int64 is:\n\t%d to %d ';

sprintf(str, intmin('int64'), intmax('int64'))

% displaying the smallest and largest unsigned integer data

str = 'The range for uint8 is:\n\t%d to %d ';

sprintf(str, intmin('uint8'), intmax('uint8'))

str = 'The range for uint16 is:\n\t%d to %d ';

sprintf(str, intmin('uint16'), intmax('uint16'))

str = 'The range for uint32 is:\n\t%d to %d ';

sprintf(str, intmin('uint32'), intmax('uint32'))

str = 'The range for uint64 is:\n\t%d to %d ';

sprintf(str, intmin('uint64'), intmax('uint64'))

When you run the file, it shows the following result −

ans = The range for int8 is:
-128 to 127
ans = The range for int16 is:
-32768 to 32767
ans = The range for int32 is:
-2147483648 to 2147483647
ans = The range for int64 is:
0 to 0
ans = The range for uint8 is:
0 to 255
ans = The range for uint16 is:
0 to 65535
ans = The range for uint32 is:
0 to -1
ans = The range for uint64 is:
0 to 18446744073709551616

Smallest and Largest Floating Point

Numbers
The functions realmax() and realmin() return the maximum and
minimum values that can be represented with floating point numbers.

Both the functions when called with the argument 'single', return the
maximum and minimum values that you can represent with the single-
precision data type and when called with the argument 'double', return the
maximum and minimum values that you can represent with the double-
precision data type.
Example
The following example illustrates how to obtain the smallest and largest
floating point numbers. Create a script file and write the following code in
it −

% displaying the smallest and largest single-precision

% floating point number

str = 'The range for single is:\n\t%g to %g and\n\t %g to %g';

sprintf(str, -realmax('single'), -realmin('single'), ...

realmin('single'), realmax('single'))

% displaying the smallest and largest double-precision

% floating point number

str = 'The range for double is:\n\t%g to %g and\n\t %g to %g';

sprintf(str, -realmax('double'), -realmin('double'), ...

realmin('double'), realmax('double'))

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

ans = The range for single is:
-3.40282e+38 to -1.17549e-38 and
1.17549e-38 to 3.40282e+38
ans = The range for double is:
-1.79769e+308 to -2.22507e-308 and
2.22507e-308 to 1.79769e+308

MATLAB - Strings
Creating a character string is quite simple in MATLAB. In fact, we have
used it many times. For example, you type the following in the command
prompt −

my_string = 'Tutorials Point'

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
my_string = Tutorials Point

MATLAB considers all variables as arrays, and strings are considered as

character arrays. Let us use the whos command to check the variable
created above −

whos

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
Name Size Bytes Class Attributes
my_string 1x16 32 char

Interestingly, you can use numeric conversion functions

like uint8 or uint16to convert the characters in the string to their numeric
codes. The charfunction converts the integer vector back to characters −

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

my_string = 'Tutorial''s Point';

str_ascii = uint8(my_string) % 8-bit ascii values

str_back_to_char= char(str_ascii)

str_16bit = uint16(my_string) % 16-bit ascii values

str_back_to_char = char(str_16bit)

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

str_ascii =

84 117 116 111 114 105 97 108 39 115 32 80 111 105 110 116

str_back_to_char = Tutorial's Point

str_16bit =

84 117 116 111 114 105 97 108 39 115 32 80 111 105 110 116
str_back_to_char = Tutorial's Point

Rectangular Character Array

The strings we have discussed so far are one-dimensional character
arrays; however, we need to store more than that. We need to store more
dimensional textual data in our program. This is achieved by creating
rectangular character arrays.

Simplest way of creating a rectangular character array is by concatenating

two or more one-dimensional character arrays, either vertically or
horizontally as required.

You can combine strings vertically in either of the following ways −

 Using the MATLAB concatenation operator [] and separating each row with a
semicolon (;). Please note that in this method each row must contain the same
number of characters. For strings with different lengths, you should pad with
space characters as needed.

 Using the char function. If the strings are of different lengths, char pads the
shorter strings with trailing blanks so that each row has the same number of
characters.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

doc_profile = ['Zara Ali '; ...

'Sr. Surgeon '; ...

'R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center']

doc_profile = char('Zara Ali', 'Sr. Surgeon', ...

'RN Tagore Cardiology Research Center')

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

doc_profile =
Zara Ali
Sr. Surgeon
R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center
doc_profile =
Zara Ali
Sr. Surgeon
RN Tagore Cardiology Research Center

You can combine strings horizontally in either of the following ways −

  Using the MATLAB concatenation operator, [] and separating the input strings
with a comma or a space. This method preserves any trailing spaces in the
input arrays.

 Using the string concatenation function, strcat. This method removes trailing
spaces in the inputs.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

name = 'Zara Ali ';

position = 'Sr. Surgeon ';

worksAt = 'R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center';

profile = [name ', ' position ', ' worksAt]

profile = strcat(name, ', ', position, ', ', worksAt)

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

profile = Zara Ali , Sr. Surgeon , R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center
profile = Zara Ali,Sr. Surgeon,R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center

Combining Strings into a Cell Array

From our previous discussion, it is clear that combining strings with
different lengths could be a pain as all strings in the array has to be of the
same length. We have used blank spaces at the end of strings to equalize
their length.

However, a more efficient way to combine the strings is to convert the

resulting array into a cell array.

MATLAB cell array can hold different sizes and types of data in an array.
Cell arrays provide a more flexible way to store strings of varying length.

The cellstr function converts a character array into a cell array of strings.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

name = 'Zara Ali ';

position = 'Sr. Surgeon ';

worksAt = 'R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center';

profile = char(name, position, worksAt);

profile = cellstr(profile);

disp(profile)

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

{
[1,1] = Zara Ali
[2,1] = Sr. Surgeon
[3,1] = R N Tagore Cardiology Research Center
}

String Functions in MATLAB

MATLAB provides numerous string functions creating, combining, parsing,
comparing and manipulating strings.

Following table provides brief description of the string functions in MATLAB

−

Function Purpose

Functions for storing text in character arrays, combine character arrays,

etc.

blanks Create string of blank characters

cellstr Create cell array of strings from character array

char Convert to character array (string)

iscellstr Determine whether input is cell array of strings

ischar Determine whether item is character array

sprintf Format data into string

strcat Concatenate strings horizontally

strjoin Join strings in cell array into single string

Functions for identifying parts of strings, find and replace substrings

ischar Determine whether item is character array

isletter Array elements that are alphabetic letters

isspace Array elements that are space characters

isstrprop Determine whether string is of specified category

sscanf Read formatted data from string

strfind Find one string within another

strrep Find and replace substring

strsplit Split string at specified delimiter

strtok Selected parts of string

validatestring Check validity of text string

symvar Determine symbolic variables in expression

regexp Match regular expression (case sensitive)

regexpi Match regular expression (case insensitive)

regexprep Replace string using regular expression

regexptranslate Translate string into regular expression

 Functions for string comparison

strcmp Compare strings (case sensitive)

strcmpi Compare strings (case insensitive)

strncmp Compare first n characters of strings (case sensitive)

strncmpi Compare first n characters of strings (case insensitive)

Functions for changing string to upper- or lowercase, creating or

removing white space

deblank Strip trailing blanks from end of string

strtrim Remove leading and trailing white space from string

lower Convert string to lowercase

upper Convert string to uppercase

strjust Justify character array

Examples
The following examples illustrate some of the above-mentioned string
functions −

FORMATTING STRINGS
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

A = pi*1000*ones(1,5);

sprintf(' %f \n %.2f \n %+.2f \n %12.2f \n %012.2f \n', A)

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

ans = 3141.592654
3141.59
 +3141.59
3141.59
000003141.59

JOINING STRINGS
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

%cell array of strings

str_array = {'red','blue','green', 'yellow', 'orange'};

% Join strings in cell array into single string

str1 = strjoin(str_array, "-")

str2 = strjoin(str_array, ",")

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

str1 = red-blue-green-yellow-orange
str2 = red,blue,green,yellow,orange

FINDING AND REPLACING STRINGS

Create a script file and type the following code into it −

students = {'Zara Ali', 'Neha Bhatnagar', ...

'Monica Malik', 'Madhu Gautam', ...

'Madhu Sharma', 'Bhawna Sharma',...

'Nuha Ali', 'Reva Dutta', ...

'Sunaina Ali', 'Sofia Kabir'};

% The strrep function searches and replaces sub-string.

new_student = strrep(students(8), 'Reva', 'Poulomi')

% Display first names

first_names = strtok(students)

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

new_student =
{
[1,1] = Poulomi Dutta
}
first_names =
{
[1,1] = Zara
[1,2] = Neha
 [1,3] = Monica
[1,4] = Madhu
[1,5] = Madhu
[1,6] = Bhawna
[1,7] = Nuha
[1,8] = Reva
[1,9] = Sunaina
[1,10] = Sofia
}

COMPARING STRINGS
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

str1 = 'This is test'

str2 = 'This is text'

if (strcmp(str1, str2))

sprintf('%s and %s are equal', str1, str2)

else

sprintf('%s and %s are not equal', str1, str2)

end

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

str1 = This is test
str2 = This is text
ans = This is test and This is text are not equal

MATLAB - Functions
A function is a group of statements that together perform a task. In
MATLAB, functions are defined in separate files. The name of the file and
of the function should be the same.

Functions operate on variables within their own workspace, which is also

called the local workspace, separate from the workspace you access at
the MATLAB command prompt which is called the base workspace.

Functions can accept more than one input arguments and may return more
than one output arguments.

Syntax of a function statement is −

function [out1,out2, ..., outN] = myfun(in1,in2,in3, ..., inN)

Example
The following function named mymax should be written in a file
named mymax.m. It takes five numbers as argument and returns the
maximum of the numbers.

