Eclipse Handbook

Engineering Guide
Copyright 1986 by Eclipse, Inc.

1665 Elmwood Rd.
Rockford, IL 61103
EFE 825, 8/04

Electronic Edition
Published by
Eclipse, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
OPEN
GUIDE
OPEN
TECH NOTES
CONTENTS
1. Orifices & Flows

Coefficients of Discharge for Various Types of Orifices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Orifice Flow Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Orifice Capacity Tables, Low Pressure Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Orifice Capacity Tables, High Pressure Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Piping Pressures Losses, Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Piping Pressure Losses, Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
High Pressure (Compressible) Flow of Natural Gas in Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Equivalent Lengths of Standard Pipe Fittings & Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Simplified Selection of Air, Gas and Mixture Piping Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Quick Method for Sizing Air Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Sizing Branch Piping by the Equal Area Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Cv Flow Factor Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Duct Velocity & Flow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2. Fan Laws & Blower Application Engineering

Theoretical Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fan Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Blower Horsepower Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Blowers Used as Suction Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Effect of Pressure on Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Effect of Altitude on Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Effect of Temperature on Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3. Gas
Physical Properties of Commercial Fuel Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Combustion Properties of Commercial Fuel Gases
Air/Gas Ratio, Flammability Limits, Ignition Temperature & Flame Velocity . . . 22
Heating Value, Heat Release & Flame Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Combustion Products & CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Equivalent Propane/Air & Butane/Air Btu Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Propane/Air & Butane/Air Mixture Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4. Oil
Fuel Oil Specifications Per ANSI/ASTM D 396-79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Typical Properities of Commercial Fuel Oils in the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fuel Oil Viscosity Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
°API Vs. Oil Specific Gravity & Gross Heating Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Oil Piping Pressure Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Oil Temperature Drop in °F Per 100 Foot of Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5. Steam & Water

Boiler Terminology & Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Properties of Saturated Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Btu/Hr. Required to Generate One Boiler H.P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Sizing Water Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Sizing Steam Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2
6. Electrical Data
Electrical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Electrical Wire – Dimensions & Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
NEMA Size Starters for Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
NEMA Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Electric Motors – Full Load Current, Amperes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7. Process Heating
Heat Balances – Determining the Heat Needs of Furnaces and Ovens . . . . 35
Thermal Properties of Various Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Thermal Capacities of Metals & Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Industrial Heating Operations – Temperature & Heat Requirements . . . . . . 41
Crucibles for Metal Melting – Dimensions & Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Radiant Tubes – Sizing & Input Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Heat Losses, Heat Storage & Cold Face Temperatures – Refractory Walls . 44
Air Heating & Fume Incineration Heat Requirements
Using “Raw Gas” Burners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Using Burners with Separate Combustion Air Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Fume Incineration – Selection & Sizing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Liquid Heating – Burner Sizing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Black Body Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Thermocouple Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Orton Standard Pyrometric Cone Temperature Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8. Combustion Data
Available Heat for Birmingham Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Available Heat for Various Fuel Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Flue Gas Analysis Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Theoretical Flame Tip Temperature vs. Excess Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Heat Transfer Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Thermal Head & Cold Air Infiltration into Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Furnace Flue Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
9. Mechanical Data
Dimensional and Capacity Data – Schedule 40 Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Dimensions of Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Sheet Metal Gauges & Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Steel Wire Gauges & Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Circumferences & Areas of Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Drill Size Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Tap Drill Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Drilling Templates – Pipe Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10. Abbreviations & Symbols

Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Electrical Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
11. Conversion Factors

General Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Temperature Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Pressure Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Index . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Tech Notes
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
3
CHAPTER 1 – ORIFICES & FLOWS
COEFFICIENTS OF DISCHARGE FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF ORIFICES
Orifices and Nozzles Discharging from Plenum

