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Experimental Stress Analysis for Materials and Structures

Book · January 2015

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-06086-6

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Contents

Part I A Brief Review of the Experimental Methods Utilized

in the Book

1 Introduction to Inverse Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1 Premise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 General Rules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 Rules for Inverse Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Forward and Inverse Problems for Elastic
Discretized Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Quality Indicators of Inverse Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.2 Inverse Solution for Systems in Matrix Form . . . . . . . 14
1.3 Systems in Functional Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.1 Regularization Method of Tikhonov-Phillips. . . . . . . . 18
1.3.2 Regularization Using Regularization Matrix . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.3 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 Introduction to the Application of Strain Gages . . . . . . . . ...... 23

2.1 Properties of Strain Gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 23
2.1.1 Relationship Between Strain and Resistance
Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.2 Materials for Metal Strain Gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.3 Resistance Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.4 Transverse Sensitivity and Strain Gage Factor . . . . . . 32
2.1.5 Influence of a Temperature Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.6 Compensation for Thermal Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2 Strain Gage Rosettes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.1 Three-Gage Rectangular ð0 45 90 Þ Rosettes . . . . . 39
2.2.2 Three-Gage ð0 120 240 Þ
or ð0 60 120 Þ Rosettes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 41

xi
xii Contents

2.3 Potentiometric Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.3.1 Measurement of Dynamic Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4 Wheatstone Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.4.1 Shunt Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4.2 Bridge Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.5 Bridge Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.5.1 Quarter Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.5.2 Half Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.5.3 Full Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5.4 Eliminating Cable Effects with Three-Wire Circuit . . . 57
2.6 Semiconductor Strain Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.7 Tests on Piezo-Resistive Hydrogenated Amorphous
Silicon Strain Gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.7.1 Gage Preparation and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.7.2 Calibration and Test Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.7.3 Temperature Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.8 Load Cells with Strain Gages Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.8.1 Bending Load Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.8.2 Ring Load Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.8.3 Shear Load Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.9 Load Cell Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.10 Load Cells with More Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.10.1 Load Cell for Three Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.10.2 Load Cell for Two Forces and One
Torsional Moment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.10.3 Load Cells at Six Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.10.4 Regularization of the Six-Degrees Load Cell . . . . . . . 92
2.10.5 Determination of the Damping Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

3 Introduction to Photoelasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

3.1 Premise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.2 Nature of Light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.2.1 Polarized Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.2.2 Plane Polarized Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.2.3 Circularly Polarized Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.2.4 Elliptically Polarized Light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.2.5 Plane Polarizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.2.6 Double Refraction or Birefringence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.3 Light Treatment in an Optical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.3.1 Optical System with a Polarizer
and a Birefringent Filter. . . . . . . . . ............. 112
3.4 Light Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 114
3.5 Optics of Photoelasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 114
Contents xiii

3.6 Polariscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

3.7 Plane Polariscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.7.1 Polarizer and Analyzer with Crossed Axes . . . . . . . . . 118
3.8 Circular Polariscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.8.1 Polarizer Along y Axis and Analyzer
Along x Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.8.2 Both Polarizer and Analyzer Along the y Axis . . . . . . 122
3.9 Isochromatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.10 Isoclines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.10.1 Isotropic and Singular Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.10.2 Determination of Fractional Fringe Orders . . . . . . . . . 128
3.10.3 Measurement of Fractional Orders by Means
of Quarter-Wave Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 132
3.10.4 Drawing Stress Trajectories from Isoclines . . . . . .... 136
3.11 Principal Stresses Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 139
3.11.1 Shear Stresses and Normal Stresses Difference
Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 139
3.11.2 Determination of Stress Sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 139
3.11.3 Integration of Equilibrium Equations . . . . . . . . . .... 141
3.11.4 Overview of Experimental Methods for Principal
Stresses Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.12 Materials for Photoelastic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.12.1 Boundary Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.12.2 Stress Freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.12.3 Calibration of Photoelastic Material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.12.4 Material Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.13 Three-Dimensional Photoelasticity: The Frozen
Stress Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 150
3.13.1 Limit of Three-Dimensional Photoelasticity . . . . .... 151
3.13.2 Overview of the Mold-Making
and Casting Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 152
3.13.3 Stress State in Plane External Surfaces
and in Planes Perpendicular to the External
Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 154
3.13.4 Determination of Stress State at Points
Inside the Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.14 Birefringent Coating Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.14.1 Measurement of Principal Strains Directions. . . . . . . . 159
3.14.2 Strains and Stresses Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.14.3 Coating Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
xiv Contents

4 Introduction to Holographic Interferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

4.1 Holography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.1.1 The Laser Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.1.2 Hologram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.1.3 Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.2 Holographic Interferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.2.1 Interference Fringes in a Double
Exposure Hologram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.2.2 Interference Fringes in a Real Time Hologram . . . . . . 175
4.3 Description by Means of Ellipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.4 Other Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.5 Displacement Vector Lying on Plane ACB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.5.1 Case Study of Displacements Determination
in a Transparent Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 179
4.6 Displacement Vector Not Lying on Plane ACB . . . . . . ...... 180
4.6.1 Order Determination When No Zero
Fringe Is Present. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 183
4.7 Strains from Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 184
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 185