Create a function file, named mymax.m and type the following code in it
−

function max = mymax(n1, n2, n3, n4, n5)

%This function calculates the maximum of the

% five numbers given as input

max = n1;

if(n2 > max)

max = n2;

end

if(n3 > max)

max = n3;

end

if(n4 > max)

max = n4;

end

if(n5 > max)

 max = n5;

end

The first line of a function starts with the keyword function. It gives the
name of the function and order of arguments. In our example,
the mymax function has five input arguments and one output argument.

The comment lines that come right after the function statement provide
the help text. These lines are printed when you type −
help mymax

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
This function calculates the maximum of the
five numbers given as input

You can call the function as −

mymax(34, 78, 89, 23, 11)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans = 89

Anonymous Functions
An anonymous function is like an inline function in traditional programming
languages, defined within a single MATLAB statement. It consists of a
single MATLAB expression and any number of input and output arguments.

You can define an anonymous function right at the MATLAB command line
or within a function or script.

This way you can create simple functions without having to create a file
for them.

The syntax for creating an anonymous function from an expression is

f = @(arglist)expression

Example
In this example, we will write an anonymous function named power, which
will take two numbers as input and return first number raised to the power
of the second number.

Create a script file and type the following code in it −

power = @(x, n) x.^n;

result1 = power(7, 3)

result2 = power(49, 0.5)

result3 = power(10, -10)

result4 = power (4.5, 1.5)

When you run the file, it displays −

result1 = 343
result2 = 7
result3 = 1.0000e-10
result4 = 9.5459

Primary and Sub-Functions

Any function other than an anonymous function must be defined within a
file. Each function file contains a required primary function that appears
first and any number of optional sub-functions that comes after the
primary function and used by it.

Primary functions can be called from outside of the file that defines them,
either from command line or from other functions, but sub-functions
cannot be called from command line or other functions, outside the
function file.

Sub-functions are visible only to the primary function and other sub-
functions within the function file that defines them.

Example
Let us write a function named quadratic that would calculate the roots of
a quadratic equation. The function would take three inputs, the quadratic
co-efficient, the linear co-efficient and the constant term. It would return
the roots.

The function file quadratic.m will contain the primary

function quadratic and the sub-function disc, which calculates the
discriminant.

Create a function file quadratic.m and type the following code in it −

function [x1,x2] = quadratic(a,b,c)

%this function returns the roots of

% a quadratic equation.

% It takes 3 input arguments

% which are the co-efficients of x2, x and the

%constant term

% It returns the roots

d = disc(a,b,c);

x1 = (-b + d) / (2*a);

x2 = (-b - d) / (2*a);

end % end of quadratic

function dis = disc(a,b,c)

%function calculates the discriminant

dis = sqrt(b^2 - 4*a*c);

end % end of sub-function

You can call the above function from command prompt as −

quadratic(2,4,-4)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans = 0.7321

Nested Functions
You can define functions within the body of another function. These are
called nested functions. A nested function contains any or all of the
components of any other function.

Nested functions are defined within the scope of another function and they
share access to the containing function's workspace.

A nested function follows the following syntax −

function x = A(p1, p2)
...
B(p2)
function y = B(p3)
...
end
...
end

Example
Let us rewrite the function quadratic, from previous example, however,
this time the disc function will be a nested function.

Create a function file quadratic2.m and type the following code in it −

function [x1,x2] = quadratic2(a,b,c)

function disc % nested function

d = sqrt(b^2 - 4*a*c);

end % end of function disc

disc;

x1 = (-b + d) / (2*a);

x2 = (-b - d) / (2*a);

end % end of function quadratic2

You can call the above function from command prompt as −

quadratic2(2,4,-4)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans = 0.73205

Private Functions
A private function is a primary function that is visible only to a limited
group of other functions. If you do not want to expose the implementation
of a function(s), you can create them as private functions.

Private functions reside in subfolders with the special name private.

They are visible only to functions in the parent folder.

Example
Let us rewrite the quadratic function. This time, however, the disc function
calculating the discriminant, will be a private function.

Create a subfolder named private in working directory. Store the following

function file disc.m in it −
function dis = disc(a,b,c)

%function calculates the discriminant

dis = sqrt(b^2 - 4*a*c);

end % end of sub-function

Create a function quadratic3.m in your working directory and type the

following code in it −

function [x1,x2] = quadratic3(a,b,c)

%this function returns the roots of

% a quadratic equation.

% It takes 3 input arguments

% which are the co-efficient of x2, x and the

%constant term

% It returns the roots

d = disc(a,b,c);

x1 = (-b + d) / (2*a);

x2 = (-b - d) / (2*a);

end % end of quadratic3

You can call the above function from command prompt as −

quadratic3(2,4,-4)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans = 0.73205

Global Variables
Global variables can be shared by more than one function. For this, you
need to declare the variable as global in all the functions.

If you want to access that variable from the base workspace, then declare
the variable at the command line.
The global declaration must occur before the variable is actually used in a
function. It is a good practice to use capital letters for the names of global
variables to distinguish them from other variables.

Example
Let us create a function file named average.m and type the following code
in it −

function avg = average(nums)

global TOTAL

avg = sum(nums)/TOTAL;

end

Create a script file and type the following code in it −

global TOTAL;

TOTAL = 10;

n = [34, 45, 25, 45, 33, 19, 40, 34, 38, 42];

av = average(n)

When you run the file, it will display the following result −
av = 35.500

MATLAB - Data Import

Importing data in MATLAB means loading data from an external file.

The importdata function allows loading various data files of different
formats. It has the following five forms −
 Sr.No. Function & Description

1 A = importdata(filename)

Loads data into array A from the file denoted by filename.

2 A = importdata('-pastespecial')

Loads data from the system clipboard rather than from a file.

3 A = importdata(___, delimiterIn)

Interprets delimiterIn as the column separator in ASCII file, filename, or

the clipboard data. You can use delimiterIn with any of the input
arguments in the above syntaxes.

4 A = importdata(___, delimiterIn, headerlinesIn)

Loads data from ASCII file, filename, or the clipboard, reading numeric
data starting from line headerlinesIn+1.

5 [A, delimiterOut, headerlinesOut] = importdata(___)

Returns the detected delimiter character for the input ASCII file
in delimiterOut and the detected number of header lines
in headerlinesOut, using any of the input arguments in the previous
syntaxes.

By default, Octave does not have support for importdata() function, so you will have
to search and install this package to make following examples work with your
Octave installation.

Example 1
Let us load and display an image file. Create a script file and type the
following code in it −

filename = 'smile.jpg';

A = importdata(filename);

image(A);
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the image file. However, you must
store it in the current directory.

Example 2
In this example, we import a text file and specify Delimiter and Column
Header. Let us create a space-delimited ASCII file with column headers,
named weeklydata.txt.

Our text file weeklydata.txt looks like this −

SunDay MonDay TuesDay WednesDay ThursDay FriDay SaturDay
95.01 76.21 61.54 40.57 55.79 70.28 81.53
73.11 45.65 79.19 93.55 75.29 69.87 74.68
60.68 41.85 92.18 91.69 81.32 90.38 74.51
48.60 82.14 73.82 41.03 0.99 67.22 93.18
89.13 44.47 57.63 89.36 13.89 19.88 46.60

Create a script file and type the following code in it −

filename = 'weeklydata.txt';

delimiterIn = ' ';

headerlinesIn = 1;

A = importdata(filename,delimiterIn,headerlinesIn);

% View data

for k = [1:7]

disp(A.colheaders{1, k})

disp(A.data(:, k))

disp(' ')
end

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

SunDay
95.0100
73.1100
60.6800
48.6000
89.1300

MonDay
76.2100
45.6500
41.8500
82.1400
44.4700

TuesDay
61.5400
79.1900
92.1800
73.8200
57.6300

WednesDay
40.5700
93.5500
91.6900
41.0300
89.3600

ThursDay
55.7900
75.2900
81.3200
0.9900
13.8900

FriDay
70.2800
69.8700
90.3800
67.2200
19.8800

SaturDay
81.5300
74.6800
74.5100
93.1800
46.6000

Example 3
In this example, let us import data from clipboard.

Copy the following lines to the clipboard −

Mathematics is simple

Create a script file and type the following code −

A = importdata('-pastespecial')

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

A =
'Mathematics is simple'

Low-Level File I/O

The importdata function is a high-level function. The low-level file I/O
functions in MATLAB allow the most control over reading or writing data to
a file. However, these functions need more detailed information about your
file to work efficiently.

MATLAB provides the following functions for read and write operations at
the byte or character level −

Function Description

fclose Close one or all open files

feof Test for end-of-file

ferror Information about file I/O errors

fgetl Read line from file, removing newline characters

fgets Read line from file, keeping newline characters

fopen Open file, or obtain information about open files

fprintf Write data to text file

fread Read data from binary file

frewind Move file position indicator to beginning of open file

fscanf Read data from text file

 fseek Move to specified position in file

ftell Position in open file

fwrite Write data to binary file

Import Text Data Files with Low-Level

I/O
MATLAB provides the following functions for low-level import of text data
files −

 The fscanf function reads formatted data in a text or ASCII file.

 The fgetl and fgets functions read one line of a file at a time, where a newline
character separates each line.

 The fread function reads a stream of data at the byte or bit level.

Example
We have a text data file 'myfile.txt' saved in our working directory. The file
stores rainfall data for three months; June, July and August for the year
2012.

The data in myfile.txt contains repeated sets of time, month and rainfall
measurements at five places. The header data stores the number of
months M; so we have M sets of measurements.