0.95
Coefficient of Discharge (Cd)

0.93
Sharp Edge Round Edge Short Pipe 0.91

Cd = 0.60 0.97 0.82
0.89
0.87
NOTE: The loss is least at 13˚
0.85
0.83
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Reentrant Converging
Angle of Convergence in Degrees
0.72 depends on angle. See
curve at right.
ORIFICE FLOW FORMULAS
The flow of air or gas through an orifice can be determined 3.Effect of Changes in Operating Conditions on Pres-
by the formula sure Drop Across an Orifice–General Relationship:
h
Q = 1658.5 x A x Cd g h2
=
Q2 2
x
A1 2 Cd1 2 g2
( ) ( ) ( )
h1 Q1 A2 x Cd2 x g1
where Q =flow, cfh Again, if any of the factors in this equation are unchanged
A =area of the orifice, sq. in. (see Pages 57 & 58) from Condition 1 to Condtion 2, they can be dropped out to
Cd =discharge coefficient of the orifice form simplified relationships:
(see above)
h =pressure drop across the orifice,″ w.c.
3a. Pressure Drop Change vs. Flow Change
h2 Q2 2
g =specific gravity of the gas, based on standard
h1 = Q1 ( )
air at 1.0 (see Pages 19, 20, & 22 thru 24.)
This is the square root law, stated another way.
1. Sizing Orifice Plates
To calculate the size of an orifice plate, this equation can 3b. Pressure Drop Change vs. Orifice Area Change
h2 A1 2
be rearranged as follows:
h1 = A2 ( )
A= Q x g 3c. Pressure Drop Change vs. Specific Gravity Change
1658.5 x Cd h
h2 g2
2. Effect of Changes in Operating Conditions on h1 = g1
Flow through an Orifice – General Relationship This relationship may not apply where specific gravity has
Q2 A2 Cd2 h g been changed by a change in gas temperature. See Page 25.
= x x 2 x g1
Q1 A1 Cd1 h1 2 4. Effect of Changes in Gas Temperature on Flow and
If any of the factors in this relationship remain constant Pressure Drop through an Orifice
from Condition 1 to Condition 2, they can be dropped out of Raising a gas’s temperature has two effects – it increases
the equation, yielding these simplified relationships. Each of the volume and decreases the specific gravity, both in propor-
them assumes only one factor has been changed. tion to the ratio of the absolute temperatures. If we are con-
2a. Flow Change vs. Orifice Area Change cerned with changes in mass flows (scfh), these relationships
Q2 A2 must be used:
=
Q1 A1 4a. Flow Change vs. Temperature Change
Q2 TADS1
Q1 = TABB2
2b. Flow Change vs. Pressure Drop Change
Q2 h
= 2 4b. Pressure Drop Change vs. Temperature Change
Q1 h1
h2 TABS2
h1 = TABS1 to maintain constant scfh
This is the so-called “square root law.”
2c. Flow Change vs. Specific Gravity Change
Q2 g
= g1
Q1 2
4
ORIFICE CAPACITY TABLES
LOW PRESSURE GAS
Flows in these tables are based on an orifice pressure drop To determine the orifice size to handle a known flow at a
of 1″ w.c. and a coefficient of discharge (Cd) of 1.0. specified pressure drop, reverse the process:
To determine flow through an orifice of a known diameter: 1. Correct the known flow to a pressure drop of 1″ w.c.,
1. Locate the orifice diameter in the left-hand column of the using the square root law.
table. 2. Divide the flow by the orifice coefficient.
2. Read across to the column corresponding to the gas being 3. In the orifice table, locate the column for the gas under
measured. This is the uncorrected flow. consideration. In this column, locate the flow closest to
3. Multiply this flow by the coefficient of discharge of the the corrected value found in step 2.
orifice. (see page 4) 4. Read to the left to find the corrected orifice size.
4. Correct this flow to the pressure drop actually measured, Example: Size a gas jet for a mixer. Entrance to the jet ori-
using the square root law (equation 2b, page 4). fice
Example: What is the flow of natural gas through a 7/32" converges at a 15° included angle. Gas is propane. Required
diameter sharp edge orifice at 6″ w.c. pressure drop? flow is 120 cfh at 30″ w.c. pressure drop.
From the table, uncorrected natural gas flow through a Per equation 2b, page 4,
7/32" orifice is 80.7 cfh at 1″ w.c. Q2 h h
Cd for a sharp edge orifice is 0.60 (page 1.1), so corrected = 2 , or Q2 = Q1 x 2
Q1 h1 h1
flow is 80.7 x 0.60 = 48.4 cfh at 1" w.c. pressure drop. Substituting the numbers for this case:
Per equation 2b, page 4,
Q2 h h2 Q2 = 120 x 1 = 22 cfh
= 2 or Q2 = Q1 x 30
Q1 h1 h1
From page 1.1, Cd for a 15° convergent nozzle is 0.94, so
Substituting the numbers for this case: corrected flow is
22 ÷ 0.94 = 23.4 cfh.
Q2 = 48.4 x 6″ w.c. = 119 cfh Locate 23.4 cfh in the propane column of the orifice
1″ w.c.
table and then read to the left to find a #26 drill size orifice.
CAPACITY, CFH @ 1″ W.C. PRESSURE DROP
AND COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF 1.0
Natural Propane/
Drill Dia. Gas Air Air Propane Butane
Size In. Area 0.60 Sp. Gr. 1.0 Sp. Gr. 1.29 Sp. Gr. 1.5 Sp. Gr. 2.0 Sp. Gr.
80 .0135 .000143 .308 .239 .210 .195 .169
79 .0145 .000165 .355 .275 .242 .225 .195
1/64 .0156 .00019 .409 .317 .279 .259 .224
78 .016 .00020 .431 .334 .294 .272 .236
77 .018 .00025 .538 .417 .367 .340 .295
76 .020 .00031 .668 .517 .455 .422 .366
75 .021 .00035 .754 .584 .514 .477 .413
74 .0225 .00040 .861 .668 .587 .545 .472
73 .024 .00045 .969 .751 .661 .613 .531
72 .025 .00049 1.06 .817 .720 .667 .578
71 .026 .00053 1.14 .884 .778 .722 .625
70 .028 .00062 1.33 1.03 .910 .844 .731
69 .0292 .00067 1.44 1.12 .984 .912 .790
68 .030 .00075 1.61 1.25 1.10 1.02 .885
1/32 .0312 .00076 1.64 1.27 1.12 1.04 .896
67 .032 .00080 1.72 1.33 1.17 1.09 .944
66 .033 .00086 1.85 1.43 1.26 1.17 1.01
65 .035 .00092 2.07 1.60 1.41 1.31 1.13
64 .036 .00102 2.20 1.70 1.50 1.39 1.20
63 .037 .00108 2.33 1.80 1.59 1.47 1.27
62 .038 .00113 2.43 1.88 1.66 1.54 1.33
61 .039 .00119 2.56 1.98 1.75 1.62 1.40
60 .040 .00126 2.71 2.10 1.85 1.72 1.49
59 .041 .00132 2.84 2.20 1.94 1.8 1.56
58 .042 .00138 2.97 2.30 2.03 1.88 1.63
5
CAPACITY, CFH @ 1″″ W.C. PRESSURE DROP
Natural Propane/
57 .043 .00145 3.12 2.42 2.13 1.97 1.71
56 .0465 .00170 3.66 2.84 2.5 2.32 2.01
3/64 .0469 .00173 3.73 2.89 2.54 2.36 2.04
55 .0520 .00210 4.52 3.50 3.08 2.86 2.48
54 .0550 .0023 4.95 3.84 3.38 3.13 2.71
53 .0595 .0028 6.03 4.67 4.11 3.81 3.30
1/16 .0625 .0031 6.68 5.17 4.55 4.22 3.66
52 .0635 .0032 6.89 5.34 4.7 4.36 3.77
51 .0670 .0035 7.54 5.84 5.14 4.77 4.13
50 .070 .0038 8.18 6.34 5.58 5.18 4.48
49 .073 .0042 9.04 7.01 6.17 5.72 4.95
48 .076 .0043 9.26 7.17 6.31 5.86 5.07
5/64 .0781 .0048 10.3 8.01 7.05 6.54 5.66
47 .0785 .0049 10.5 8.17 7.2 6.67 5.78
46 .081 .0051 11. 8.51 7.49 6.95 6.02
45 .082 .0053 11.4 8.84 7.78 7.22 6.25
44 .086 .0058 12.5 9.67 8.52 7.9 6.84
43 .089 .0062 13.4 10.3 9.11 8.44 7.31
42 .0935 .00687 14.8 11.4 10. 9.36 8.1
3/32 .0937 .0069 14.9 11.5 10.1 9.40 8.14
41 .096 .0072 15.5 12. 10.6 9.81 8.49
40 .098 .0075 16.2 12.5 11. 10.2 8.85
39 .0995 .0078 16.8 13. 11.5 10.6 9.2
38 .1015 .0081 17.4 13.5 11.9 11.0 9.55
37 .104 .0085 18.3 14.2 12.5 11.6 10.
36 .1065 .0090 19.4 15. 13.2 12.3 10.6
7/64 .1093 .0094 20.2 15.7 13.8 12.8 11.1
35 .110 .0095 20.5 15.8 14. 12.9 11.2
34 .111 .0097 20.9 16.2 14.2 13.2 11.4
33 .113 .0100 21.5 16.7 14.7 13.6 11.8
32 .116 .0106 22.8 17.7 15.6 14.4 12.5
31 .120 .0113 24.3 18.8 16.6 15.4 13.3
1/8 .125 .0123 26.4 20.4 18. 16.7 14.5
30 .1285 .0130 27.9 21.6 19. 17.6 15.3
29 .136 .0145 31.1 24.1 21.2 19.7 17.
28 .1405 .0155 33.3 25.8 22.7 21. 18.2
9/64 .1406 .0156 33.5 25.9 22.8 21.2 18.3
27 .144 .0163 35. 27.1 23.9 22.1 19.2
26 .147 .0174 37.3 28.9 25.5 23.6 20.4
25 .1495 .0175 37.5 29.1 25.6 23.7 20.6
24 .152 .0181 38.8 30.1 26.5 24.6 21.3
23 .154 .0186 39.9 30.9 27.2 25.2 21.9
5/32 .1562 .0192 41.2 31.9 28.1 26.1 22.6
22 .157 .0193 41.4 32.1 28.2 26.2 22.7
21 .159 .0198 42.5 32.9 29. 26.9 23.3
20 .161 .0203 43.6 33.7 29.7 27.5 23.9
19 .166 .0216 46.3 35.9 31.6 29.3 25.4
18 .1695 .0226 48.5 37.6 33.1 30.7 26.6
11/64 .1719 .0232 49.8 38.6 33.9 31.5 27.3
17 .175 .0235 50.4 39.1 34.4 31.9 27.6
16 .177 .0246 52.8 40.9 36. 33.4 28.9
15 .180 .0254 54.5 42.2 37.2 34.5 29.9
14 .182 .0260 55.8 43.2 38. 35.3 30.6
13 .185 .0269 57.7 44.7 39.4 36.5 31.6
3/16 .1875 .0276 59.2 45.9 40.4 37.5 32.4
6
Natural Propane/
12 .189 .02805 60.2 46.6 41. 38.1 33.
11 .191 .02865 61.5 47.6 41.9 38.9 33.7
10 .1935 .0294 63.1 48.9 43. 39.9 34.6
9 .196 .0302 64.8 50.2 44.2 41. 35.5
8 .199 .0311 66.7 51.7 45.5 42.2 36.5
7 .201 .0316 67.8 52.5 46.2 42.9 37.1
13/64 .2031 .0324 69.5 53.8 47.4 44. 38.1
6 .204 .0327 70.2 54.3 47.8 44.4 38.4
5 .2055 .0332 71.2 55.2 48.6 45.1 39.
4 .209 .0343 73.6 57.0 50.2 46.5 40.3
3 .213 .0356 76.4 59.2 52.1 48.3 41.8
7/32 .2187 .0376 80.7 62.5 55. 51. 44.2
2 .221 .0384 82.4 63.8 56.2 52.1 45.1
1 .228 .0409 87.8 68. 59.8 55.5 48.1
A .234 .0430 92.3 71.5 62.9 58.4 50.5
15/64 .2343 .0431 92.5 71.6 63.1 58.5 50.7
B .238 .0444 95.3 73.8 65. 60.3 52.2
C .242 .0460 98.7 76.5 67.3 62.4 54.1
D .246 .0475 102. 78.9 69.5 64.5 55.8
1/4 .250 .0491 105. 81.6 71.8 66.6 57.7
F .257 .0519 111. 86.3 75.9 70.4 61.
G .261 .0535 115. 88.9 78.3 72.6 62.9
17/64 .2656 .0554 119. 92.1 81.1 75.2 65.1
H .266 .0556 119.3 92.4 81.4 75.4 65.3
I .272 .0580 124. 96.4 84.9 78.7 68.2
J .277 .0601 129. 99.9 87.9 81.6 70.6
K .281 .0620 133. 103. 90.7 84.1 72.9
9/32 .2812 .0621 133.2 103.2 90.9 84.3 73.
L .290 .0660 142. 110. 96.6 89.6 77.6
M .295 .0683 147. 113. 99.9 92.7 80.3
19/64 .2968 .0692 148. 115. 101. 93.9 81.3
N .302 .0716 154. 119. 105. 97.2 84.1
5/16 .3125 .0767 165. 127. 112. 104. 90.1
O .316 .0784 168. 130. 115. 106. 92.1
P .323 .0820 176. 136. 120. 111. 96.4
21/64 .3281 .0846 182. 141. 124. 115. 99.4
Q .332 .0866 186. 144. 127. 118. 102.
R .339 .0901 193. 150. 132. 122. 106.
11/32 .3437 .0928 199. 154. 136. 126. 109.
S .348 .0950 204. 158. 139. 129. 112.
T .358 .1005 216. 167. 147. 136. 118.
23/64 .3593 .1014 218. 169. 148. 138. 119.
U .368 .1063 228. 177. 156. 144. 125.
3/8 .375 .1104 237. 184. 162. 150. 130.
V .377 .1116 239. 185. 163. 151. 131.
W .386 .1170 251. 194. 171. 159. 137.
25/64 .3906 .1198 257. 199. 175. 163. 141.
X .397 .1236 265. 205. 181. 168. 145.
Y .404 .1278 274. 212. 187. 173. 150.
13/32 .4062 .1296 278. 215. 190. 176. 152.
Z .413 .1340 288. 223. 196. 182. 157.
27/64 .4219 .1398 300. 232. 205. 190. 164.
7/16 .4375 .1503 322. 250. 220. 204. 177.
29/64 .4531 .1613 346. 268. 236. 219. 190.
15/32 .4687 .1726 370. 287. 253. 234. 203.
7
Natural Propane/
31/64 .4843 .1843 395. 306. 270. 250. 217.
1/2 .50 .1963 421. 326. 287. 266. 231.
33/64 .5156 .2088 448. 347. 306. 283. 245.
17/32 .5312 .2217 476. 368. 324. 301. 261.
35/64 .5468 .2349 504. 390. 344. 319. 276.
9/16 .5625 .2485 533. 413. 364. 337. 292.
37/64 .5781 .2625 563. 436. 384. 356. 308.
19/32 .5937 .2769 594. 460. 405. 376. 325.
39/64 .6093 .2916 626. 485. 427. 396. 343.
5/8 .625 .3068 658. 510. 449. 416. 361.
41/64 .6406 .3223 691. 536. 472. 437. 379.
21/32 .6562 .3382 725. 562. 495. 459. 397.
43/64 .6718 .3545 760. 589. 519. 481. 417.
11/16 .6875 .3712 796. 617. 543. 504. 436.
45/64 .7031 .3883 833. 645. 568. 527. 456.
23/32 .7187 .4057 870. 674. 594. 551. 477.
47/64 .7343 .4236 909. 704. 620. 575. 498.
3/4 .750 .44179 948. 734. 646. 599. 519.
49/64 .7656 .46040 988. 765. 674. 625. 541.
25/32 .7813 .47937 1029. 796. 701. 651. 563.
51/64 .7969 .49873 1070. 829. 730. 677. 586.
13/16 .8125 .51849 1112. 862. 759. 704. 609.
53/64 .8281 .53862 1156. 895. 788. 731. 633.
27/32 .8438 .55914 1200. 929. 818. 759. 657.
55/64 .8594 .5800 1244. 964. 849. 787. 682.
7/8 .8750 .60132 1290. 999. 880. 816. 707.
29/32 .9062 .64504 1384. 1072. 944. 875. 758.
15/16 .9375 .69029 1481. 1147. 1010. 937. 811.
31/32 .9688 .73708 1581. 1225. 1079. 1000. 866.
1 1.0 .7854 1685. 1305. 1149. 1066. 923.
1-1/16 1.063 .88664 1902. 1474. 1297. 1203. 1042.
1-1/8 1.125 .99402 2133. 1652. 1455. 1349. 1168.
1-3/16 1.188 1.1075 2376. 1841. 1621. 1503. 1302.
1-1/4 1.250 1.2272 2633. 2040. 1796. 1665. 1442.
1-5/16 1.313 1.3530 2903. 2249. 1980. 1836. 1590.
1-3/8 1.375 1.4849 3186. 2468. 2173. 2015. 1745.
1-1/2 1.5 1.7671 3791. 2937. 2586. 2398. 2077.
1-9/16 1.563 1.9174 4114. 3187. 2806. 2602. 2253.
1-5/8 1.625 2.0739 4450. 3447. 3035. 2814. 2437.
1-11/16 1.688 2.2365 4799. 3717. 3273. 3035. 2628.
1-3/4 1.75 2.4053 5161. 3998. 3520. 3264. 2827.
1-13/16 1.813 2.5802 5536. 4288. 3776. 3501. 3032.
1-7/8 1.875 2.7612 5924. 4589. 4040. 3747. 3245.
1-15/16 1.938 2.9498 6329. 4903. 4316. 4003. 3467.
2 2.0 3.1416 6741. 5221. 4597. 4263. 3692.
2-1/8 2.125 3.5466 7610. 5894. 5190. 4813. 4168.
2-1/4 2.250 3.9761 8531. 6608. 5818. 5396. 4673.
2-3/8 2.375 4.4301 9505. 7363. 6483. 6012. 5206.
2-1/2 2.50 4.9087 10532. 8158. 7183. 6661. 5769.
2-5/8 2.625 5.4119 11612. 8995. 7919. 7344. 6360.
2-3/4 2.75 5.9396 12744. 9872. 8691. 8060. 6980.
2-7/8 2.875 6.4918 13929. 10789. 9499. 8809. 7629.
8
ORIFICE CAPACITY TABLES FOR HIGH PRESSURE GASES
These tables list compressible flows of high pressure gases To determine the orifice size to handle a known flow at a
through orifices and spuds. They are based on an orifice pres- specified pressure drop, reverse the process:
sure drop of 10 psi and a coefficient of discharge (Cd) of 1.0. 1. Correct the known flow to a pressure drop of 10 psig, using
They also assume the gas is discharging to a region of atmos- the equation above.
pheric pressure. 2. Divide the flow by the orifice coefficient.
To determine flow through an orifice of a known diameter: 3. In the orifice table, locate the column for the gas under
1. Locate the orifice diameter in the left-hand column of the consideration. In this column, locate the flow closest to the
table. corrected value found in step 2.
2. Read across to the column corresponding to the gas being 4. Read to the left to find the corrected orifice size.
measured. This is the uncorrected flow. Example: Size an airjet with a convergent inlet of 15°.
3. Multiply this flow by the coefficient of discharge of the Required flow is 450 scfh at 20 psig inlet pressure.
orifice. (see page 4) Per the equation above,
4. Correct this flow to the pressure actually measured ahead
of the orifice (P) using the following relationship: Qp = Q 10 P + 14.7, or Q 10 = Qp 24.7
24.7 P + 14.7
P + 14.7
Qp = Q 10 24.7
Substituting the numbers for this case:
Where Qp is the unknown flow
Q10 is the flow at 10 psig from the table Q10 = 450 24.7 = 320 scfh
20 + 14.7
Example: What is the flow of propane – air mixture through a From page 4, C d for a 15° convergent nozzle is 0.94, so cor-
3/64" diameter jet with a 15° angle of convergence at 35 psig? rected flow is
From the table, uncorrected propane – air flow through a 320 ÷ 0.94 = 340 scfh.
3/64" orifice is 41 scfh at 10 psig.
Locate 340 scfh in the air column of the orifice table. Closest
Cd for 15° convergent jet is 0.94 (page 4), so corrected flow value is 341 scfh, which requires a 1/8" diameter jet.
is 41 x 0.94 = 38.5 scfh at 10 psig.
Corrected flow for 35 psig pressure, per the equation above, is
35 + 14.7
Qp = 38.5 = 77.5 scfh
24.7
CAPACITY, SCFH @ 10 PSI PRESSURE DROP, DISCHARGING TO ATMOSPHERE,