5 Overview of Digital Image Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.2 Operating Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.3 Computation Area (Facet) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.4 The Speckle Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.4.1 Case Study: Optimization of the Speckle Pattern. . . . . 194
5.5 Operating Principle of 2D Image Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.5.1 Displacements and Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.6 3D Image Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.6.1 Stereoscopic Vision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.6.2 Rectification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.6.3 Stereoscopic Matching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.6.4 3D Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.7 Typical Arrangement of a DIC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.8 Theoretical and Practical Problems with DIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.8.1 Possible Problems Associated with Stereoscopic
Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.8.2 Observation Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.8.3 Noise of the Input Digital Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.8.4 To Filter, or Not to Filter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.9 Case Study: Optimization of the Hardware
and Software Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 209
Contents xv

5.10 Case Study: Strain Distribution in the Human Tibia . . . . . . . . 210

5.11 Digital Volume Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Part II Developing Phenomenological Theories and Problem Solving

6 Static Stress Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

6.1 The Illustrative Advantage of a Full Field Analysis . . . . . . . . . 217
6.1.1 Force at a Point of a Straight Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.1.2 Hertzian Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.2 Design by Experiments of Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.2.1 Case Study of Steam Generator Reactor
Head with Four Openings on the Spherical Dome. . .. 225
6.2.2 Case Study of a Reactor Pressure Vessel
with Four Nozzles in the Cylindrical Part . . . . . . . .. 225
6.3 Stress Concentration Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 227
6.3.1 Basic Theoretical Cases: Stress Concentration
for Circular Holes in Thin Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.3.2 Elliptic Hole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
6.3.3 Concentration Factors for Slender Beams . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.4 Stress Beyond the Elastic Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.4.1 Imposed Displacements and Imposed Forces . . . . . . . 241
6.4.2 Models for the Simulation of Constitutive
Materials Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
6.4.3 Experimental Verification of the Neuber Model . . . . . 246
6.4.4 How Stress Modifies Material Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . 248
6.4.5 How Material Behavior Modifies Stress State . . . . . . . 249
6.4.6 Elementary Models of Physical Theory of Fracture . . . 251
6.5 Special Equipment for Static Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

7 Local Stress Models for Variable Loads. . . . . . . . . . . ......... 259

7.1 Stress Analysis for Developing a Theory on High
Cycles Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 259
7.2 Identification of Variable Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 260
7.2.1 Case Study of Fatigue Loads
on a Sport Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.2.2 Types of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
7.3 Laboratory Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7.3.1 Rotating Bending Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7.3.2 Tension/Compression Test and Bending
Test in One Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 267
7.3.3 Torsion Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 268
xvi Contents

7.4 Fatigue Data Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

7.4.1 Fatigue Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.4.2 Model for Fatigue Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.5 Models for Notch Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
7.5.1 Models for the Micro-plasticity Zone. . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.6 Support Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
7.6.1 Support Factor in Slender Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.7 From Slender to 3D-Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
7.7.1 Modeling Non-uniform Stress States by Means
of the Relative Stress Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 278
7.7.2 Relative Stress Gradient for Three
Dimensional Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 282
7.8 Dependence of Fatigue Strength on the Support Factor . . . ... 282
7.8.1 Size Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 283
7.8.2 Model of the Support Factor as a Function
of the Relative Stress Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 284
7.8.3 Modeling Support Effect Through Rotating
Bending Fatigue Tests: Case Study
on Characterization of a Titanium Alloy . . . . . . . ... 289
7.9 Models for the Evaluation of Mean Stress Effect . . . . . . . ... 296
7.10 Fatigue Assessment of Mechanical Components
Through Relative Stress Gradient Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 299
7.10.1 Case Study for the Fatigue Assessment
at a Three-Dimensional Protrusion
in an Excavator Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
7.11 Macroscopic Fractography as Stress Analysis Tool . . . . . . . . . 303
7.11.1 Rotating Bending of a Shaft with Two Diameters . . . . 305
7.11.2 Shafts in Bending at a Stress Rate R ¼ 0 . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.11.3 Shafts in Bending at a Stress Rate R ¼ 1 . . . . . . . . 308
7.11.4 Shafts in Torsion at Shear Stress Rate R ¼ 1 . . . . . . 308
7.12 Influence of the Surface Finishing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
7.13 Dixon Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
7.13.1 Case Study on the Determination
of the Local Fatigue Limit of a Mechanical
Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 313
7.13.2 Statistical Analysis of the Results . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 319
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 321

8 Local Strain Models for Variable Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

8.1 Experimental Analysis of Local Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
8.2 Laboratory Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
8.3 Strain-Controlled Versus Stress-Controlled Tests. . . . . . . . . . . 328
Contents xvii