The file looks like this −

Rainfall Data
Months: June, July, August

M = 3
12:00:00
June-2012
17.21 28.52 39.78 16.55 23.67
19.15 0.35 17.57 NaN 12.01
17.92 28.49 17.40 17.06 11.09
9.59 9.33 NaN 0.31 0.23
10.46 13.17 NaN 14.89 19.33
20.97 19.50 17.65 14.45 14.00
18.23 10.34 17.95 16.46 19.34
09:10:02
July-2012
12.76 16.94 14.38 11.86 16.89
20.46 23.17 NaN 24.89 19.33
30.97 49.50 47.65 24.45 34.00
18.23 30.34 27.95 16.46 19.34
30.46 33.17 NaN 34.89 29.33
30.97 49.50 47.65 24.45 34.00
28.67 30.34 27.95 36.46 29.34
15:03:40
August-2012
17.09 16.55 19.59 17.25 19.22
17.54 11.45 13.48 22.55 24.01
NaN 21.19 25.85 25.05 27.21
26.79 24.98 12.23 16.99 18.67
17.54 11.45 13.48 22.55 24.01
NaN 21.19 25.85 25.05 27.21
26.79 24.98 12.23 16.99 18.67

We will import data from this file and display this data. Take the following
steps −

 Open the file with fopen function and get the file identifier.

 Describe the data in the file with format specifiers, such as '%s' for a string,
'%d' for an integer, or '%f' for a floating-point number.

 To skip literal characters in the file, include them in the format description. To
skip a data field, use an asterisk ('*') in the specifier.

For example, to read the headers and return the single value for M, we write
−

M = fscanf(fid, '%*s %*s\n%*s %*s %*s %*s\nM=%d\n\n', 1);

 By default, fscanf reads data according to our format description until it does
not find any match for the data, or it reaches the end of the file. Here we will
use for loop for reading 3 sets of data and each time, it will read 7 rows and
5 columns.

 We will create a structure named mydata in the workspace to store data read
from the file. This structure has three fields - time, month, and raindata array.

Create a script file and type the following code in it −

filename = '/data/myfile.txt';

rows = 7;

cols = 5;

% open the file

fid = fopen(filename);
% read the file headers, find M (number of months)

M = fscanf(fid, '%*s %*s\n%*s %*s %*s %*s\nM=%d\n\n', 1);

% read each set of measurements

for n = 1:M

mydata(n).time = fscanf(fid, '%s', 1);

mydata(n).month = fscanf(fid, '%s', 1);

% fscanf fills the array in column order,

% so transpose the results

mydata(n).raindata = ...

fscanf(fid, '%f', [rows, cols]);

end

for n = 1:M

disp(mydata(n).time), disp(mydata(n).month)

disp(mydata(n).raindata)

end

% close the file

fclose(fid);

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

12:00:00
June-2012
17.2100 17.5700 11.0900 13.1700 14.4500
28.5200 NaN 9.5900 NaN 14.0000
39.7800 12.0100 9.3300 14.8900 18.2300
16.5500 17.9200 NaN 19.3300 10.3400
23.6700 28.4900 0.3100 20.9700 17.9500
19.1500 17.4000 0.2300 19.5000 16.4600
0.3500 17.0600 10.4600 17.6500 19.3400

09:10:02
July-2012
12.7600 NaN 34.0000 33.1700 24.4500
16.9400 24.8900 18.2300 NaN 34.0000
14.3800 19.3300 30.3400 34.8900 28.6700
11.8600 30.9700 27.9500 29.3300 30.3400
16.8900 49.5000 16.4600 30.9700 27.9500
20.4600 47.6500 19.3400 49.5000 36.4600
 23.1700 24.4500 30.4600 47.6500 29.3400

15:03:40
August-2012
17.0900 13.4800 27.2100 11.4500 25.0500
16.5500 22.5500 26.7900 13.4800 27.2100
19.5900 24.0100 24.9800 22.5500 26.7900
17.2500 NaN 12.2300 24.0100 24.9800
19.2200 21.1900 16.9900 NaN 12.2300
17.5400 25.8500 18.6700 21.1900 16.9900
11.4500 25.0500 17.5400 25.8500 18.6700

MATLAB - Data Output

Data export (or output) in MATLAB means to write into files. MATLAB
allows you to use your data in another application that reads ASCII files.
For this, MATLAB provides several data export options.

You can create the following type of files −

 Rectangular, delimited ASCII data file from an array.

 Diary (or log) file of keystrokes and the resulting text output.

 Specialized ASCII file using low-level functions such as fprintf.

 MEX-file to access your C/C++ or Fortran routine that writes to a particular

text file format.

Apart from this, you can also export data to spreadsheets.

There are two ways to export a numeric array as a delimited ASCII data
file −

 Using the save function and specifying the -ascii qualifier

 Using the dlmwrite function

Syntax for using the save function is −

save my_data.out num_array -ascii

where, my_data.out is the delimited ASCII data file created, num_array is

a numeric array and −ascii is the specifier.

Syntax for using the dlmwrite function is −

dlmwrite('my_data.out', num_array, 'dlm_char')

where, my_data.out is the delimited ASCII data file created, num_array is

a numeric array and dlm_char is the delimiter character.

Example
The following example demonstrates the concept. Create a script file and
type the following code −

num_array = [ 1 2 3 4 ; 4 5 6 7; 7 8 9 0];

save array_data1.out num_array -ascii;

type array_data1.out

dlmwrite('array_data2.out', num_array, ' ');

type array_data2.out
When you run the file, it displays the following result −
1.0000000e+00 2.0000000e+00 3.0000000e+00 4.0000000e+00
4.0000000e+00 5.0000000e+00 6.0000000e+00 7.0000000e+00
7.0000000e+00 8.0000000e+00 9.0000000e+00 0.0000000e+00

1 2 3 4
4 5 6 7
7 8 9 0

Please note that the save -ascii command and the dlmwrite function does
not work with cell arrays as input. To create a delimited ASCII file from
the contents of a cell array, you can

 Either, convert the cell array to a matrix using the cell2mat function

 Or export the cell array using low-level file I/O functions.

If you use the save function to write a character array to an ASCII file, it
writes the ASCII equivalent of the characters to the file.

For example, let us write the word 'hello' to a file −

h = 'hello';

save textdata.out h -ascii

type textdata.out

MATLAB executes the above statements and displays the following result.
which is the characters of the string 'hello' in 8-digit ASCII format.
1.0400000e+02 1.0100000e+02 1.0800000e+02 1.0800000e+02 1.1100000e+02

Writing to Diary Files

Diary files are activity logs of your MATLAB session. The diary function
creates an exact copy of your session in a disk file, excluding graphics.

To turn on the diary function, type −

diary

Optionally, you can give the name of the log file, say −
diary logdata.out

To turn off the diary function −

diary off

You can open the diary file in a text editor.

Exporting Data to Text Data Files with
Low-Level I/O
So far, we have exported numeric arrays. However, you may need to
create other text files, including combinations of numeric and character
data, nonrectangular output files, or files with non-ASCII encoding
schemes. For these purposes, MATLAB provides the low-
level fprintf function.

As in low-level I/O file activities, before exporting, you need to open or

create a file with the fopen function and get the file identifier. By default,
fopen opens a file for read-only access. You should specify the permission
to write or append, such as 'w' or 'a'.

After processing the file, you need to close it with fclose(fid) function.

The following example demonstrates the concept −

Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it −

% create a matrix y, with two rows

x = 0:10:100;

y = [x; log(x)];

% open a file for writing

fid = fopen('logtable.txt', 'w');

% Table Header

fprintf(fid, 'Log Function\n\n');

% print values in column order

% two values appear on each row of the file

fprintf(fid, '%f %f\n', y);

fclose(fid);

% display the file created

type logtable.txt

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

Log Function

0.000000 -Inf
10.000000 2.302585
20.000000 2.995732
30.000000 3.401197
40.000000 3.688879
50.000000 3.912023
60.000000 4.094345
70.000000 4.248495
80.000000 4.382027
90.000000 4.499810
100.000000 4.605170

MATLAB - Plotting

To plot the graph of a function, you need to take the following steps −
  Define x, by specifying the range of values for the variable x, for which the
function is to be plotted

 Define the function, y = f(x)

 Call the plot command, as plot(x, y)

Following example would demonstrate the concept. Let us plot the simple
function y = x for the range of values for x from 0 to 100, with an
increment of 5.

Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [0:5:100];

y = x;

plot(x, y)

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following plot −

Let us take one more example to plot the function y = x2. In this example,
we will draw two graphs with the same function, but in second time, we
will reduce the value of increment. Please note that as we decrease the
increment, the graph becomes smoother.

Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10];

x = [-100:20:100];

y = x.^2;
plot(x, y)

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following plot −

Change the code file a little, reduce the increment to 5 −

x = [-100:5:100];

y = x.^2;

plot(x, y)

MATLAB draws a smoother graph −

Adding Title, Labels, Grid Lines and
Scaling on the Graph
MATLAB allows you to add title, labels along the x-axis and y-axis, grid
lines and also to adjust the axes to spruce up the graph.

 The xlabel and ylabel commands generate labels along x-axis and y-axis.

 The title command allows you to put a title on the graph.

 The grid on command allows you to put the grid lines on the graph.

 The axis equal command allows generating the plot with the same scale
factors and the spaces on both axes.