WITH COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF 1.0
Drill Area Natural Gas Air Propane/Air Propane Butane
Size Sq. In. 0.60 Sp. Gr. 1.0 Sp. Gr. 1.29 Sp. Gr. 1.5 Sp. Gr. 2.0 Sp. Gr.
80 .000143 4.9 3.8 3.3 3.1 2.7
79 .000165 5.6 4.3 3.8 3.5 3.0
1/64 — .00019 6.6 5.1 4.5 4.2 3.6
78 .00020 7.0 5.4 4.8 4.4 3.8
77 .00025 9.2 7.1 6.3 5.8 5.0
76 .00031 10.8 8.4 7.4 6.9 5.9
75 .00035 11.9 9.2 8.1 7.5 6.53
74 .00040 13.6 10.5 9.2 8.6 7.4
73 .00045 15.6 12.1 10.7 9.9 8.6
72 .00049 17.0 13.2 11.6 10.8 9.3
71 .00053 18.5 14.3 12.6 11.7 10.1
70 .00062 21 16.4 14.4 13.4 11.6
69 .00067 23 18.1 15.9 14.8 12.8
68 .00075 26 20 17.6 16.3 14.1
1/32 — .00076 27 21 18.5 17.1 14.8
67 .00080 28 22 19.4 18.0 15.6
66 .00086 30 23 20 18.8 16.3
65 .00096 34 26 23 21 18.4
64 .00102 35 27 24 22 19.1
63 .00108 37 29 26 24 20
62 .00113 40 31 27 25 22
61 .00119 41 32 28 26 23
60 .00126 44 34 30 28 24
9
CAPACITY, SCFH @ 10 PSI PRESSURE DROP, DISCHARGING TO
ATMOSPHERE, WITH COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF 1.0 (Cont’d)
59 .00132 45 35 31 29 25
58 .00138 48 37 33 30 26
57 .00145 52 40 35 33 28
56 .00170 59 46 41 38 33
3/64 — .00173 61 47 41 38 33
55 .00210 75 58 51 47 41
54 .00230 84 65 57 53 46
53 .00280 98 76 67 62 54
1/16 — .00310 108 84 74 69 59
52 .00320 112 87 77 71 62
51 .00350 124 96 85 78 68
50 .00380 136 105 92 86 74
49 .00420 147 114 100 93 81
48 .00430 160 124 109 101 88
5/64 — .00480 169 131 115 107 93
47 .00490 172 133 117 109 94
46 .00510 182 141 124 115 100
45 .00530 187 145 128 118 103
44 .00580 205 159 140 130 112
43 .00620 219 170 150 139 120
3/32 (42) .00690 243 188 166 154 133
41 .00720 244 189 166 154 134
40 .00750 266 206 181 168 146
39 .00780 275 213 188 174 151
38 .00810 285 221 195 180 156
37 .00850 300 232 204 189 164
36 .00900 315 244 215 199 173
7/64 — .00940 332 257 226 210 182
35 .00950 336 260 229 212 184
34 .00970 342 265 233 216 187
33 .01000 354 274 241 224 194
32 .01060 374 290 255 237 205
31 .01130 400 310 273 253 219
1/8 — .01230 440 341 300 278 241
30 .01300 458 355 313 290 251
29 .01450 514 398 350 325 281
28 .01550 550 426 375 348 301
9/64 — .01560 553 428 377 349 303
27 .01630 572 443 390 362 313
26 .01740 599 464 409 379 328
25 .01750 621 481 423 393 340
24 .01810 642 497 437 406 351
23 .01860 660 511 450 417 361
5/32 — .01920 678 525 462 429 371
22 .01930 684 530 467 433 375
21 .01980 702 544 479 444 385
20 .02030 728 564 497 461 399
19 .02160 766 593 522 484 419
18 .02260 800 620 546 506 438
11/64 — .02320 822 637 561 520 450
17 .02350 830 643 566 525 455
16 .02460 871 675 594 551 477
15 .02540 904 700 616 572 495
14 .02600 920 713 628 582 503
13 .02690 951 737 649 602 521
3/16 — .02760 976 756 666 617 534
12 .02805 993 769 677 628 544
10
CAPACITY, SCFH @ 10 PSI PRESSURE DROP, DISCHARGING TO
ATMOSPHERE, WITH COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF 1.0 (Cont’d)
11 .02865 1015 786 692 642 556
10 .02940 1041 806 710 658 570
9 .03020 1066 826 727 674 584
8 .03110 1100 852 750 696 602
7 .03160 1122 869 765 710 614
13/64 — .03240 1148 889 783 726 629
6 .03270 1155 895 788 731 633
5 .03320 1172 908 799 741 642
4 .03430 1216 942 829 769 666
3 .03560 1263 978 861 799 692
7/32 — .03760 1327 1028 905 839 727
2 .03840 1361 1054 928 861 745
1 .04090 1447 1121 987 915 793
A .04300 1523 1180 1039 963 834
15/64 — .04310 1529 1184 1042 967 837
B .04440 1571 1217 1072 994 861
C .04600 1627 1260 1109 1029 891
D .04750 1686 1306 1150 1066 923
1/4 E .04910 1738 1346 1185 1099 952
F .05190 1836 1422 1252 1161 1006
G .05350 1891 1465 1290 1196 1036
17/64 — .05540 1960 1518 1336 1239 1073
H .05560 1969 1525 1343 1245 1078
I .05800 2054 1591 1401 1299 1125
J .06010 2128 1648 1451 1346 1165
K .06200 2192 1698 1495 1386 1201
9/32 — .06210 2200 1704 1500 1391 1205
L .06600 2337 1810 1594 1478 1280
M .06830 2418 1873 1649 1529 1324
19/64 — .06920 2448 1896 1669 1548 1341
N .07160 2534 1963 1728 1603 1388
5/16 — .07670 2714 2102 1851 1716 1486
O .07840 2782 2155 1897 1760 1524
P .08200 2893 2241 1973 1830 1585
21/64 — .08460 2996 2321 2044 1895 1641
Q .08660 3065 2374 2090 1938 1679
R .09010 3193 2473 2177 2019 1749
11/32 — .09280 3283 2543 2239 2076 1798
S .09500 3373 2613 2301 2134 1848
T .10050 3553 2752 2423 2247 1946
23/64 — .10140 3595 2785 2452 2274 1969
U .10630 3775 2924 2574 2387 2068
3/8 — .11040 3912 3030 2668 2474 2143
V .11160 3959 3067 2700 2504 2169
W .11700 4135 3203 2820 2615 2265
25/64 — .11980 4237 3282 2890 2680 2321
X .12360 4374 3388 2983 2766 2396
Y .12780 4537 3514 3094 2869 2485
13/32 — .12960 4580 3548 3124 2897 2509
Z .13400 4751 3680 3240 3005 2602
27/64 — .13980 4943 3829 3371 3126 2708
7/16 — .15030 5307 4111 3620 3357 2907
29/64 — .16130 5714 4426 3897 3614 3130
15/32 — .17260 6121 4741 4452 3871 3352
31/64 — .18430 6527 5056 4448 4128 3575
1/2 — .19630 6977 5204 4758 4412 3821
11
PIPING PRESSURE LOSSES FOR LOW PRESSURE AIR
Inches w.c. per 100 ft. of Schedule 40 pipe
Scfh
Air 1/2" 3/4" 1" 1-1/4" 1-1/2 2" 2-1/2" 3
40 0.3 — — — — — — —
50 0.5 — — — — — — —
100 2.1 0.5 — — — — — —
200 8.4 1.9 0.5 — — — — —
300 18.9 4.2 1.2 0.3 — — — —
400 — 7.5 2.1 0.5 — — — —
500 — 11.8 3.3 0.8 0.4 — — —
600 — 16.9 4.7 1.1 0.5 — — —
700 — — 6.4 1.5 0.7 — — —
800 — — 8.3 2.0 0.9 — — —
900 — — 10.5 2.5 1.1 0.3 — —
1,000 — — 13.0 3.1 1.4 0.4 — —
1,500 — — — 7.0 3.2 0.8 0.3 —
2,000 — — — 12.4 5.6 1.4 0.6 —
3,000 — — — — 12.6 3.2 1.3 0.4
4,000 — — — — — 5.8 2.2 0.8
5,000 — — — — — 9.0 3.5 1.2
6,000 — — — — — 13.0 5.0 1.7
7,000 — — — — — 17.6 6.9 2.3
8,000 — — — — — — 9.0 3.0
9,000 — — — — — — 11.3 3.8
10,000 — — — — — — 14.0 4.7
12,000 — — — — — — 20.2 6.8
14,000 — — — — — — — 9.2
16,000 — — — — — — — 12.0
18,000 — — — — — — — 15.2
20,000 — — — — — — — 18.8
Scfh
Air 4" 6" 8" 10" 12 14" 16" 18
4,000 — — — — — — — —
6,000 0.4 — — — — — — —
8,000 0.7 — — — — — — —
10,000 1.1 — — — — — — —
12,000 1.6 — — — — — — —
14,000 2.2 0.3 — — — — — —
16,000 2.8 0.3 — — — — — —
18,000 3.6 0.4 — — — — — —
20,000 4.4 0.5 — — — — — —
25,000 6.9 0.8 — — — — — —
30,000 9.9 1.2 0.3 — — — — —
35,000 13.5 1.6 0.4 — — — — —
40,000 17.6 2.1 0.5 — — — — —
50,000 — 3.3 0.7 — — — — —
60,000 — 4.7 1.0 0.3 — — — —
70,000 — 6.4 1.4 0.5 — — — —
80,000 — 8.3 1.9 0.6 — — — —
90,000 — 10.5 2.4 0.8 0.3 — — —
100,000 — 13.0 2.9 0.9 0.4 — — —
120,000 — 18.7 4.2 1.3 0.5 0.3 — —
140,000 — — 5.7 1.8 0.7 0.4 — —
160,000 — — 7.4 2.4 0.9 0.5 0.3 —
180,000 — — 9.4 3.0 1.2 0.7 0.3 —
200,000 — — 11.6 3.7 1.4 0.8 0.4 —
250,000 — — 18.2 5.8 2.2 1.3 0.6 0.3
300,000 — — — 8.4 3.2 1.9 0.9 0.5
350,000 — — — 11.4 4.4 2.5 1.3 0.6
400,000 — — — 14.9 5.7 3.3 1.6 0.8
450,000 — — — 18.8 7.2 4.2 2.1 1.1
500,000 — — — — 9.0 5.2 2.6 1.3
550,000 — — — — 10.8 6.2 3.1 1.6
600,000 — — — — 12.9 7.4 3.7 1.9
650,000 — — — — 15.1 8.7 4.4 2.2
700,000 — — — — 17.5 10.1 5.0 2.5
800,000 — — — — — 13.2 6.6 3.3
900,000 — — — — — 16.7 8.3 4.2
1,000,000 — — — — — 20.6 10.3 5.2
1,100,000 — — — — — — 12.5 6.3
1,200,000 — — — — — — 14.8 7.5
1,300,000 — — — — — — 17.4 8.8
1,400,000 — — — — — — 20.2 10.2
1,600,000 — — — — — — — 13.3
1,800,000 — — — — — — — 16.8
2,000,000 — — — — — — — 20.8
12
PIPING PRESSURE LOSSES FOR LOW PRESSURE NATURAL GAS
Scfh
Nat. Gas 3/8" 1/2" 3/4" 1" 1-1/4" 1-1/2" 2"
25 0.3 — — — — — —
50 1.1 0.3 — — — — —
75 2.5 0.7 — — — — —
100 4.4 1.2 0.3 — — — —
125 6.9 1.9 0.4 — — — —
150 9.9 2.8 0.6 — — — —
175 13.5 3.8 0.9 — — — —
200 17.6 5.0 1.1 0.3 — — —
300 — 11.2 2.5 0.7 — — —
400 — 19.8 4.5 1.2 0.3 — —
500 — — 7.0 1.9 0.5 — —
600 — — 10.1 2.8 0.7 0.3 —
700 — — 13.8 3.8 0.9 0.4 —
800 — — 18.0 4.9 1.2 0.5 —
900 — — — 6.3 1.5 0.7 —
1,000 — — — 7.7 1.9 0.8 —
1,500 — — — 17.4 4.2 1.9 0.5
2,000 — — — — 7.5 3.3 0.9
2,500 — — — — 11.8 5.2 1.3
3,000 — — — — 16.9 7.5 1.9
4,000 — — — — — 13.2 3.4
5,000 — — — — — 20.7 5.4
6,000 — — — — — — 7.7
7,000 — — — — — — 10.5
8,000 — — — — — — 13.8
9,000 — — — — — — 17.4
PIPING PRESSURE LOSSES FOR LOW PRESSURE NATURAL GAS
Scfh
Nat. Gas 2-1/2" 3" 4" 6" 8"
2,000 0.3 — — — —
2,500 0.5 — — — — Inches w.c.
3,000 0.8 0.3 — — — per 100 ft
4,000 1.3 0.4 — — — Scfh of Schedule 40 pipe
5,000 2.1 0.7 — — — Nat. Gas 6" 8"
6,000 3.0 1.0 — — — 80,000 5.0 1.1
7,000 4.1 1.4 0.3 — — 90,000 6.3 1.4
8,000 5.4 1.8 0.4 — — 100,000 7.8 1.7
9,000 6.8 2.3 0.6 — — 110,000 9.4 2.1
10,000 8.4 2.8 0.7 — — 120,000 11.2 2.4
12,000 12.1 4.0 1.0 — — 130,000 13.2 2.9
14,000 16.4 5.5 1.4 — — 140,000 15.3 3.3
16,000 — 7.2 1.8 — — 150,000 17.6 3.8
18,000 — 9.1 2.2 0.3 — 200,000 — 6.8
20,000 — 11.2 2.8 0.3 — 250,000 — 10.6
22,000 — 13.6 3.3 0.4 — 300,000 — 15.3
24,000 — 16.1 4.0 0.4 —
26,000 — 18.9 4.7 0.5 —
28,000 — — 5.4 0.6 —
30,000 — — 6.2 0.7 —
35,000 — — 8.5 1.0 —
40,000 — — 11.0 1.2 0.3
45,000 — — 14.0 1.6 0.3
50,000 — — 17.3 2.0 0.4
55,000 — — 20.9 2.4 0.5
60,000 — — — 2.8 0.6
70,000 — — — 3.8 0.8
13
HIGH PRESSURE (COMPRESSIBLE) FLOW OF
NATURAL GAS IN PIPES
Flows in table are scfh of 0.6 sp. gr. natural gas
Pipe Inlet Pressure Drop Per 100 Equivalent Feet of
Size, Pressure, Pipe as a Percentage of Inlet Pressure
Inches PSIG 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%
2 340 480 590 680 760
5 590 840 1030 1180 1320
1 10 930 1320 1610 1850 2070
20 1570 2210 2700 3110 3470
50 3380 4770 5820 6690 7450
2 710 1010 1230 1420 1590
5 1230 1740 2130 2450 2740
1-1/4 10 1950 2760 3370 3880 4330
20 3260 4600 5620 6470 7210
50 7040 9910 12,090 13,910 15,490
2 1080 1530 1870 2160 2410
5 1860 2630 3220 3710 4140
1-1/2 10 2940 4160 5080 5850 6530
20 4930 6960 8490 9780 10,900
50 10,640 15,000 18,290 21,040 23,430
2 2100 2980 3640 4200 4700
5 3630 5120 6270 7230 8070
2 10 5740 8090 9890 11,400 12,720
20 9610 13,550 16,540 19,050 21,230
50 20,720 29,190 35,610 40,960 45,610
2 3390 4810 5880 6780 7580
5 5850 8260 10,100 11,650 13,010
2-1/2 10 9240 13,040 15,940 18,370 20,500
20 15,480 21,840 26,660 30,700 34,220
50 33,400 47,050 57,400 66,010 73,510
2 6060 8590 10,500 12,120 13,540
5 10,450 14,760 18,050 20,820 23,240
3 10 16,510 23,290 28,480 32,810 36,610
20 27,650 38,990 47,620 54,820 61,110
50 59,640 84,010 102,500 117,880 131,270
2 12,480 17,690 21,620 24,960 27,890
5 21,520 30,400 37,180 42,890 47,880
4 10 34,000 47,980 58,650 67,580 75,410
20 56,960 80,320 98,090 112,930 125,880
50 122,850 173,070 211,140 242,840 270,420
2 37,250 52,800 64,560 74,510 83,270
5 64,240 90,760 111,010 128,040 142,950
6 10 101,520 143,260 175,120 201,780 225,150
20 170,060 239,810 292,840 337,150 375,820
50 366,770 516,680 630,360 724,970 807,320
EQUIVALENT LENGTHS OF STANDARD PIPE FITTINGS & VALVES
VALVES FULLY OPEN

