Chapter 9.

6 Euler’s Formula
Remember the “ cosθ + i sinθ ↔ cisθ ” notation? Well, that was done as a lead–up to Euler’s
Formula. If we take the MacLaurin series expansion of e to the ix :

( ix )
n
�
i 2 x 2 i 3 x 3 i 4 x 4 i 5 x5 i 6 x 6 i 7 x 7
e =�
ix
= 1 + ix + + + + + + K
n =0 n! 2 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
x 2 ix 3 x 4 ix 5 x 6 ix 7
= 1 + ix - - + + - - +K
2 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
� x2 x4 x6 � � x3 x 5 x 7 �
=�
1 - + - + K �+ i �x - + - + K �
� 2 4! 6! � � 3! 5! 7! �
�� ( -1) ( x ) � �� ( -1) ( x )
??? 2n ??? 2 n +1
�
=�
�� 2 n !
�+
� �
i �� ( 2 n + 1) !
�
�
�n=0
� � n =0
�
e = cos x + i sin x
ix

Therefore, back in the 17th century:

_____________________________________________________________________

Theorem: (Euler’s Formula)

ei ( nq ) = cos ( nq ) + i sin ( nq )
_____________________________________________________________________

Thus,
z = x + iy
= r ( cos q + i sin q )
= reiq
* θ strictly in radians now, bc no ei(degrees)

Unlike the last time, this shows Euler’s Formula extends n to all real numbers, this also
extends the function of De Moivre’s Formula. The rest is basically the same as before, except
you compress cosθ + isinθ into eiθ . Nice and neat.
_____________________________________________________________________

n–th Powers of a Complex Number

z n wm = ( reia ) ( se ) = ( r n s m ) ei( na + mb )
n ib m

n–th Roots of a Complex Number

1 q + 2p k �
1 i�
z =r e n giving n unique roots for k = 0, 1, 2, ... n–1
�
n � n �
�

_____________________________________________________________________
 Leonhard Euler “oiler” (1707 – 1783)

When calculating the m/n–th power of a complex number, there are two paths:
(1) Calculate the m–th power of z and finding all n–th roots of zm .
m 1
z n = ( zm ) n
Where you calculate zm before finding all n roots of zm .

(2) All n–th roots z raised to the power of m .

m
� 1n �
m
z = �z �n

� �
Where you calculate all n–th roots of z , zk , before finding (zk)m .

3
E.g. Evaluate i 2 .

Method 1
1
3p � 2
3 1 1 �i �
� ��
i =(i
2
)
3 2
= ( -i ) 2 =�e �2 ��
� �
� �
�3p �
� + 2p k �
i �2 �
� 2 � �3p + 4p k �
� � i� �
=e � �
=e � 4 �
k = 0,1
�i 34p i
7p
�
=�e , e 4�
�

Method 2
�p �
1 � + 2p k �
i �2 �
�p + 4p k �
1
�i p2 � 2 � 2
� �
� i� �
i2 = �e �= e � �
=e� 4 �
k = 0,1
� �
�i p4 i
5p
�
=� e , e 4�
�
3 � 7p �
3
�12 � �i 34p i
15p
� � 3p
�i 4 i�2p + �� �i
4 ��
3p
i
7p
�
i =�
2
i �= �e , e �= �
4
e , e �
�= �
e 4
, e 4�
���� � �
E.g.1

(1) 3 + i

( )
� �
�1 �
i�
arctan � ��
= 3 +1 e
2 2 �
= 10ei 0.32175
�3 �
�

(2) z = 2 + 2 3i . Find z5. z = 4ei(π/3) , z5 = 45ei(5π/3)

( )
40
(3) 3 -i = 240ei(–40π/6)

(4) Express z = -1 + 3i as reiθ . Then: z2 , z3 , z7 .

z = 2ei(2π/3) , z2 = 4ei(4π/3)
z3 = 8 , z7 = 64z

(5) Find the cube roots of z = 1 + i .

z⅓ = 21/6ei(π/12) , 21/6ei(3π/4) ,
21/6ei(17π/12)
9.6.2 Relationship Between Circular Trigonometry and Hyperbolic Trigonometry Functions

Euler’s Formula also forms a link between Euclidean trigonometry and Hyperbolic
trigonometry. For example, using what we learned way back in Chapter 1:

eix + ei ( - x )
cosh ( ix ) =
2
1
= ( cos x + i sin x + cos ( - x ) + i sin ( - x ) )
2
1
= ( cos x + i sin x + cos ( x ) - i sin ( x ) )
2
1
= ( 2 cos x + i 0 )
2
cosh ( ix ) = cos x

Doing this for the other functions gives us:

cosh ( ix ) = cos x sech ( ix ) = sec x

sinh ( ix ) = i sin x csch ( ix ) = -i csc x
tanh ( ix ) = i tan x coth ( ix ) = -i cot x
for x ��

It also works the same in the other direction:

cos ( ix ) = cosh ( x ) sec ( ix ) = sech ( x )

sin ( ix ) = i sinh ( x ) csc ( ix ) = -i csc h ( x )
tan ( ix ) = i tanh x cot ( ix ) = -i coth ( x )
So, for a complex number z we can evaluate trigonometry functions two ways:
(1) Expand using circular trigonometry identities.
E.g.
cos ( x + iy ) = cos x cos iy - sin x sin iy
= cos x cosh y - i sin x sinh y

(2) Expand using hyperbolic trigonometry functions and eiz form.

E.g.
e x +iy + e - x -iy 1 x iy - x - iy
cosh ( x + iy ) = = ( e e +e e )
2 2
1
2
(
= e x [ cos y + i sin y ] + e- x � � cos ( - y ) + i sin ( - y ) �
� )
1
= ( e x cos y + ie x sin y + e - x cos y - ie - x sin y )
2
� e x + e- x � e x - e- x �
�
= cos y � � + i sin y � 2 �
� 2 � � �
= cos y cosh x + i sin y sinh x

E.g.2
(1) sinh(3+4i)

Method 1 Identities
sinh ( 3 + 4i ) = sinh 3cosh 4i + cosh 3sinh 4i
= sinh 3cos 4 + i cosh 3sin 4

Method 2 Convert Function

sinh ( 3 + 4i ) = sinh ( ( 3 + 4i ) ( -i ) ( i ) ) = sinh ( ( 4 - 3i ) i )
= i sin ( 4 - 3i )
sin 4 cos ( -3i ) + cos 4sin ( -3i ) �
=i�
� �
sin 4 cosh ( -3) + i cos 4sinh ( -3) �
=i�
� �
= cos 4sinh 3 + i sin 4 cosh 3

Method 3 Euler’s Formula

1 1
sinh ( 3 + 4i ) = ( e3+ 4i - e -3- 4i ) = ( e3e 4i - e-3e-4i )
2 2
1
2
(
= e3 [ cos 4 + i sin 4] - e -3 � � )
cos ( -4 ) + i sin ( -4 ) �
�
1
= ( e3 [ cos 4 + i sin 4] - e -3 [ cos 4 - i sin 4] )
2

= cos 4
( e 3 - e -3 )
+ i sin 4
( e 3 + e -3 )
2 2
= cos 4sinh 3 + i sin 4 cosh 3
 �p �
(2) tan � - 3i �
�4 �
sech(6) – i tanh(6)

�p �
(3) sin � ( 1 + i ) �
�4 �
1/√2 ( cosh π/4 + i sin π/4 )