 The axis square command generates a square plot.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [0:0.01:10];

y = sin(x);

plot(x, y), xlabel('x'), ylabel('Sin(x)'), title('Sin(x) Graph'),

grid on, axis equal

MATLAB generates the following graph −

Drawing Multiple Functions on the Same
Graph
You can draw multiple graphs on the same plot. The following example
demonstrates the concept −

Example
Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [0 : 0.01: 10];

y = sin(x);

g = cos(x);

plot(x, y, x, g, '.-'), legend('Sin(x)', 'Cos(x)')

MATLAB generates the following graph −

Setting Colors on Graph

MATLAB provides eight basic color options for drawing graphs. The
following table shows the colors and their codes −

Code Color

w White
 k Black

b Blue

r Red

c Cyan

g Green

m Magenta

y Yellow

Example
Let us draw the graph of two polynomials

 f(x) = 3x4 + 2x3+ 7x2 + 2x + 9 and

 g(x) = 5x3 + 9x + 2

Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [-10 : 0.01: 10];

y = 3*x.^4 + 2 * x.^3 + 7 * x.^2 + 2 * x + 9;

g = 5 * x.^3 + 9 * x + 2;

plot(x, y, 'r', x, g, 'g')

When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph −
Setting Axis Scales
The axis command allows you to set the axis scales. You can provide
minimum and maximum values for x and y axes using the axis command
in the following way −
axis ( [xmin xmax ymin ymax] )

The following example shows this −

Example
Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [0 : 0.01: 10];

y = exp(-x).* sin(2*x + 3);

plot(x, y), axis([0 10 -1 1])

When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph −
Generating Sub-Plots
When you create an array of plots in the same figure, each of these plots
is called a subplot. The subplot command is used for creating subplots.

Syntax for the command is −

subplot(m, n, p)

where, m and n are the number of rows and columns of the plot array
and pspecifies where to put a particular plot.

Each plot created with the subplot command can have its own
characteristics. Following example demonstrates the concept −

Example
Let us generate two plots −

y = e−1.5xsin(10x)

y = e−2xsin(10x)

Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [0:0.01:5];

y = exp(-1.5*x).*sin(10*x);

subplot(1,2,1)

plot(x,y), xlabel('x'),ylabel('exp(–1.5x)*sin(10x)'),axis([0 5 -1 1])

y = exp(-2*x).*sin(10*x);
subplot(1,2,2)

plot(x,y),xlabel('x'),ylabel('exp(–2x)*sin(10x)'),axis([0 5 -1 1])

When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph −

MATLAB - Graphics

This chapter will continue exploring the plotting and graphics capabilities
of MATLAB. We will discuss −
  Drawing bar charts

 Drawing contours

 Three dimensional plots

Drawing Bar Charts

The bar command draws a two dimensional bar chart. Let us take up an
example to demonstrate the idea.

Example
Let us have an imaginary classroom with 10 students. We know the
percent of marks obtained by these students are 75, 58, 90, 87, 50, 85,
92, 75, 60 and 95. We will draw the bar chart for this data.

Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [1:10];

y = [75, 58, 90, 87, 50, 85, 92, 75, 60, 95];

bar(x,y), xlabel('Student'),ylabel('Score'),

title('First Sem:')

print -deps graph.eps

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following bar chart −

Drawing Contours
A contour line of a function of two variables is a curve along which the
function has a constant value. Contour lines are used for creating contour
maps by joining points of equal elevation above a given level, such as
mean sea level.

MATLAB provides a contour function for drawing contour maps.

Example
Let us generate a contour map that shows the contour lines for a given
function g = f(x, y). This function has two variables. So, we will have to
generate two independent variables, i.e., two data sets x and y. This is
done by calling the meshgrid command.

The meshgrid command is used for generating a matrix of elements that

give the range over x and y along with the specification of increment in
each case.

Let us plot our function g = f(x, y), where −5 ≤ x ≤ 5, −3 ≤ y ≤ 3. Let us

take an increment of 0.1 for both the values. The variables are set as −

[x,y] = meshgrid(–5:0.1:5, –3:0.1:3);

Lastly, we need to assign the function. Let our function be: x2 + y2

Create a script file and type the following code −

[x,y] = meshgrid(-5:0.1:5,-3:0.1:3); %independent variables

g = x.^2 + y.^2; % our function

contour(x,y,g) % call the contour function

print -deps graph.eps

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following contour map −
Let us modify the code a little to spruce up the map

[x,y] = meshgrid(-5:0.1:5,-3:0.1:3); %independent variables

g = x.^2 + y.^2; % our function

[C, h] = contour(x,y,g); % call the contour function

set(h,'ShowText','on','TextStep',get(h,'LevelStep')*2)

print -deps graph.eps

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following contour map −

Three Dimensional Plots

Three-dimensional plots basically display a surface defined by a function
in two variables, g = f (x,y).

As before, to define g, we first create a set of (x,y) points over the domain
of the function using the meshgrid command. Next, we assign the
function itself. Finally, we use the surf command to create a surface plot.

The following example demonstrates the concept −

Example
Let us create a 3D surface map for the function g = xe-(x2 + y2)

Create a script file and type the following code −

[x,y] = meshgrid(-2:.2:2);

g = x .* exp(-x.^2 - y.^2);
surf(x, y, g)

print -deps graph.eps

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following 3-D map −

You can also use the mesh command to generate a three-dimensional

surface. However, the surf command displays both the connecting lines
and the faces of the surface in color, whereas, the mesh command creates
a wireframe surface with colored lines connecting the defining points.
 MATLAB - Algebra

So far, we have seen that all the examples work in MATLAB as well as its
GNU, alternatively called Octave. But for solving basic algebraic equations,
both MATLAB and Octave are little different, so we will try to cover MATLAB
and Octave in separate sections.

We will also discuss factorizing and simplification of algebraic expressions.

Solving Basic Algebraic Equations in

MATLAB
The solve function is used for solving algebraic equations. In its simplest
form, the solve function takes the equation enclosed in quotes as an
argument.

For example, let us solve for x in the equation x-5 = 0

solve('x-5=0')

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
5

You can also call the solve function as −

y = solve('x-5 = 0')

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
y =
5

You may even not include the right hand side of the equation −

solve('x-5')

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
5

If the equation involves multiple symbols, then MATLAB by default

assumes that you are solving for x, however, the solve function has
another form −

solve(equation, variable)

where, you can also mention the variable.

For example, let us solve the equation v – u – 3t2 = 0, for v. In this case,
we should write −

solve('v-u-3*t^2=0', 'v')

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
3*t^2 + u

Solving Basic Algebraic Equations in

Octave
The roots function is used for solving algebraic equations in Octave and
you can write above examples as follows −

For example, let us solve for x in the equation x-5 = 0

roots([1, -5])

Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result −
ans = 5

You can also call the solve function as −

y = roots([1, -5])

Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result −
y = 5

Solving Quadratic Equations in MATLAB

The solve function can also solve higher order equations. It is often used
to solve quadratic equations. The function returns the roots of the equation
in an array.
The following example solves the quadratic equation x2 -7x +12 = 0.
Create a script file and type the following code −

eq = 'x^2 -7*x + 12 = 0';

s = solve(eq);

disp('The first root is: '), disp(s(1));

disp('The second root is: '), disp(s(2));

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

The first root is:
3
The second root is:
4

Solving Quadratic Equations in Octave

The following example solves the quadratic equation x2 -7x +12 = 0 in
Octave. Create a script file and type the following code −

s = roots([1, -7, 12]);

disp('The first root is: '), disp(s(1));

disp('The second root is: '), disp(s(2));

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

The first root is:
4
The second root is:
3

Solving Higher Order Equations in

MATLAB
The solve function can also solve higher order equations. For example, let
us solve a cubic equation as (x-3)2(x-7) = 0

solve('(x-3)^2*(x-7)=0')

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
3
3
 7

In case of higher order equations, roots are long containing many terms.
You can get the numerical value of such roots by converting them to
double. The following example solves the fourth order equation x4 − 7x3 +
3x2 − 5x + 9 = 0.

Create a script file and type the following code −

eq = 'x^4 - 7*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 5*x + 9 = 0';

s = solve(eq);

disp('The first root is: '), disp(s(1));

disp('The second root is: '), disp(s(2));

disp('The third root is: '), disp(s(3));

disp('The fourth root is: '), disp(s(4));

% converting the roots to double type

disp('Numeric value of first root'), disp(double(s(1)));

disp('Numeric value of second root'), disp(double(s(2)));

disp('Numeric value of third root'), disp(double(s(3)));

disp('Numeric value of fourth root'), disp(double(s(4)));

When you run the file, it returns the following result −

The first root is:
6.630396332390718431485053218985
The second root is:
1.0597804633025896291682772499885
The third root is:
- 0.34508839784665403032666523448675 - 1.0778362954630176596831109269793*i
The fourth root is:
- 0.34508839784665403032666523448675 + 1.0778362954630176596831109269793*i
Numeric value of first root
6.6304
Numeric value of second root
1.0598
Numeric value of third root
-0.3451 - 1.0778i
Numeric value of fourth root
-0.3451 + 1.0778i

Please note that the last two roots are complex numbers.
Solving Higher Order Equations in Octave
The following example solves the fourth order equation x4 − 7x3 + 3x2 −
5x + 9 = 0.

Create a script file and type the following code −

v = [1, -7, 3, -5, 9];

s = roots(v);

% converting the roots to double type

disp('Numeric value of first root'), disp(double(s(1)));

disp('Numeric value of second root'), disp(double(s(2)));

disp('Numeric value of third root'), disp(double(s(3)));

disp('Numeric value of fourth root'), disp(double(s(4)));

When you run the file, it returns the following result −

Numeric value of first root
6.6304
Numeric value of second root
-0.34509 + 1.07784i
Numeric value of third root
-0.34509 - 1.07784i
Numeric value of fourth root
1.0598

Solving System of Equations in MATLAB

The solve function can also be used to generate solutions of systems of
equations involving more than one variables. Let us take up a simple
example to demonstrate this use.