Pipe I.D. Swing 90° 45° 90° Tee, Flow 90° Tee, Flow
Size Inches Gate Globe Angle Check Elbow Elbow Through Run Through Branch
1/2" 0.622 0.35 18.6 9.3 4.3 1.6 0.78 1.0 3.1
3/4" 0.824 0.44 23.1 11.5 5.3 2.1 0.97 1.4 4.1
1" 1.049 0.56 29.4 14.7 6.8 2.6 1.23 1.8 5.3
1-1/4" 1.380 0.74 38.6 19.3 8.9 3.5 1.6 2.3 6.9
1-1/2" 1.610 0.86 45.2 22.6 10.4 4.0 1.9 2.7 8.0
2" 2.067 1.10 58 29 13.4 5.2 2.4 3.5 10.4
2-1/2" 2.469 1.32 69 35 15.9 6.2 2.9 4.1 12.4
3" 3.068 1.60 86 43 19.8 7.7 3.6 5.1 15.3
4" 4.026 2.1 112 56 26.8 10.1 5.4 6.7 20.1
6" 6.065 2.6 140 70 40.4 15.2 8.1 10.1 30.3
Equivalent lengths are for standard screwed fittings and for screwed, flanged, or welded valves relative to
schedule 40 steel pipe.
14
SIMPLIFIED SELECTION OF AIR, GAS AND MIXTURE PIPING SIZE
Air, gas and mixture piping systems should be sized to The graph below shows the relationship between velocity,
deliver flow at a uniform pressure distribution and without velocity pressure and flow for various pipe sizes handling air,
excessive pressure losses in transit. natural gas, propane, and butane. Because the specific gravi-
Two factors cause air pressure loss and consequent pres- ty of most air-gas mixtures is close to that of air, mixture pip-
sure variations: ing can be sized the same as air piping. The error will be
1) Friction in piping and bends, and insignificant.
2) Velocity pressure losses due to changes in direction. Example: A burner requires 10,000 cfh air at a static pressure
In combustion work, piping runs are usually short (under of 13″ w.c. The blower supplying this burner develops 15″
50 ft.), but often have many bends. By assuming that all w.c. static pressure. Piping between the two will run 15 feet,
velocity pressure is lost or dissipated at each change of direc- including four 90° bends. What size piping is required?
tion and by using a pipe size to give a very low velocity pres-
sure, other losses can be disregarded. In general, a velocity Solution: Total pressure available for piping losses is
pressure of 0.3 to 0.5″ w.c. satisfies this need. This is equiva- 15″ w.c. - 13 ″ w.c. = 2″ w.c.
lent to air velocities of about 2200 to 2800 ft/minute. For This allows a velocity pressure loss of:
other gases, this velocity is inversely proportional to their 2 ÷ 4 = 0.5″ w.c. for each of the four elbows.
gravities; consequently, higher velocities can be tolerated Under the “Air” column on the left-hand side of the Pv
with natural gas, but propane and butane piping should be graph, locate 0.5″ w.c. velocity pressure. This is equivalent to
sized for lower velocities than air. about 2800 ft/minute air velocity. Locate the intersection of
The accuracy of orifice meters is also sensitive to pipe the 2800 ft/minute line and the 10,000 cfh line, then drop
velocity, so every effort should be made to keep velocity pres- down to the first curve below this point, in this case, 4″ pipe.
sure below 0.3″ w.c. in metering runs. This is the pipe size that should be used.
Pv, "wc Velocity Pipe Size

