CATEGORIES OF

NUCLEAR EXPLOSION
AND ITS EFFECTS

S/LT NAJEEB ULLAH KHAN PN

 PNO 7697
Nuclear Bursts
The effects of a nuclear explosion of a given yield vary with its height of detonation. An
aggressor will seek to maximize the effects which gain the most tactical advantage. Nuclear
bursts are categorised as follows

a. High Altitude (exo-atmospheric) Air Burst. Some air blast and heat may be felt
at the surface but these effects decrease and eventually disappear as the height of burst increases.
Flash is attenuated by distance. Initial and residual radiation is minimal. The electromagnetic
pulse affects a very large area and there is serious atmospheric ionization.

b. Airburst (endo-atmospheric). Heat, flash and blast effects are intense. There is some
fallout from bomb debris at higher altitudes, varying to heavy fallout for low altitude airbursts
from material taken aloft by the fireball suction. Initial radiation is at a maximum and a large
area will be affected by the electromagnetic pulse.

c. Ground Surface Burst. The blast damage range is generally less than that from an
airburst, but very severe damage occurs near ground zero and shock damage is very heavy. Heat
and flash effects are about one third less than those from an airburst. Initial radiation is slightly
less than that from an airburst. There is a great deal of residual radiation and a large area is
affected by fallout.

d. Sea Surface Burst. There is heavy shock-induced damage out to a considerable

distance. Flash and heat effects are about one third of those from an airburst. Initial radiation is
rather less than that from a similar airburst, with more effects in the vicinity of the blast. There is
maximum fallout from massive amounts of material taken aloft by the fireball. Close to ground
zero, the base surge formed by the blast and initial fallout are heavily contaminated but reduce
quickly as material sinks or is diluted. The base surge dissipates rapidly and the area around
ground zero should be reasonably safe to transit about four hours after the detonation.

e. Underwater Burst. The fireball is quickly quenched, becoming an enormous steam

bubble accompanied by a very powerful shock wave. A shallow underwater burst has similar
effects to a surface burst except for a large base surge. The main effect of a deep underwater
burst is shock.
Categories of Nuclear Radiation
The radiation emitted by a nuclear weapon is classified according to the period of time it is
emitted during and after the detonation process as follows:
a. Initial nuclear radiation is that which is emitted within the first minute after
detonation.
b. Residual radiation is that which is emitted after the first minute.

Initial Nuclear Radiation (INR)

This radiation is emitted by the fireball from the instant of the explosion for approximately one
minute and consists of highly penetrating Gamma rays and neutrons.
Neutrons are not emitted by fallout but are captured by molecules they collide with, making
these radioactive. The fireball continues to emit Gamma radiation until it dissipates which,
because of its high energy and long range, can potentially cause a large number of casualties. For
exercise planning purposes, Table 2-4 gives a rough guide to the total dose of initial radiation at
various distances from GZ.

Residual Nuclear Radiation

This radiation consists primarily of Gamma rays, Alpha and Beta particles, emitted from the
fallout produced by surface and low atmospheric bursts and received after the first minute of
detonation.
Note: When a subsurface burst vents through to atmosphere, the energy level in the radioactive
material thrown up is more akin to INR than residual radiation, and the arbitrary division of one
minute after burst to separate the INR and residual radiation cannot be applied. Any radiation
received from this source is termed transient radiation.