Let us solve the equations −

5x + 9y = 5

3x – 6y = 4

Create a script file and type the following code −

s = solve('5*x + 9*y = 5','3*x - 6*y = 4');

s.x

s.y
When you run the file, it displays the following result −
ans =
22/19
ans =
-5/57

In same way, you can solve larger linear systems. Consider the following
set of equations −

x + 3y -2z = 5

3x + 5y + 6z = 7

2x + 4y + 3z = 8

Solving System of Equations in Octave

We have a little different approach to solve a system of 'n' linear equations
in 'n' unknowns. Let us take up a simple example to demonstrate this use.

Let us solve the equations −

5x + 9y = 5

3x – 6y = 4

Such a system of linear equations can be written as the single matrix

equation Ax = b, where A is the coefficient matrix, b is the column vector
containing the right-hand side of the linear equations and x is the column
vector representing the solution as shown in the below program −

Create a script file and type the following code −

A = [5, 9; 3, -6];

b = [5;4];

A \ b

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

ans =

1.157895
-0.087719

In same way, you can solve larger linear systems as given below −

x + 3y -2z = 5

3x + 5y + 6z = 7

2x + 4y + 3z = 8
Expanding and Collecting Equations in
MATLAB
The expand and the collect function expands and collects an equation
respectively. The following example demonstrates the concepts −

When you work with many symbolic functions, you should declare that
your variables are symbolic.

Create a script file and type the following code −

syms x %symbolic variable x

syms y %symbolic variable x

% expanding equations

expand((x-5)*(x+9))

expand((x+2)*(x-3)*(x-5)*(x+7))

expand(sin(2*x))

expand(cos(x+y))

% collecting equations

collect(x^3 *(x-7))

collect(x^4*(x-3)*(x-5))

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

ans =
x^2 + 4*x - 45
ans =
x^4 + x^3 - 43*x^2 + 23*x + 210
ans =
2*cos(x)*sin(x)
ans =
cos(x)*cos(y) - sin(x)*sin(y)
ans =
x^4 - 7*x^3
ans =
x^6 - 8*x^5 + 15*x^4
Expanding and Collecting Equations in
Octave
You need to have symbolic package, which provides expand and
the collectfunction to expand and collect an equation, respectively. The
following example demonstrates the concepts −

When you work with many symbolic functions, you should declare that
your variables are symbolic but Octave has different approach to define
symbolic variables. Notice the use of Sin and Cos, which are also defined
in symbolic package.

Create a script file and type the following code −

% first of all load the package, make sure its installed.

pkg load symbolic

% make symbols module available

symbols

% define symbolic variables

x = sym ('x');

y = sym ('y');

z = sym ('z');

% expanding equations

expand((x-5)*(x+9))

expand((x+2)*(x-3)*(x-5)*(x+7))

expand(Sin(2*x))

expand(Cos(x+y))

% collecting equations

collect(x^3 *(x-7), z)

collect(x^4*(x-3)*(x-5), z)
When you run the file, it displays the following result −
ans =

-45.0+x^2+(4.0)*x
ans =

210.0+x^4-(43.0)*x^2+x^3+(23.0)*x
ans =

sin((2.0)*x)
ans =

cos(y+x)
ans =

x^(3.0)*(-7.0+x)
ans =

(-3.0+x)*x^(4.0)*(-5.0+x)

Factorization and Simplification of

Algebraic Expressions
The factor function factorizes an expression and the simplify function
simplifies an expression. The following example demonstrates the concept
−

Example
Create a script file and type the following code −

syms x

syms y

factor(x^3 - y^3)

factor([x^2-y^2,x^3+y^3])

simplify((x^4-16)/(x^2-4))

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

ans =
(x - y)*(x^2 + x*y + y^2)
ans =
[ (x - y)*(x + y), (x + y)*(x^2 - x*y + y^2)]
ans =
x^2 + 4
 MATLAB - Calculus

MATLAB provides various ways for solving problems of differential and

integral calculus, solving differential equations of any degree and
calculation of limits. Best of all, you can easily plot the graphs of complex
functions and check maxima, minima and other stationery points on a
graph by solving the original function, as well as its derivative.

This chapter will deal with problems of calculus. In this chapter, we will
discuss pre-calculus concepts i.e., calculating limits of functions and
verifying the properties of limits.

In the next chapter Differential, we will compute derivative of an

expression and find the local maxima and minima on a graph. We will also
discuss solving differential equations.

Finally, in the Integration chapter, we will discuss integral calculus.

Calculating Limits
MATLAB provides the limit function for calculating limits. In its most basic
form, the limit function takes expression as an argument and finds the
limit of the expression as the independent variable goes to zero.

For example, let us calculate the limit of a function f(x) = (x3 + 5)/(x4 +
7), as x tends to zero.

syms x

limit((x^3 + 5)/(x^4 + 7))

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
5/7

The limit function falls in the realm of symbolic computing; you need to
use the syms function to tell MATLAB which symbolic variables you are
using. You can also compute limit of a function, as the variable tends to
some number other than zero. To calculate lim x->a(f(x)), we use the limit
command with arguments. The first being the expression and the second
is the number, that x approaches, here it is a.
For example, let us calculate limit of a function f(x) = (x-3)/(x-1), as x
tends to 1.

limit((x - 3)/(x-1),1)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
NaN

Let's take another example,

limit(x^2 + 5, 3)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result
−
ans =
14

Calculating Limits using Octave

Following is Octave version of the above example
using symbolic package, try to execute and compare the result −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

subs((x^3+5)/(x^4+7),x,0)

Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result −
ans =
0.7142857142857142857

Verification of Basic Properties of Limits

Algebraic Limit Theorem provides some basic properties of limits. These
are as follows −
Let us consider two functions −

 f(x) = (3x + 5)/(x - 3)

 g(x) = x2 + 1.

Let us calculate the limits of the functions as x tends to 5, of both functions

and verify the basic properties of limits using these two functions and
MATLAB.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

syms x

f = (3*x + 5)/(x-3);

g = x^2 + 1;

l1 = limit(f, 4)

l2 = limit (g, 4)

lAdd = limit(f + g, 4)

lSub = limit(f - g, 4)

lMult = limit(f*g, 4)

lDiv = limit (f/g, 4)

When you run the file, it displays −

l1 =
17

l2 =
17

lAdd =
34

lSub =
0

lMult =
289
lDiv =
1

Verification of Basic Properties of Limits

using Octave
Following is Octave version of the above example
using symbolic package, try to execute and compare the result −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

f = (3*x + 5)/(x-3);

g = x^2 + 1;

l1 = subs(f, x, 4)

l2 = subs (g, x, 4)

lAdd = subs (f+g, x, 4)

lSub = subs (f-g, x, 4)

lMult = subs (f*g, x, 4)

lDiv = subs (f/g, x, 4)

Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result −
l1 =
17.0
l2 =
17.0
lAdd =
34.0
lSub =
0.0
lMult =
289.0
lDiv =
1.0

Left and Right Sided Limits

When a function has a discontinuity for some particular value of the
variable, the limit does not exist at that point. In other words, limits of a
function f(x) has discontinuity at x = a, when the value of limit, as x
approaches x from left side, does not equal the value of the limit as x
approaches from right side.

This leads to the concept of left-handed and right-handed limits. A left-

handed limit is defined as the limit as x -> a, from the left, i.e., x
approaches a, for values of x < a. A right-handed limit is defined as the
limit as x -> a, from the right, i.e., x approaches a, for values of x > a.
When the left-handed limit and right-handed limit are not equal, the limit
does not exist.

Let us consider a function −

f(x) = (x - 3)/|x - 3|

We will show that limx->3 f(x) does not exist. MATLAB helps us to establish
this fact in two ways −

 By plotting the graph of the function and showing the discontinuity.

 By computing the limits and showing that both are different.

The left-handed and right-handed limits are computed by passing the

character strings 'left' and 'right' to the limit command as the last
argument.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

f = (x - 3)/abs(x-3);

ezplot(f,[-1,5])

l = limit(f,x,3,'left')

r = limit(f,x,3,'right')

When you run the file, MATLAB draws the following plot
After this following output is displayed −
l =
-1

r =
1
 MATLAB - Differential

MATLAB provides the diff command for computing symbolic derivatives.

In its simplest form, you pass the function you want to differentiate to diff
command as an argument.

For example, let us compute the derivative of the function f(t) = 3t2 + 2t-
2

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

syms t

f = 3*t^2 + 2*t^(-2);

diff(f)

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
ans =
6*t - 4/t^3

Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

t = sym("t");

f = 3*t^2 + 2*t^(-2);

differentiate(f,t)

Octave executes the code and returns the following result −

ans =
-(4.0)*t^(-3.0)+(6.0)*t
Verification of Elementary Rules of
Differentiation
Let us briefly state various equations or rules for differentiation of functions
and verify these rules. For this purpose, we will write f'(x) for a first order
derivative and f"(x) for a second order derivative.