2-1/2" 18"
Nat. Pro- Bu- Ft/Min 1-1/2"
Gas Air pane tane x1000 1/4" 3/8" 1/2" 3/4" 1" 1-1/4" 2" 3" 4" 6" 8" 10" 12" 14"16"
10 10
3.0 5.0 9 9
4.0 8 8
2.0 5.0 7 7
3.0
1.5 4.0 5.0
2.0 6 6
3.0 4.0
1.0 1.5 3.0 5 5
2.0
1.0 1.5 2.0 4 4
0.5 1.5
0.4 1.0
3 3
0.3 0.5 1.0
0.4 2.5 2.5
0.2 0.5
0.3
0.15 0.4 0.5 2 2
0.2 0.4
0.3
0.1 0.15 0.3
0.2 1.5 1.5
0.1 0.15 0.2
0.05
0.1 0.15 1
1
Shaded Areas 2 3 4 6 8 2 3 4 6 8 2 3 4 6 8 2 3 4 6 8
100 1000 10,000 100,000
Indicate Recommended
Velocity Pressure Flow, cfh
Range
QUICK METHOD FOR SIZING AIR PIPING
If pipe sizing charts or tables aren’t available, you can This will produce a flow rate equivalent to about 0.3″ w.c.
quickly estimate the maximum air flow capacity of a pipe velocity pressure.
with these simple equations: Example: What is the maximum air flow rate for 21⁄2" pipe?
Maximum cfh air = (Nominal pipe size)2 x 1000
(21⁄2)2 = 6.25
The result will correspond to a velocity pressure of about 0.5″ 6.25 x 1000 = 6,250 cfh air.
w.c., the maximum recommended for low pressure air systems.
Optimum cfh air = (Nominal pipe size)2 x 750
15
SIZING BRANCH PIPING BY THE EQUAL AREA METHOD
The equal area method of sizing pipe manifolds is based on To use the table below, read across from the pipe size of the
maintaining constant total cross-sectional area in all portions of smallest branch in the manifold (Z in the sketch at left) and
a piping train, regardless of the number of branches in each por- down from the number of these branches. At the intersection,
tion. In the sketch below, the equal area method requires that: find the recommended size pipe to feed these branches. For
Area of X = 2 times area of Y = 6 times area of Z. example, if Z is 3/4", Y should be 11⁄4" and X should be 2" pipe.
Size of Number of Branch Connections

Branch
Connection 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
X
1/4 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 3/4 1 1 1
3/8 3/8 3/4 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/4 1-1/4 1-1/4
1/2 1/2 3/4 1 1 1 1-1/4 1-1/2 2
Y Y 3/4 3/4 1-1/4 1-1/4 1-1/2 2 2 2 2-1/2
1 1 1-1/4 2 2 2-1/2 2-1/2 3 3
Z Z Z Z Z Z 1-1/4 1-1/4 2 2-1/2 3 3 4 4 4
1-1/2 1-1/2 2-1/2 3 3 4 4 4 6
2 2 3 4 4 6 6 6 6
2-1/2 2-1/2 4 4 6 6 6 6 6
The advantage of this method is that once the size of the 3 3 4 6 6 8 8 8 8
smallest branch has been determined, via velocity pressures or 4 4 6 8 8 10 10 10 12
any other valid method, the remainder of the piping system 6 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 18
can be correctly sized without any additional calculations. 8 8 12 14 16 18 20 20 or 24 24
Remember, however, that if the calculation of the smallest 10 10 14 18 20 24 24 30 30
branches is in error, the entire system will be incorrectly sized.
Cv FLOW FACTOR CONVERSIONS
Cv, flow factor, is defined as the full flow capacity of a For conditions other than 14.7 psia and 60°F, use this formula:
valve expressed in gpm of 60°F water at 1 psi pressure drop.
This rating is determined by actual flow test. To convert Cv to Q = 1360Cv (P1-P2) P2,
actual flow capacity for gases, use the graph below. GT
Locate Cv at the left, read across to the appropriate curve and where
then down to obtain flow capacity at 1″ w.c. pressure drop. Q = SCFH
For drops other than 1″ w.c., multiply the flow by the square P1 = Inlet pressure, psia
root of the pressure drop. P2 = Outlet pressure, psia
T = Absolute flowing temperature (°F + 460)
G = Specific gravity of gas
1000
8
6
4 BUTANE 2.0 SP GR
3
2
PROPANE 1.5 SP GR
100
8
6
Cv Flow Factor
4
3
PROPANE - AIR
2
1.29 SP GR
AIR 1.0 SP GR
10
8
6
4
3 NATURAL GAS 0.6 SP GR
2
1
10 20 30 40 60 80 100 2 3 4 6 8 1000 2 3 4 6 8 10,000 2 3 4 6
Flow, SCH @ 1" W.C. ∆P @ 14.7 PSIA & 60˚ F