8.3.1 Repeated Loading in Stress-Controlled Tests . . . . . . . 329

8.3.2 Repeated Loading in Strain-Controlled Tests . . . . . . . 329
8.4 Model for Material Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
8.4.1 Concentration Factors for Variable Loads . . . . . . . . . 333
8.5 Fatigue Life Model in Strain Controlled Problems. . . . . . . . . . 334
8.5.1 Influence of the Mean Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.6 Model for Variable Amplitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.6.1 Cycle Counting Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
8.6.2 Damage Per Cycle and Accumulated Damage . . . . . . 338
8.6.3 Application of Neuber Hypothesis Without
Concentration Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
8.7 Case Study of a Damage Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
8.8 Torsional Low Cycle Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
8.8.1 Ramberg-Osgood Model for Torsional Loads . . . . . . . 344
8.8.2 Neuber Model for Torsional Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
8.8.3 Fatigue Curve for Torsional Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
8.8.4 Effect of Mean Shear Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
8.9 Case Study of Notched Shafts in Torsion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
8.9.1 Special Equipment for Material Characterization
in Shear Strain-Controlled Mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 349
8.9.2 Determination of Cyclic Curve and Fatigue
Curve Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 350
8.9.3 Special Equipments for Torsional Tests on Shafts . ... 352
8.9.4 Torsional Tests with Assigned Loads Sequence . . ... 353
8.9.5 Appearance of the Cracks Directions in Torsional
Low Cycle Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
8.10 Preventing Loads Misalignments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
8.10.1 Functional Analysis of the Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
8.10.2 Adopted Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

9 Elementary Models for Stress Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

9.1 Behavior Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
9.1.1 Elastic Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
9.1.2 Crack Loading Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
9.1.3 Plane Stress and Plane Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
9.2 The Field Equations for the Region Close to the Crack Tip . . . 368
9.2.1 The Westergaard Stress Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
9.2.2 Displacements Close to the Crack Tip . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
9.2.3 Stress Field for Modes II and III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
9.2.4 Magnification Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
9.2.5 More Terms of Series Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
9.3 Identification of the Stress Intensity Factor Utilizing More
Terms of the Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 378
xviii Contents

9.4 Crack Tip Plasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 380

9.4.1 Apparent Plastic Zone Size According to Von
Mises Criterion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 380
9.4.2 Apparent Plastic Zone Size According
to the Tresca Criterion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 382
9.4.3 Apparent and True Plastic Zone Size. . . . . . . . ..... 384
9.5 Case Studies of the Stress Intensity Factor Identification
for Internal Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 385
9.5.1 Identification of SIF by Photoelasticity . . . . . . ..... 386
9.5.2 Identification of SIF by Holographic
Interferometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 397
9.5.3 Identification of the Stress Intensity Factor
by Strain Gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
9.6 Stress Analysis for Brittle Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
9.6.1 Experimental Equipments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
9.6.2 Fracture Mechanics Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
9.6.3 A Case Study on the Temperature Influence
on SIF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 412
9.7 Models for Sub-critical Fatigue Crack Growth . . . . . . . ..... 414
9.7.1 Case Study on Sub-critical Crack Growth
for Turbine Steels and Design Criteria . . . . . . . ..... 417
9.8 Visual Analysis of Crack Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 420
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 422

10 Stress Models in Biomechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 425

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 425
10.1.1 Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal System . ...... 426
10.1.2 Methods for Measuring Musculoskeletal
Kinematics and Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 427
10.1.3 Biomechanical Musculoskeletal Models . . . . . ...... 429
10.2 Biomechanical Investigations in Orthopaedics
at Different Dimensional Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 431
10.3 Case Study: Strain Distribution in the Human Tibia,
a Uniform Stress Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 436
10.4 Case Study: Bone Strains Caused by Press Fitting
of a Hip Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 437
10.5 Case Study: Deformations of an Acetabular Cup
by Means of Holographic Interferometry . . . . . . . . . . ...... 438
10.6 Biomechanical Risk Assessment: Experimental
Stress Analysis and Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 439
10.6.1 Risk Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 440
10.6.2 Case Study: The Paradigm for Pre-clinical
Validation of New Implantable Devices . . . . . ...... 442
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 445
Contents xix

11 Reliability Models Based on Experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 449

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 449
11.2 Determination of the Distributions of Sets of Data . . . . . .... 451
11.2.1 Case Study: Height Distribution in a Class
of Students. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 452
11.2.2 Case Study: Probability of Static Failure
of a Tensioned Rod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 457
11.2.3 Case Study: Quality Control of Pin Diameters . . .... 461
11.3 How to Linearly Interpolate a Set of Data and How
to Account for Their Scatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 465
11.3.1 How to Determine the Coefficient of Plasticity
and the Hardening Exponent of a Material
and Related Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 468
11.3.2 How to Determine the Manson-Coffin Curve
Parameters and Related Distributions. . . . . . . . . .... 471
11.4 Multi-variable Problems: Application of a Most Probable
Point Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 475
11.4.1 Low Cycle Fatigue on Turbogenerators
and Probability of Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 482
11.4.2 Case Study: Probability of Failure
of a Turbogenerator Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 485
11.4.3 Fracture Mechanics and Reliability Assessment . .... 488
11.4.4 Case Study: Fracture Mechanics and Reliability
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 490
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 492

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
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