Following are the rules for differentiation −

Rule 1
For any functions f and g and any real numbers a and b are the derivative
of the function −

h(x) = af(x) + bg(x) with respect to x is given by −

h'(x) = af'(x) + bg'(x)

Rule 2
The sum and subtraction rules state that if f and g are two functions, f'
and g' are their derivatives respectively, then,

(f + g)' = f' + g'

(f - g)' = f' - g'

Rule 3
The product rule states that if f and g are two functions, f' and g' are their
derivatives respectively, then,

(f.g)' = f'.g + g'.f

Rule 4
The quotient rule states that if f and g are two functions, f' and g' are
their derivatives respectively, then,

(f/g)' = (f'.g - g'.f)/g2

Rule 5
The polynomial or elementary power rule states that, if y = f(x) = xn,
then f' = n. x(n-1)

A direct outcome of this rule is that the derivative of any constant is zero,
i.e., if y = k, any constant, then

f' = 0
Rule 6
The chain rule states that, derivative of the function of a function h(x) =
f(g(x)) with respect to x is,

h'(x)= f'(g(x)).g'(x)

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

syms x

syms t

f = (x + 2)*(x^2 + 3)

der1 = diff(f)

f = (t^2 + 3)*(sqrt(t) + t^3)

der2 = diff(f)

f = (x^2 - 2*x + 1)*(3*x^3 - 5*x^2 + 2)

der3 = diff(f)

f = (2*x^2 + 3*x)/(x^3 + 1)

der4 = diff(f)

f = (x^2 + 1)^17

der5 = diff(f)

f = (t^3 + 3* t^2 + 5*t -9)^(-6)

der6 = diff(f)

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following result −
f =
(x^2 + 3)*(x + 2)

der1 =
2*x*(x + 2) + x^2 + 3
f =
(t^(1/2) + t^3)*(t^2 + 3)

der2 =
(t^2 + 3)*(3*t^2 + 1/(2*t^(1/2))) + 2*t*(t^(1/2) + t^3)

f =
(x^2 - 2*x + 1)*(3*x^3 - 5*x^2 + 2)

der3 =
(2*x - 2)*(3*x^3 - 5*x^2 + 2) - (- 9*x^2 + 10*x)*(x^2 - 2*x + 1)

f =
(2*x^2 + 3*x)/(x^3 + 1)

der4 =
(4*x + 3)/(x^3 + 1) - (3*x^2*(2*x^2 + 3*x))/(x^3 + 1)^2

f =
(x^2 + 1)^17

der5 =
34*x*(x^2 + 1)^16

f =
1/(t^3 + 3*t^2 + 5*t - 9)^6

der6 =
-(6*(3*t^2 + 6*t + 5))/(t^3 + 3*t^2 + 5*t - 9)^7

Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

t = sym("t");

f = (x + 2)*(x^2 + 3)

der1 = differentiate(f,x)

f = (t^2 + 3)*(t^(1/2) + t^3)

der2 = differentiate(f,t)

f = (x^2 - 2*x + 1)*(3*x^3 - 5*x^2 + 2)

der3 = differentiate(f,x)
f = (2*x^2 + 3*x)/(x^3 + 1)

der4 = differentiate(f,x)

f = (x^2 + 1)^17

der5 = differentiate(f,x)

f = (t^3 + 3* t^2 + 5*t -9)^(-6)

der6 = differentiate(f,t)

Octave executes the code and returns the following result −

f =

(2.0+x)*(3.0+x^(2.0))
der1 =

3.0+x^(2.0)+(2.0)*(2.0+x)*x
f =

(t^(3.0)+sqrt(t))*(3.0+t^(2.0))
der2 =

(2.0)*(t^(3.0)+sqrt(t))*t+((3.0)*t^(2.0)+(0.5)*t^(-0.5))*(3.0+t^(2.0))
f =

(1.0+x^(2.0)-(2.0)*x)*(2.0-(5.0)*x^(2.0)+(3.0)*x^(3.0))
der3 =

(-2.0+(2.0)*x)*(2.0-(5.0)*x^(2.0)+(3.0)*x^(3.0))+((9.0)*x^(2.0)-(10.0)*x)*(1.0+x^(2.0)-
(2.0)*x)
f =

(1.0+x^(3.0))^(-1)*((2.0)*x^(2.0)+(3.0)*x)
der4 =

(1.0+x^(3.0))^(-1)*(3.0+(4.0)*x)-(3.0)*(1.0+x^(3.0))^(-2)*x^(2.0)*((2.0)*x^(2.0)+(3.0)*x)
f =

(1.0+x^(2.0))^(17.0)
der5 =

(34.0)*(1.0+x^(2.0))^(16.0)*x
f =

(-9.0+(3.0)*t^(2.0)+t^(3.0)+(5.0)*t)^(-6.0)
der6 =

-(6.0)*(-9.0+(3.0)*t^(2.0)+t^(3.0)+(5.0)*t)^(-7.0)*(5.0+(3.0)*t^(2.0)+(6.0)*t)
Derivatives of Exponential, Logarithmic
and Trigonometric Functions
The following table provides the derivatives of commonly used
exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions −

Function Derivative

ca.x ca.x.ln c.a (ln is natural logarithm)

ex ex

ln x 1/x

lncx 1/x.ln c

xx xx.(1 + ln x)

sin(x) cos(x)

cos(x) -sin(x)

tan(x) sec2(x), or 1/cos2(x), or 1 + tan2(x)

cot(x) -csc2(x), or -1/sin2(x), or -(1 + cot2(x))

sec(x) sec(x).tan(x)

csc(x) -csc(x).cot(x)

Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

syms x

y = exp(x)
diff(y)

y = x^9

diff(y)

y = sin(x)

diff(y)

y = tan(x)

diff(y)

y = cos(x)

diff(y)

y = log(x)

diff(y)

y = log10(x)

diff(y)

y = sin(x)^2

diff(y)

y = cos(3*x^2 + 2*x + 1)

diff(y)

y = exp(x)/sin(x)

diff(y)

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following result −
y =
 exp(x)
ans =
exp(x)

y =
x^9
ans =
9*x^8

y =
sin(x)
ans =
cos(x)

y =
tan(x)
ans =
tan(x)^2 + 1

y =
cos(x)
ans =
-sin(x)

y =
log(x)
ans =
1/x

y =
log(x)/log(10)
ans =
1/(x*log(10))

y =
sin(x)^2
ans =
2*cos(x)*sin(x)

y =
cos(3*x^2 + 2*x + 1)
ans =
-sin(3*x^2 + 2*x + 1)*(6*x + 2)

y =
exp(x)/sin(x)
ans =
exp(x)/sin(x) - (exp(x)*cos(x))/sin(x)^2

Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

y = Exp(x)

differentiate(y,x)
y = x^9

differentiate(y,x)

y = Sin(x)

differentiate(y,x)

y = Tan(x)

differentiate(y,x)

y = Cos(x)

differentiate(y,x)

y = Log(x)

differentiate(y,x)

% symbolic packages does not have this support

%y = Log10(x)

%differentiate(y,x)

y = Sin(x)^2

differentiate(y,x)

y = Cos(3*x^2 + 2*x + 1)

differentiate(y,x)

y = Exp(x)/Sin(x)

differentiate(y,x)

Octave executes the code and returns the following result −

y =
exp(x)
ans =

exp(x)
y =

x^(9.0)
ans =

(9.0)*x^(8.0)
y =

sin(x)
ans =

cos(x)
y =

tan(x)
ans =

1+tan(x)^2
y =

cos(x)
ans =

-sin(x)
y =

log(x)
ans =

x^(-1)
y =

sin(x)^(2.0)
ans =

(2.0)*sin(x)*cos(x)
y =

cos(1.0+(2.0)*x+(3.0)*x^(2.0))
ans =

-(2.0+(6.0)*x)*sin(1.0+(2.0)*x+(3.0)*x^(2.0))
y =

sin(x)^(-1)*exp(x)
ans =

sin(x)^(-1)*exp(x)-sin(x)^(-2)*cos(x)*exp(x)

Computing Higher Order Derivatives

To compute higher derivatives of a function f, we use the syntax diff(f,n).

Let us compute the second derivative of the function y = f(x) = x .e-3x

f = x*exp(-3*x);

diff(f, 2)
MATLAB executes the code and returns the following result −
ans =
9*x*exp(-3*x) - 6*exp(-3*x)

Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

f = x*Exp(-3*x);

differentiate(f, x, 2)

Octave executes the code and returns the following result −

ans =

(9.0)*exp(-(3.0)*x)*x-(6.0)*exp(-(3.0)*x)

Example
In this example, let us solve a problem. Given that a function y = f(x) =
3 sin(x) + 7 cos(5x). We will have to find out whether the equation f"
+ f = -5cos(2x) holds true.

Create a script file and type the following code into it −

syms x

y = 3*sin(x)+7*cos(5*x); % defining the function

lhs = diff(y,2)+y; %evaluting the lhs of the equation

rhs = -5*cos(2*x); %rhs of the equation

if(isequal(lhs,rhs))

disp('Yes, the equation holds true');

else

disp('No, the equation does not hold true');

end

disp('Value of LHS is: '), disp(lhs);

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

No, the equation does not hold true
Value of LHS is:
-168*cos(5*x)

Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

y = 3*Sin(x)+7*Cos(5*x); % defining the function

lhs = differentiate(y, x, 2) + y; %evaluting the lhs of the equation

rhs = -5*Cos(2*x); %rhs of the equation

if(lhs == rhs)

disp('Yes, the equation holds true');

else

disp('No, the equation does not hold true');

end

disp('Value of LHS is: '), disp(lhs);

Octave executes the code and returns the following result −

No, the equation does not hold true
Value of LHS is:
-(168.0)*cos((5.0)*x)

Finding the Maxima and Minima of a

Curve
If we are searching for the local maxima and minima for a graph, we are
basically looking for the highest or lowest points on the graph of the
function at a particular locality, or for a particular range of values of the
symbolic variable.

For a function y = f(x) the points on the graph where the graph has zero
slope are called stationary points. In other words stationary points are
where f'(x) = 0.