16
DUCT VELOCITY & FLOW MEASUREMENTS
The total pressure of an air stream flowing in a duct is the In making an air velocity check select a location as suggested
sum of the static or bursting pressure exerted upon the side- above, connect tubing leads from both pitot tube connections to
walls of the duct and the impact or velocity pressure of the the manometer and insert in the duct with the tip directed into the
moving air. Through the use of a pitot tube connected differ- air stream. If the manometer shows a minus indication reverse the
entially to a manometer, the velocity pressure alone is indi- tubes. With a direct reading manometer, air velocities will now be
cated and the corresponding air velocity determined. shown in feet per minute. In other types, the manometer will read
For accuracy of plus or minus 2%, as in laboratory appli- velocity pressure in inches of water and the corresponding veloc-
cations, extreme care is required and the following precau- ity will be found from the curves below. If circumstances do not
tions should be observed: permit an accurate traverse, center the pitot tube in the duct,
determine the center velocity and multiply by a factor of .9 for the
1. Duct diameter 4" or greater.
approximate average velocity. Field tests run in this manner
2. Make an accurate traverse per sketch below and average the
should be accurate within plus or minus 5%.
readings.
The velocity indicated is for dry air at 70°F., 29.9" Barometric
3. Provided smooth, straight duct sections 10 diameters in
Pressure and a resulting density of .075#/ cu. ft. For air at a tem-
length both upstream and downstream from the pitot tube.
perature other than 70°F. refer to the curves below. For other
4. Provide an egg crate type straightener upstream from the
variations from these conditions, corrections may be based
pitot tube.
upon the following data:
D
Air Velocity = 1096.2 Pv
D
where Pv = velocity pressure in inches of water

D = Air density in #/cu. ft.
Air Density = 1.325 x PB
T
where PB= Barometric Pressure in inches of mercury
T = Absolute Temperature (indicated temperature
.35D
.60D
plus 460)
.80D Flow in cu. ft. per min. = Duct area in square feet x air
.92D velocity in ft. per min.
13000
0° 0°
120
140
12000
1000°
800°
11000
10000 600°
400°
Air Velocity in Feet Per Minute
9000
300°
200°
8000
100°
7000
40°
6000 70°
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0
Gage Reading with Pilot Tube (Velocity Pressure) in Inches of Water
REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION OF F.W. DWYER MANUFACTURING CO., MICHIGAN CITY, INDIANA
17
CHAPTER 2 – FAN LAWS & BLOWER
APPLICATION ENGINEERING
RPM
"R"
Volume
"V"
For blower wheel with eight segments, Theoretical Flow = 8 x V x R
Combustion air blowers are normally rated in terms of stan- If, for example, a blower has a wheel made up of eight seg-
dard cubic feet (scf) of air; that is, 70°F air at Sea Level ments, each with a volume V, and the wheel is rotating at R
(29.92" Hg) barometric pressure. Density of this air is 0.075 rpm, the theoretical flow rating of the blower will be 8 x V x
lb/cu ft, and its specific gravity is 1.0. R, because each fan wheel segment fills with air and empties
Although fuel/air ratios are usually stated in cubic feet of air itself once each revolution.
per cubic foot or gallon of fuel, it’s the weight of air per The actual volume delivered is strictly a function of the car-
weight of fuel that’s important. As long as air temperature and rying capacity of the wheel and its speed. Cfm, whether it is
pressure are close to standard conditions, blower and burner standard (scfm) or actual (acfm) is the same. Consequently, if
sizing charts can be used without correction. However, if air the density of air is reduced by temperature, pressure, or both,
temperature, gauge pressure or altitude change the density of the blower will deliver a lower weight flow of air, even
air by any significant amount, blower ratings have to be cor- though the measured volume hasn’t changed.
rected from actual cubic feet (acf) to standard cubic feet to Air density also affects the pressure developed by the blower
insure the proper weight flow of air reaches the burner. and its power consumption. Because air density is related to
Centrifugal fans are basically constant volume devices; at a temperature, pressure, and altitude (barometric pressure) – see
given rotational speed, they will deliver the same volume of pages 20 and 21 – it is possible to relate blower performance to
air regardless of its density. these factors with a set of realtionships known as fan laws.
18
FAN LAWS
1. Effect of Blower Speed on Flow, Pressure and Power 2. Effect of Air Density on Flow, Pressure, and Power
Consumption Consumption.
a. Flow vs. Speed: The flow rate (V) changes in direct a. Volume Flow vs. Density
ratio to the speed (S) Volume flow (cfm) remains constant regardless of density.
V2 = S2 b. Weight Flow vs. Density: Weight flow (W) changes
V1 S1 in direct ratio to the density (D) or specific gravity (G)
Example: A blower operating at 1750 rpm (S1) deliv- W2 D G
= 2 = 2
ers 1000 cfm (V1). How many cfm (V2) will it deliver W1 D1 G1
if speed is increased to 3500 rpm (S2)? Example: A blower delivers 1500 lb/hr (20,000 cu ft/hr)
V2 = V1 x S2 = 1000 x 3500 = 2000 cfm (W1) of air at standard conditions (density D1 = 0.075
S1 1750 lb/cu ft). What will be the weight flow delivered if the air
b. Pressure vs. Speed: The pressure (P) changes as the temperature is 250°F?
square of the speed ratio (S) From page 21, air density (D 2) at 250°F is .056 lb/cu ft.
P2 = S2 2 W2 = W1 x D2 = 1500 x .056 = 1120 lb/hr.
P1 ( )
S1
D1 .075
Example: A blower operating at 1750 rpm (S1) develops c. Pressure vs. Density: Pressure (P) changes in direct
1 psig (P1) pressure. If speed is doubled to 3500 proportion to density (D) or specific gravity (G).
rpm (S2), what is the new pressure (P2)? P2 = D2 = G2
P1 D1 G1
P2 = P1 x S2 = 1 x 3500
2 2
( )
S1 (
1750 ) Example: At sea level conditions (G1 = 1.0), a blower
develops 28" w.c. pressure (P1). What pressure (P2) will it
= 1 x (2)2 = 1 x 4 = 4 psig
develop at 4000 ft. altitude?
c. Horsepower vs. Speed: The horsepower (HP) con- From page 20, air gravity (G 2) at 4000 ft is 0.86.
sumed changes as the cube of the speed ratio (S)
P2 = P1 x G2 = 28 x .86 = 24.1" w.c.
HP2 S 3 G1 1.0
HP1
= 2( )
S1 d. Horsepower vs. Density: Horsepower (HP) consumed
Example: A blower operating at 1750 rpm (S1) requires changes in direct proportion to density (D) or specific
a 5 hp (HP1) motor. How many horsepower (HP2) will gravity (G).
be required to handle a speed increase to 3500 rpm (S2)? HP2 = D2 = G2
S 3 3500 3 HP1 D1 G1
( )
HP2 = HP1 2 = 5 x
S1 ( )
1750 Example: A standard air (G1) blower requires a 10 hp
(HP1) motor. What horsepower (HP2) is required if this
= 5 x (2)3 = 5 x 8 = 40 hp
blower is to handle a gas of 0.5 specific gravity (G2)?
Laws 1a, 1b and 1c are known as the 1-2-3 rule of centrifu- The gravity of standard air is 1.0, so
gal blowers. Volume increases in direct ratio, pressure as the
HP2 = HP1 x G2 = 10 x 0.5 = 5 hp
square, and horsepower as the cube, of the speed ratio. G1 1.0
Re-rating blowers for nonstandard conditions V2 = V1 x G1 = 10,000 cfh x 1.00 = 12,500 cfh
As fan laws 2b, 2c, and 2d show, blower weight flow, G2 0.80
pressure, and horsepower all change in direct proportion to In other words, 12,500 cfh air at 6000 feet has the same
air density or gravity. While these relationships are impor- weight as 10,000 cfh at sea level.
tant to know, it’s usually more important to know how to The pressure required now will be adjusted for the new air
select a blower to compensate for nonstandard conditions. flow, taking into account the lower density of the air.
P2 = P1 x V2
2
V2 2 = G1
The following example shows how it is done.
Example: A burner is rated a 1 million Btu/hr. at an air pres- ( )
V1 ( )
V1 G2
sure of 20"w.c., including piping and control valve drops. If
the burner is to be installed at 6000 feet altitude, select a P2 = P1 x G1 = 20"w.c. x 1.00 = 25"w.c.
blower that will permit the burner’s input rating to be main- G2 0.80
tained. Because the pressure generated by the blower decreases
Solution: Use the rule-of-thumb of 100 Btu per standard with air density, the sea level pressure rating has to be higher
cubic foot of air to estimate blower flow requirements: to compensate for the loss of outlet pressure at higher alti-
1,000,000 Btu/hr ÷ 100 Btu/scf air = 10,000 scfh air. tudes.
This is the blower’s standard (sea level) rating. P1 = P2 x G1 = 25"w.c. x 1.00 = 31.25"w.c.
At 6,000 feet, the specific gravity of air is 0.80 (see page 20). G2 0.80
To maintain a weight flow of air through the burner Therefore, the blower must be capable of delivery at least
equivalent to 10,000 scfh, the volume flow through the 12,500 cfh at 31.25"w.c. at sea level to satisfy the needs of
burner has to be increased to offset the air’s lower density. the burner at 6000 feet altitude.
19
Blower horsepower requirements Blowers used as suction fans
Blower horsepower increases with the air flow delivered When a blower is used as a suction device discharging to
and the pressure developed. The four equations below can be atmosphere, the amount of suction or vacuum developed can
used to predict blower horsepower consumption. They differ be calculated from this relationship:
only in the flow and pressure units used. The term “efficien-
cy” is the overall blower efficiency – a composite of fan,
motor and drive train efficiencies – expressed as a decimal.
V= P– ( B+P
)
P2 x 27.7, where
hp = scfm x "w.c. hp = scfm x osi V = suction or vacuum, " w.c.