Sources of Radioactive Contamination

There are two main sources of radioactive contamination:
a. Weapon Residues. These consisting of the following:
(1) Fission Products. These are mostly Beta and Gamma emitters. There is intense activity
during the first few hours after the burst, whilst isotopes with short half-lives decay.
(2) Unfissioned Materials. These are radioactive, mainly Alpha emitters having very long half-
lives.
(3) Neutron Capture Within the Weapon. The constituents of the weapon, notably the casing, are
subjected to intense neutron bombardment which induces radioactivity of all types.
b. External Sources. Neutron bombardment generates induced radioactivity in the material
close to the detonation. This is worst in the case of weapon bursts on or near the surface.
(1) In Sea Water. When Sodium nuclei capture neutrons, Sodium-24 is produced with a half life
of nearly 15 hours. In practice, however, rapid dispersion and diffusion in the sea will prevent a
serious hazard from remaining more than a few hours. Shallow, land-locked and non-tidal water
might remain radioactive for sometime, but in the open sea it would be safe for ships to pass
within a few hours after fallout has ceased.
(2) On Land. In general, the most important radioactive isotopes produced by neutron capture in
soil are Sodium-24 and Manganese-56, the latter having a half life of 2 hours 35 minutes.
Fallout
Surface and low atmospheric bursts cause large quantities of material to be sucked up
into the fireball where they are irradiated by neutrons, thereby making them radioactive. Once
they have been made radioactive they will begin to decay or emit radioactivity. Eventually the
material will fall back to the surface as radioactive contamination with the heaviest particles
close to GZ and the lighter ones affected by the prevailing winds and falling at varying distances
downwind. This fallout will emit Alpha and Beta particles and Gamma rays and will persist as a
health hazard for a considerable time. The Gamma radiations emitted from fallout are about one
quarter to one half the energy and penetrating power of INR Gamma rays.
Deposition of Contaminants
Some or all of the following radioactive contaminations may result from a nuclear explosion:
a. Ground or Surface Contamination. Depending on the type and height of the burst,
contamination consisting of induced radioactivity, weapon debris and fission products may
remain around Ground Zero.
b. Immediate Fallout. This consists of the heaviest particles of contaminated debris which
return to the surface within 15 to 30 minutes after the burst. It may be solid, liquid or both, and
deposited in a roughly circular or elliptical pattern with its centre slightly downwind of Ground
Zero.
c. Medium Range Fallout. This is a mixture of medium-sized particles of fission
products, weapon residue, fireball constituents and debris which are carried high up by the cloud
before falling back to the surface within 24 hours of the burst.
d. Rainout. Precipitation scavenging can cause the removal of radioactive particles from the
atmosphere. This is known as rainout and may occur in the vicinity of Ground Zero or the
contamination could be carried aloft for several nautical miles before deposition. The threat of
rainout exists especially from surface or sub-surface bursts.
d. World-wide Fallout. Fine radioactive particles from the cloud may take months or even
years before they fall to the surface, by which time they will have been widely dispersed and
have lost much of their radioactivity.
e. Base Surge. Though probably not much contamination will be deposited by the base
surge, the dose rate during its transit may be very high.

Radiological Hazards to Personnel

Nuclear contamination may enter the body through ingestion, inhalation, wounds or penetration.
Alpha and Beta emitters will have localized effects on surrounding tissue and organs, whilst any
Gamma emissions will have a whole-body effect. If the contamination is on or near the body,
Alpha particles will do no harm but Beta particles emitted will affect the skin and the
immediately underlying tissues and the Gamma radiation will penetrate the body. When the
contamination is away from the body, separated by protective clothing, distance or shielding,
only the Gamma radiations will have any effect. Personnel exposed to airborne fallout should
wear respiratory protection to reduce the risk in inhaling radioactive particles. In practical terms
radiation doses are cumulative in effect. A person receiving a dose of 100 Gy on each of three
occasions thus accumulates a total dose of 300 Gy.
Some of the factors influencing injury caused by nuclear radiation are:
a. The total dose accumulated from previous radiation exposure.
b. The period over which the doses are received.
c. The type of radiation, ie Gamma, Neutron, etc.
d. The periods of recuperation between exposures.
e. The presence, or absence, of any additional injuries or incapacitation.
f. The sex, age and physical condition of the individual at the time of exposure.
Radiation Sickness
The symptoms of major radiation damage in personnel are:
a. Initial Symptoms. Nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite and general malaise with a dose-
dependent onset of between 2 minutes and 6 hours following acute exposure.
b. A Symptom-Free Period. Again dose-dependent, from 12 to 48 hours after exposure, of
up to 3 weeks or down to a few hours duration.
c. A Second Phase of Symptoms. In all but the non-life-threatening dose range, this
phase consists of further nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, fever, haemorrhages, and much reduced
resistance to infection, with onset from a few days to up to about three weeks after exposure,
depending on the dose received. The possible outcomes of this phase are death or recovery in a
further 3 to 4 weeks.
Under service conditions there is little effective treatment for personnel exposed to radiation. For
moderate, or less than whole body, doses the chances of recovery are good. It is important for
personnel to recognise the symptoms of radiation sickness so that problems relating to
operational effectiveness can be anticipated before they arise, and measures taken to minimize
the exposure of personnel to ensure operational effectiveness is maintained for as long as
possible. Only the acute short term effects of ionizing radiations are considered in this section,
however, the long term effects of Cancer, Leukaemia and genetic abnormalities in
futuregenerations cannot be overlooked. For these reasons, all doses of radiation must be kept as
low as reasonably practicable (ALARP). The measurement and recording of dose rates is
covered in is a guide to the medical effects of whole-body radiation on personnel. It also serves
to align dosimeter readings with clinical observations. The recording of personal dosimeter
readings is critical because it indicates the total dose and the period during which the dose was
accumulated.