To find the stationary points of a function we differentiate, we need to set

the derivative equal to zero and solve the equation.
Example
Let us find the stationary points of the function f(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 12x +
17

Take the following steps −

First let us enter the function and plot its graph.

syms x

y = 2*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 12*x + 17; % defining the function

ezplot(y)

MATLAB executes the code and returns the following plot −

Here is Octave equivalent code for the above example −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym('x');

y = inline("2*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 12*x + 17");

ezplot(y)

print -deps graph.eps

Our aim is to find some local maxima and minima on the graph, so
let us find the local maxima and minima for the interval [-2, 2] on
the graph.

syms x

y = 2*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 12*x + 17; % defining the function

ezplot(y, [-2, 2])

MATLAB executes the code and returns the following plot −

Here is Octave equivalent code for the above example −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym('x');

y = inline("2*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 12*x + 17");

ezplot(y, [-2, 2])

print -deps graph.eps

Next, let us compute the derivative.

g = diff(y)
MATLAB executes the code and returns the following result −
g =
6*x^2 + 6*x - 12

Here is Octave equivalent of the above calculation −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

y = 2*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 12*x + 17;

g = differentiate(y,x)

Octave executes the code and returns the following result −

g =
-12.0+(6.0)*x+(6.0)*x^(2.0)

Let us solve the derivative function, g, to get the values where it

becomes zero.

s = solve(g)

MATLAB executes the code and returns the following result −

s =
1
-2

Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

y = 2*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 12*x + 17;

g = differentiate(y,x)

roots([6, 6, -12])

Octave executes the code and returns the following result −

g =

-12.0+(6.0)*x^(2.0)+(6.0)*x
ans =

-2
1

This agrees with our plot. So let us evaluate the function f at the
critical points x = 1, -2. We can substitute a value in a symbolic function
by using the subs command.

subs(y, 1), subs(y, -2)

MATLAB executes the code and returns the following result −

ans =
10
ans =
37

Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

y = 2*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 12*x + 17;

g = differentiate(y,x)

roots([6, 6, -12])

subs(y, x, 1), subs(y, x, -2)

ans =
10.0
ans =
37.0-4.6734207789940138748E-18*I

Therefore, The minimum and maximum values on the function f(x) = 2x3 +
3x2 − 12x + 17, in the interval [-2,2] are 10 and 37.

Solving Differential Equations

MATLAB provides the dsolve command for solving differential equations
symbolically.

The most basic form of the dsolve command for finding the solution to a
single equation is
dsolve('eqn')
where eqn is a text string used to enter the equation.

It returns a symbolic solution with a set of arbitrary constants that MATLAB

labels C1, C2, and so on.

You can also specify initial and boundary conditions for the problem, as
comma-delimited list following the equation as −
dsolve('eqn','cond1', 'cond2',…)

For the purpose of using dsolve command, derivatives are indicated

with a D. For example, an equation like f'(t) = -2*f + cost(t) is entered
as −

'Df = -2*f + cos(t)'

Higher derivatives are indicated by following D by the order of the

derivative.

For example the equation f"(x) + 2f'(x) = 5sin3x should be entered as −

'D2y + 2Dy = 5*sin(3*x)'

Let us take up a simple example of a first order differential equation: y' =

5y.
s = dsolve('Dy = 5*y')

MATLAB executes the code and returns the following result −

s =
C2*exp(5*t)

Let us take up another example of a second order differential equation as:

y" - y = 0, y(0) = -1, y'(0) = 2.

dsolve('D2y - y = 0','y(0) = -1','Dy(0) = 2')

MATLAB executes the code and returns the following result −

ans =
exp(t)/2 - (3*exp(-t))/2

MATLAB - Integration

Integration deals with two essentially different types of problems.

  In the first type, derivative of a function is given and we want to find the
function. Therefore, we basically reverse the process of differentiation. This
reverse process is known as anti-differentiation, or finding the primitive
function, or finding an indefinite integral.

 The second type of problems involve adding up a very large number of very
small quantities and then taking a limit as the size of the quantities approaches
zero, while the number of terms tend to infinity. This process leads to the
definition of the definite integral.

Definite integrals are used for finding area, volume, center of gravity,
moment of inertia, work done by a force, and in numerous other
applications.

Finding Indefinite Integral Using

MATLAB
By definition, if the derivative of a function f(x) is f'(x), then we say that
an indefinite integral of f'(x) with respect to x is f(x). For example, since
the derivative (with respect to x) of x2 is 2x, we can say that an indefinite
integral of 2x is x2.

In symbols −

f'(x2) = 2x, therefore,

∫ 2xdx = x2.

Indefinite integral is not unique, because derivative of x2 + c, for any value

of a constant c, will also be 2x.

This is expressed in symbols as −

∫ 2xdx = x2 + c.

Where, c is called an 'arbitrary constant'.

MATLAB provides an int command for calculating integral of an

expression. To derive an expression for the indefinite integral of a function,
we write −
int(f);

For example, from our previous example −

syms x
int(2*x)

MATLAB executes the above statement and returns the following result −
ans =
x^2

Example 1
In this example, let us find the integral of some commonly used
expressions. Create a script file and type the following code in it −

syms x n

int(sym(x^n))

f = 'sin(n*t)'

int(sym(f))

syms a t

int(a*cos(pi*t))

int(a^x)

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

ans =
piecewise([n == -1, log(x)], [n ~= -1, x^(n + 1)/(n + 1)])
f =
sin(n*t)
ans =
-cos(n*t)/n
ans =
(a*sin(pi*t))/pi
ans =
a^x/log(a)

Example 2
Create a script file and type the following code in it −

syms x n

int(cos(x))

int(exp(x))

int(log(x))

int(x^-1)

int(x^5*cos(5*x))

pretty(int(x^5*cos(5*x)))
int(x^-5)

int(sec(x)^2)

pretty(int(1 - 10*x + 9 * x^2))

int((3 + 5*x -6*x^2 - 7*x^3)/2*x^2)

pretty(int((3 + 5*x -6*x^2 - 7*x^3)/2*x^2))

Note that the pretty function returns an expression in a more readable

format.

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

ans =
sin(x)

ans =
exp(x)

ans =
x*(log(x) - 1)

ans =
log(x)

ans =
(24*cos(5*x))/3125 + (24*x*sin(5*x))/625 - (12*x^2*cos(5*x))/125 + (x^4*cos(5*x))/5 -
(4*x^3*sin(5*x))/25 + (x^5*sin(5*x))/5
2 4
24 cos(5 x) 24 x sin(5 x) 12 x cos(5 x) x cos(5 x)
----------- + ------------- - -------------- + ------------
3125 625 125 5

3 5

4 x sin(5 x) x sin(5 x)
------------- + -----------
25 5

ans =
-1/(4*x^4)

ans =
tan(x)
2
x (3 x - 5 x + 1)

ans =
- (7*x^6)/12 - (3*x^5)/5 + (5*x^4)/8 + x^3/2

6 5 4 3
7 x 3 x 5 x x
- ---- - ---- + ---- + --
12 5 8 2
Finding Definite Integral Using MATLAB
By definition, definite integral is basically the limit of a sum. We use
definite integrals to find areas such as the area between a curve and the
x-axis and the area between two curves. Definite integrals can also be
used in other situations, where the quantity required can be expressed as
the limit of a sum.

The int function can be used for definite integration by passing the limits
over which you want to calculate the integral.

To calculate

we write,
int(x, a, b)

For example, to calculate the value of we write −

int(x, 4, 9)

MATLAB executes the above statement and returns the following result −
ans =
65/2

Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

f = x;

c = [1, 0];

integral = polyint(c);

a = polyval(integral, 9) - polyval(integral, 4);

display('Area: '), disp(double(a));

Octave executes the code and returns the following result −

Area:

32.500

An alternative solution can be given using quad() function provided by

Octave as follows −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

f = inline("x");

[a, ierror, nfneval] = quad(f, 4, 9);

display('Area: '), disp(double(a));

Octave executes the code and returns the following result −

Area:
32.500

Example 1
Let us calculate the area enclosed between the x-axis, and the curve y =
x3−2x+5 and the ordinates x = 1 and x = 2.

The required area is given by −

Create a script file and type the following code −

f = x^3 - 2*x +5;

a = int(f, 1, 2)

display('Area: '), disp(double(a));

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

a =
23/4
Area:
5.7500

Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

f = x^3 - 2*x +5;

c = [1, 0, -2, 5];

integral = polyint(c);

a = polyval(integral, 2) - polyval(integral, 1);

display('Area: '), disp(double(a));

Octave executes the code and returns the following result −

Area:

5.7500

An alternative solution can be given using quad() function provided by

Octave as follows −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

f = inline("x^3 - 2*x +5");

[a, ierror, nfneval] = quad(f, 1, 2);

display('Area: '), disp(double(a));

Octave executes the code and returns the following result −

Area:
5.7500

Example 2
Find the area under the curve: f(x) = x2 cos(x) for −4 ≤ x ≤ 9.

Create a script file and write the following code −

f = x^2*cos(x);

ezplot(f, [-4,9])
a = int(f, -4, 9)

disp('Area: '), disp(double(a));

When you run the file, MATLAB plots the graph −

The output is given below −

a =
8*cos(4) + 18*cos(9) + 14*sin(4) + 79*sin(9)

Area:
0.3326

Following is Octave equivalent of the above calculation −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

f = inline("x^2*cos(x)");

ezplot(f, [-4,9])

print -deps graph.eps

[a, ierror, nfneval] = quad(f, -4, 9);

display('Area: '), disp(double(a));

MATLAB - Polynomials

MATLAB represents polynomials as row vectors containing coefficients

ordered by descending powers. For example, the equation P(x) = x4 +
7x3 - 5x + 9 could be represented as −

p = [1 7 0 -5 9];
Evaluating Polynomials
The polyval function is used for evaluating a polynomial at a specified
value. For example, to evaluate our previous polynomial p, at x = 4, type
−

p = [1 7 0 -5 9];

polyval(p,4)

MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result −
ans = 693

MATLAB also provides the polyvalm function for evaluating a matrix

polynomial. A matrix polynomial is a polynomial with matrices as
variables.