6356 x efficiency 3670 x efficiency P = Absolute atmospheric pressure, psia, at the location where
hp = scfh x "w.c. scfh x osi the blower is operated
381,360 x efficiency hp = 220,200 x efficiency B = Rated blower discharge pressure, psig (psig = " w.c. ÷ 27.7)
Example: A blower with a catalog pressure rating of 21" w.c.
is used as a suction fan on an installation at 1500 ft altitude.
How much suction will it develop?
P at 1500 ft = 13.9 psia (from table below)
B = 21 ÷ 27.7 = .76 psig
(
V = 13.9 - (13.9)
2
.76 + 13.9
x 27.7 = 20 "w.c.
)
THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON AIR THE EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON AIR
Basis: 70°F dry air at sea level Basis: 70°F dry air at sea level
(29.92" Hg) barometric pressure (29.92" Hg) barometric pressure
Gauge Absolute Specific Specific
Pressure, Pressure, Density Specific Volume Altitude Barometric Pressure, Density Specific Volume
PSIG PSIA Lb./Cu. Ft. Gravity Cu. Ft./Lb. Ft. "Hg PSIA Lb./Cu. Ft. Gravity Cu. Ft./Lb.
0 14.7 0.07500 1.000 13.33 0 29.92 14.7 .07500 1.00 13.33
1 15.7 0.08010 1.068 12.48 500 29.38 14.4 .07365 .98 13.58
2 16.7 0.08520 1.136 11.74 1000 28.86 14.2 .07234 .96 13.82
3 17.7 0.09031 1.204 11.07 1500 28.33 13.9 .07101 .95 14.08
4 18.7 0.09541 1.272 10.48 2000 27.82 13.7 .06974 .93 14.34
5 19.7 0.10051 1.340 9.95 2500 27.31 13.4 .06846` .91 14.61
10 24.7 0.12602 1.680 7.94 3000 26.81 13.2 .06720 .90 14.88
15 29.7 0.15153 2.020 6.60 3500 26.32 12.9 .06598 .88 15.16
20 34.7 0.17704 2.361 5.65 4000 25.84 12.7 .06477 .86 15.44
25 39.7 0.20255 2.701 4.94 4500 25.36 12.5 .06357 .85 15.73
30 44.7 0.22806 3.041 4.38 5000 24.89 12.2 .06239 .83 16.03
35 49.7 0.25357 3.381 3.94 5500 24.43 12.0 .06124 .82 16.33
40 54.7 0.27908 3.721 3.58 6000 23.98 11.8 .06011 .80 16.64
45 59.7 0.30459 4.061 3.28 6500 23.53 11.6 .05898 .79 16.95
50 64.7 0.33010 4.401 3.03 7000 23.09 11.3 .05788 .77 17.28
60 74.7 0.38112 5.082 2.62 7500 22.65 11.1 .05678 .76 17.61
70 84.7 0.43214 5.762 2.31 8000 22.22 10.9 .05570 .74 17.95
80 94.7 0.48316 6.442 2.07 8500 21.80 10.7 .05465 .73 18.30
90 104.7 0.53418 7.122 1.87 9000 21.38 10.5 .05359 .71 18.66
100 114.7 0.58520 7.802 1.71 9500 20.98 10.3 .05259 .70 19.01
125 139.7 0.71276 9.503 1.40 10000 20.58 10.1 .05159 .69 19.38
150 164.7 0.84031 11.204 1.19 15000 16.88 8.29 .04231 .56 23.63
175 189.7 0.96786 12.905 1.03 20000 13.75 6.76 .03447 .46 29.01
200 214.7 1.09541 14.605 0.91
Helpful conversions:
250 264.7 1.35051 18.007 0.74 Altitude in meters x 3.28 = Altitutde in feet
300 314.7 1.60561 21.408 0.62 Barometric pressure in "Hg ÷ 2.036 = Barometric pressure
400 414.7 2.11582 28.211 0.47 in psia.
500 514.7 2.62602 35.014 0.38
20
THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON AIR
Basis: 70°F dry air at sea level (29.92" Hg) barometric pressure
Explanation of terms:
Absolute Temperature Ratio: Temperature, °F + 460
530
Specific Gravity: Density at stated temperature
.07500
Specific Volume: 1
Density, lb/cu. ft.
Absolute Specific Absolute Specific

Temp. Temp. Density Specific Volume Temp. Temp. Density Specific Volume
°F Ratio Lb./Cu. Ft. Gravity Cu. Ft./Lb. °F Ratio Lb./Cu. Ft. Gravity Cu. Ft./Lb.
-60 .7547 .09938 1.325 10.06 520 1.849 .04056 .541 24.65
-40 .7925 .09464 1.262 10.57 530 1.868 .04015 .535 24.91
-30 .8113 .09244 1.233 10.82 540 1.887 .03975 .530 25.16
-20 .8302 .09034 1.205 11.07 550 1.906 .03936 .525 25.41
-10 .8491 .08833 1.178 11.32 560 1.925 .03897 .520 25.66
0 .8679 .08641 1.152 11.57 570 1.943 .03859 .515 25.91
20 .9057 .08281 1.104 12.08 580 1.962 .03822 .510 26.16

40 1.019 .07361 .981 13.58 590 1.981 .03786 .505 26.42
60 .9811 .07644 1.019 13.08 600 2.000 .03750 .500 26.67
70 1.000 .07500 1.000 13.33 610 2.019 .03715 .495 26.92

80 .9434 .07361 1.060 12.58 620 2.038 .03681 .491 27.17
90 1.038 .07227 .964 13.84 630 2.057 .03647 .486 27.42
100 1.057 .07098 .946 14.09 640 2.075 .03614 .482 27.67
110 1.075 .06974 .930 14.34 650 2.094 .03581 .477 27.92
120 1.094 .06853 .914 14.59 660 2.113 .03549 .473 28.18
130 1.113 .06737 .898 14.84 670 2.132 .03518 .469 28.43
140 1.132 .06624 .883 15.09 680 2.151 .03487 .465 28.68
150 1.151 .06516 .869 15.35 690 2.170 .03457 .461 28.93
160 1.170 .06411 .855 15.60 700 2.189 .03427 .457 29.18
170 1.189 .06310 .841 15.85 710 2.208 .03397 .453 29.43
180 1.208 .06211 .828 16.10 720 2.226 .03369 .449 29.69
190 1.226 .06115 .815 16.35 730 2.245 .03340 .445 29.94
200 1.245 .06023 .803 16.60 740 2.264 .03313 .442 30.19
210 1.264 .05933 .791 16.86 750 2.283 .03285 .438 30.44
220 1.283 .05846 .779 17.11 760 2.302 .03258 .434 30.69
230 1.302 .05761 .768 17.36 770 2.321 .03232 .431 30.94
240 1.321 .05679 .757 17.61 780 2.340 .03206 .427 31.19
250 1.340 .05599 .747 17.86 790 2.358 .03180 .424 31.45
260 1.358 .05521 .736 18.11 800 2.377 .03155 .421 31.70
270 1.377 .05445 .726 18.36 825 2.425 .03093 .412 32.33
280 1.396 .05372 .716 18.62 850 2.472 .03034 .405 32.96
290 1.415 .05300 .707 18.87 875 2.519 .02978 .397 33.58
300 1.434 .05230 .697 19.12 900 2.566 .02923 .390 34.21
310 1.453 .05162 .688 19.37 925 2.613 .02870 .383 34.84
320 1.472 .05096 .679 19.62 950 2.660 .02819 .376 35.47
330 1.491 .05032 .671 19.87 975 2.708 .02770 .369 36.10
340 1.509 .04969 .663 20.13 1000 2.755 .02723 .363 36.73
350 1.528 .04907 .654 20.38 1025 2.802 .02677 .357 37.36
360 1.547 .04848 .646 20.63 1050 2.849 .02623 .350 37.99
370 1.566 .04789 .639 20.88 1100 2.943 .02548 .340 39.25
380 1.585 .04732 .631 21.13 1150 3.033 .02469 .329 40.50
390 1.604 .04676 .623 21.38 1200 3.132 .02395 .319 41.76
400 1.623 .04622 .616 21.64 1250 3.226 .02325 .310 43.02
410 1.642 .04569 .609 21.89 1300 3.321 .02259 .301 44.28
420 1.660 .04517 .602 22.14 1350 3.415 .02196 .293 45.53
430 1.679 .04466 .595 22.39 1400 3.509 .02137 .285 46.79
440 1.698 .04417 .589 22.64 1500 3.698 .02028 .270 49.31
450 1.717 .04368 .582 22.89 1600 3.887 .01930 .257 51.81
460 1.736 .04321 .576 23.14 1700 4.075 .01840 .245 54.35
470 1.755 .04274 .570 23.40 1800 4.264 .01759 .235 56.85
480 1.774 .04229 .564 23.65 1900 4.453 .01684 .225 59.38
490 1.792 .04184 .558 23.90 2000 4.642 .01616 .215 61.88
500 1.811 .04141 .552 24.15 2100 4.830 .01553 .207 64.39
510 1.830 .04098 .546 24.40 2200 5.019 .01494 .199 66.93
21
CHAPTER 3 – GAS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL FUEL GASES
Constituents – % by Volume Density, Specific
Specific Lb per Volume
No. Gas CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 CO H2 CO2 O2 N2 Gravity Cu Ft Cu Ft/Lb
1 Acetylene – – – (100% C2H2) – – – 0.91 .07 14.4
2 Blast Furnace Gas – – – – 27.5 1 11.5 – 60 1.02 .078 12.8
3 Butane (natural gas) – – 7 93 – – – – – 1.95 .149 6.71
4 Butylene (Butene) – – – (100% C4H8) – – – 1.94 .148 6.74
5 Carbon Monoxide – – – – 100 – – – – 0.97 .074 13.5
6 Carburetted Water Gas 10.2 (6.1% C2H4, 2.8% C6H6) 34 40.5 3 0.5 2.9 0.63 .048 20.8
7 Coke Oven Gas 32.1 (3.5% C2H4, 0.5% C6H6) 6.3 46.5 2.2 0.8 8.1 0.44 .034 29.7
8 Digester (Sewage) Gas 67 – – (8% H2O) – 25 – – 0.80 .062 16.3
9 Ethane – 100 – – – – – – – 1.05 .080 12.5
10 Hydrogen – – – – – 100 – – – 0.07 .0054 186.9
11 Methane 100 – – – – – – – – 0.55 .042 23.8
12 Natural (Birmingham, AL) 90 5 – – – – – – 5 0.60 .046 21.8
13 Natural (Pittsburgh, PA) 83.4 15.8 – – – – – – 0.8 0.61 .047 21.4
14 Natural (Los Angeles, CA) 77.5 16.0 – – – – 6.5 – – 0.70 .054 18.7
15 Natural (Kansas City, MO) 84.1 6.7 – – – – 0.8 – 8.4 0.63 .048 20.8
16 Natural (Groningen, 81.3 2.9 0.4 0.1 – – 0.9 – 14.4 0.64 .048 20.7
Netherlands)
17 Natural (Midlands Grid, U.K.) 91.8 3.5 0.8 0.3 – – 0.4 – 2.8 0.61 .046 21.8
18 Producer (Wellman-Galusha) 2.3 – – – 25 14.5 4.7 – 52.7 0.84 .065 15.4
19 Propane (natural gas) – – 100 – – – – – – 1.52 .116 8.61
20 Propylene (Propene) – – – (100% C3H6) – – – 1.45 .111 9.02
21 Sasol (South Africa) 26 – – – 22 48 – 0.5 1 0.42 .032 31.3
22 Water Gas (bituminous) 4.6 (0.4% C2H4, 0.3% C6H6) 28.2 32.5 5.5 0.9 27.6 0.71 .054 18.7
COMBUSTION PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL FUEL GASES