For example, let us create a square matrix X and evaluate the polynomial
p, at X −

p = [1 7 0 -5 9];

X = [1 2 -3 4; 2 -5 6 3; 3 1 0 2; 5 -7 3 8];

polyvalm(p, X)

MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result −
ans =
2307 -1769 -939 4499
2314 -2376 -249 4695
2256 -1892 -549 4310
4570 -4532 -1062 9269

Finding the Roots of Polynomials

The roots function calculates the roots of a polynomial. For example, to
calculate the roots of our polynomial p, type −

p = [1 7 0 -5 9];

r = roots(p)

MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result −
r =
-6.8661 + 0.0000i
-1.4247 + 0.0000i
0.6454 + 0.7095i
0.6454 - 0.7095i
The function poly is an inverse of the roots function and returns to the
polynomial coefficients. For example −

p2 = poly(r)

MATLAB executes the above statements and returns the following result −
p2 =

Columns 1 through 3:

1.00000 + 0.00000i 7.00000 + 0.00000i 0.00000 + 0.00000i

Columns 4 and 5:

-5.00000 - 0.00000i 9.00000 + 0.00000i

Polynomial Curve Fitting

The polyfit function finds the coefficients of a polynomial that fits a set of
data in a least-squares sense. If x and y are two vectors containing the x
and y data to be fitted to a n-degree polynomial, then we get the
polynomial fitting the data by writing −

p = polyfit(x,y,n)

Example
Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [1 2 3 4 5 6]; y = [5.5 43.1 128 290.7 498.4 978.67]; %data

p = polyfit(x,y,4) %get the polynomial

% Compute the values of the polyfit estimate over a finer range,

% and plot the estimate over the real data values for comparison:

x2 = 1:.1:6;

y2 = polyval(p,x2);

plot(x,y,'o',x2,y2)

grid on

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following result −
p =
4.1056 -47.9607 222.2598 -362.7453 191.1250

And plots the following graph −

 MATLAB - Transforms

MATLAB provides command for working with transforms, such as the

Laplace and Fourier transforms. Transforms are used in science and
engineering as a tool for simplifying analysis and look at data from another
angle.
For example, the Fourier transform allows us to convert a signal
represented as a function of time to a function of frequency. Laplace
transform allows us to convert a differential equation to an algebraic
equation.

MATLAB provides the laplace, fourier and fft commands to work with
Laplace, Fourier and Fast Fourier transforms.

The Laplace Transform

The Laplace transform of a function of time f(t) is given by the following
integral −

Laplace transform is also denoted as transform of f(t) to F(s). You can see
this transform or integration process converts f(t), a function of the
symbolic variable t, into another function F(s), with another variable s.

Laplace transform turns differential equations into algebraic ones. To

compute a Laplace transform of a function f(t), write −

laplace(f(t))

Example
In this example, we will compute the Laplace transform of some commonly
used functions.

Create a script file and type the following code −

syms s t a b w

laplace(a)

laplace(t^2)

laplace(t^9)

laplace(exp(-b*t))

laplace(sin(w*t))

laplace(cos(w*t))

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

ans =
1/s^2

ans =
2/s^3

ans =
362880/s^10

ans =
1/(b + s)

ans =
w/(s^2 + w^2)

ans =
s/(s^2 + w^2)

The Inverse Laplace Transform

MATLAB allows us to compute the inverse Laplace transform using the
command ilaplace.

For example,

ilaplace(1/s^3)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and display the result −
ans =
t^2/2

Example
Create a script file and type the following code −

syms s t a b w

ilaplace(1/s^7)

ilaplace(2/(w+s))

ilaplace(s/(s^2+4))

ilaplace(exp(-b*t))

ilaplace(w/(s^2 + w^2))

ilaplace(s/(s^2 + w^2))

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

ans =
t^6/720

ans =
 2*exp(-t*w)

ans =
cos(2*t)

ans =
ilaplace(exp(-b*t), t, x)

ans =
sin(t*w)

ans =
cos(t*w)

The Fourier Transforms

Fourier transforms commonly transforms a mathematical function of time,
f(t), into a new function, sometimes denoted by or F, whose argument is
frequency with units of cycles/s (hertz) or radians per second. The new
function is then known as the Fourier transform and/or the frequency
spectrum of the function f.

Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it −

syms x

f = exp(-2*x^2); %our function

ezplot(f,[-2,2]) % plot of our function

FT = fourier(f) % Fourier transform

When you run the file, MATLAB plots the following graph −
The following result is displayed −
FT =
(2^(1/2)*pi^(1/2)*exp(-w^2/8))/2

Plotting the Fourier transform as −

ezplot(FT)

Gives the following graph −

Inverse Fourier Transforms
MATLAB provides the ifourier command for computing the inverse Fourier
transform of a function. For example,

f = ifourier(-2*exp(-abs(w)))

MATLAB will execute the above statement and display the result −
f =
-2/(pi*(x^2 + 1))
 MATLAB - GNU Octave Tutorial

GNU Octave is a high-level programming language like MATLAB and it is

mostly compatible with MATLAB. It is also used for numerical
computations.

Octave has the following common features with MATLAB −

 matrices are fundamental data type

 it has built-in support for complex numbers

 it has built-in math functions and libraries

 it supports user-defined functions

GNU Octave is also freely redistributable software. You may redistribute it

and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL)
as published by the Free Software Foundation.

MATLAB vs Octave
Most MATLAB programs run in Octave, but some of the Octave programs
may not run in MATLAB because, Octave allows some syntax that MATLAB
does not.

For example, MATLAB supports single quotes only, but Octave supports
both single and double quotes for defining strings. If you are looking for a
tutorial on Octave, then kindly go through this tutorial from beginning
which covers both MATLAB as well as Octave.

Compatible Examples
Almost all the examples covered in this tutorial are compatible with
MATLAB as well as Octave. Let's try following example in MATLAB and
Octave which produces same result without any syntax changes −

This example creates a 3D surface map for the function g = xe -(x2 + y2).

Create a script file and type the following code −

[x,y] = meshgrid(-2:.2:2);

g = x .* exp(-x.^2 - y.^2);

surf(x, y, g)

print -deps graph.eps

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following 3-D map −

Non-compatible Examples
Though all the core functionality of MATLAB is available in Octave, there
are some functionality for example, Differential & Integration Calculus,
which does not match exactly in both the languages. This tutorial has tried
to give both type of examples where they differed in their syntax.

Consider following example where MATLAB and Octave make use of

different functions to get the area of a curve: f(x) = x2 cos(x) for −4 ≤ x
≤ 9. Following is MATLAB version of the code −

f = x^2*cos(x);

ezplot(f, [-4,9])

a = int(f, -4, 9)

disp('Area: '), disp(double(a));

When you run the file, MATLAB plots the graph −

The following result is displayed
a =
8*cos(4) + 18*cos(9) + 14*sin(4) + 79*sin(9)

Area:
0.3326

But to give area of the same curve in Octave, you will have to make use
of symbolic package as follows −

pkg load symbolic

symbols

x = sym("x");

f = inline("x^2*cos(x)");

ezplot(f, [-4,9])

print -deps graph.eps

[a, ierror, nfneval] = quad(f, -4, 9);

display('Area: '), disp(double(a));

 MATLAB - Simulink

Simulink is a simulation and model-based design environment for dynamic

and embedded systems, integrated with MATLAB. Simulink, also
developed by MathWorks, is a data flow graphical programming language
tool for modelling, simulating and analyzing multi-domain dynamic
systems. It is basically a graphical block diagramming tool with
customizable set of block libraries.

It allows you to incorporate MATLAB algorithms into models as well as

export the simulation results into MATLAB for further analysis.

Simulink supports −

 system-level design

 simulation

 automatic code generation

 testing and verification of embedded systems

There are several other add-on products provided by MathWorks and third-
party hardware and software products that are available for use with
Simulink.

The following list gives brief description of some of them −

 Stateflow allows developing state machines and flow charts.

 Simulink Coder allows the generation of C source code for real-time

implementation of systems automatically.

 xPC Target together with x86-based real-time systems provide an

environment to simulate and test Simulink and Stateflow models in real-time
on the physical system.

 Embedded Coder supports specific embedded targets.

 HDL Coder allows to automatically generate synthesizable VHDL and Verilog.

 SimEvents provides a library of graphical building blocks for modelling

queuing systems.

Simulink is capable of systematic verification and validation of models

through modelling style checking, requirements traceability and model
coverage analysis.
Simulink Design Verifier allows you to identify design errors and to
generate test case scenarios for model checking.

Using Simulink
To open Simulink, type in the MATLAB work space −
simulink

Simulink opens with the Library Browser. The Library Browser is used
for building simulation models.
On the left side window pane, you will find several libraries categorized on
the basis of various systems, clicking on each one will display the design
blocks on the right window pane.

Building Models
To create a new model, click the New button on the Library Browser's
toolbar. This opens a new untitled model window.

A Simulink model is a block diagram.

Model elements are added by selecting the appropriate elements from the
Library Browser and dragging them into the Model window.

Alternately, you can copy the model elements and paste them into the
model window.

Examples
Drag and drop items from the Simulink library to make your project.

For the purpose of this example, two blocks will be used for the simulation
- A Source (a signal) and a Sink (a scope). A signal generator (the
source) generates an analog signal, which will then be graphically
visualized by the scope(the sink).
Begin by dragging the required blocks from the library to the project
window. Then, connect the blocks together which can be done by dragging
connectors from connection points on one block to those of another.

Let us drag a 'Sine Wave' block into the model.

Select 'Sinks' from the library and drag a 'Scope' block into the model.

Drag a signal line from the output of the Sine Wave block to the input of
the Scope block.
Run the simulation by pressing the 'Run' button, keeping all parameters
default (you can change them from the Simulation menu)

You should get the below graph from the scope.