Air/Gas Ratio, Flammability Limits, Ignition Temperature & Flame Velocity
Limits of
Stoichiometric Flammability Minimum Maximum
Air/Gas Ratio % Gas in Ignition Flame Velocity
Cu Ft Air/ Lb Air/ Air/Gas Mixture Temperature in Air,
No. Gas Cu Ft Gas Lb Gas Lean Rich in Air, °F Ft/Sec*
1 Acetylene 11.91 13.26 2.5 80 581 9.4
2 Blast Furnace Gas 0.68 0.67 45 72 – –
3 Butane (natural gas) 30.47 15.63 1.86 8.41 826 2.8
4 Butylene (Butene) 28.59 14.77 1.7 9 829 3.2
5 Carbon Monoxide 2.38 2.46 12 74 1128 2.0
6 Carburetted Water Gas 4.60 7.36 4.2 42.9 – –
7 Coke Oven Gas 4.99 11.27 4.5 31.5 – –
8 Digester (Sewage) Gas 6.41 7.97 8 17 – –
9 Ethane 16.68 15.98 3.15 12.8 882 2.8
10 Hydrogen 2.38 33.79 4 74.2 1065 16.0
11 Methane 9.53 17.23 5 15 1170 2.2
12 Natural (Birmingham, AL) 9.41 15.68 7.03 15.77 – –
13 Natural (Pittsburgh, PA) 10.58 17.31 4.6 14.7 – –
14 Natural (Los Angeles, CA) 10.05 14.26 4.9 15.6 – –
15 Natural (Kansas City, MO) 9.13 14.59 5.4 16.3 – –
16 Natural (Groningen, 8.41 13.45 6.1 15 1238 1.18
Netherlands)
17 Natural (Midlands Grid, U.K.) 9.8 16.13 5 15 1300 0.98
18 Producer (Wellman-Galusha) 1.30 1.56 16.4 69.4 – –
19 Propane (natural gas) 23.82 15.73 2.37 9.50 898 2.7
20 Propylene (Propene) 21.44 14.77 2 11.1 856 3.3
21 Sasol (South Africa) 4.13 9.84 5.3 37.4 – –
22 Water Gas (bituminous) 2.01 2.86 8.9 61 – –
*Uniform flame speed in a 1" diameter tube. Flame speeds increase in larger diameter tubes.
22
Heating Value, Heat Release & Flame Temperature
Heating Value Theoretical
Heat release, Btu Flame
Btu/cu ft Btu/lb Temperature
No. Gas Gross Net Gross Net Per Cu Ft Air Per Lb Air °F
1 Acetylene 1498 1447 21,569 20,837 125.8 1677 4250
2 Blast Furnace Gas 92 92 1178 1178 135.3 1804 2650
3 Butane (natural gas) 3225 2977 21,640 19,976 105.8 1411 3640
4 Butylene (Butene) 3077 2876 20,780 19,420 107.6 1435 3810
5 Carbon Monoxide 323 323 4368 4368 135.7 1809 3960
6 Carburetted Water Gas 550 508 11,440 10,566 119.6 1595 3725
7 Coke Oven Gas 574 514 17,048 15,266 115.0 1533 3610
8 Digester (Sewage) Gas 690 621 11,316 10,184 107.6 1407 3550
9 Ethane 1783 1630 22,198 20,295 106.9 1425 3710
10 Hydrogen 325 275 61,084 51,628 136.6 1821 3960
11 Methane 1011 910 23,811 21,433 106.1 1415 3640
12 Natural (Birmingham, AL) 1002 904 21,844 19,707 106.5 1420 3565
13 Natural (Pittsburgh, PA) 1129 1021 24,161 21,849 106.7 1423 3562
14 Natural (Los Angeles, CA) 1073 971 20,065 18,158 106.8 1424 3550
15 Natural (Kansas City, MO) 974 879 20,259 18,283 106.7 1423 3535
16 Natural (Groningen, 941 849 19,599 17,678 111.9 1492 3380
Netherlands)
17 Natural (Midlands Grid, U.K.) 1035 902 22,500 19,609 105.6 1408 3450
18 Producer (Wellman-Galusha) 167 156 2650 2476 128.5 1713 3200
19 Propane (natural gas) 2572 2365 21,500 19,770 108 1440 3660
20 Propylene (Propene) 2322 2181 20,990 19,630 108.8 1451 3830
21 Sasol (South Africa) 500 443 14,550 13,016 116.3 1551 3452
22 Water Gas (bituminous) 261 239 4881 4469 129.9 1732 3510

Combustion Products & %CO2
Combustion Products, Cu Ft/Cu Ft Gas Combustion Products, Lb/Lb Gas Ultimate
CO2
No. Gas CO2 H2O N2 Total CO2 H2O N2 Total %*
1 Acetylene 2.00 1.00 9.41 12.41 3.38 0.69 10.19 14.26 17.5
2 Blast Furnace Gas 0.39 0.02 1.14 1.54 .59 — 1.08 1.67 25.5
3 Butane (natural gas) 3.93 4.93 24.07 32.93 3.09 1.59 11.95 16.63 14.0
4 Butylene (Butene) 4.00 4.00 22.59 30.59 3.14 1.29 11.34 15.77 15.0
5 Carbon Monoxide 1.00 — 1.88 2.88 1.57 — 1.89 3.46 34.7
6 Carburetted Water Gas 0.76 0.87 3.66 5.29 1.85 0.87 5.64 8.36 17.2
7 Coke Oven Gas 0.51 1.25 4.02 5.78 1.76 1.76 8.75 12.27 11.2
8 Digester (Sewage) Gas 0.92 1.42 5.44 7.78 1.74 1.10 6.53 9.37 14.5
9 Ethane 2.00 3.00 13.18 18.18 2.93 1.8 12.25 16.98 13.2|
10 Hydrogen — 1.00 1.88 2.88 — 8.89 25.90 34.79 0
11 Methane 1.00 2.00 7.53 10.53 2.75 2.25 13.23 18.23 11.7
12 Natural (Birmingham, AL) 1.00 2.02 7.48 10.50 2.54 2.11 12.03 16.68 11.8
13 Natural (Pittsburgh, PA) 1.15 2.22 8.37 11.73 2.86 2.27 13.18 18.31 12.1
14 Natural (Los Angeles, CA) 1.16 2.10 7.94 11.20 2.51 1.87 10.88 15.26 12.7
15 Natural (Kansas City, MO) 0.98 1.95 7.30 10.23 2.39 1.95 11.25 15.59 11.9
16 Natural (Groningen, 0.89 1.73 6.74 9.36 2.17 1.73 10.45 14.35 11.7
Netherlands)
17 Natural (Midlands Grid, U.K.) 1.05 2.19 7.94 11.78 2.67 2.29 12.84 17.80 11.7
18 Producer (Wellman-Galusha) 0.34 0.17 1.59 2.11 0.61 0.13 1.82 2.56 17.6
19 Propane (natural gas) 3.00 4.17 18.82 25.99 3.00 1.70 12.03 16.73 13.7
20 Propylene (Propene) 3.00 3.00 16.94 22.94 3.14 1.29 11.34 15.77 15.0
21 Sasol (South Africa) 0.48 1.00 3.28 4.76 1.76 1.50 7.63 10.89 12.8
22 Water Gas (bituminous) 0.41 0.47 1.86 2.74 0.89 0.42 2.55 3.86 18.0
*In dry flue gas sample
23
PROPANE/AIR & BUTANE/AIR MIXTURES
EQUIVALENT BTU TABLES
PROPANE/AIR MIXTURE BUTANE/AIR MIXTURE

Equivalent Equivalent
Propane- Butane-
Air Air
B.t.u. Specific Mixture Specific B.t.u. Specific Mixture Specific
Kind of Gas Content Gravity B.t.u. Gravity Kind of Gas Content Gravity B.t.u. Gravity
Carbureted Water Gas . . . . . . . . . .517 .65 690 1.14 Carbureted Water Gas . . . . . . . . . .517 .65 708 1.20
Mixed Water and Coke Oven . . . . . .530 .46 855 1.17 Mixed Water and Coke Oven . . . . . .530 .46 870 1.25
Coke Oven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .590 .42 1000 1.20 Coke Oven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .590 .42 1058 1.31
Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .900 .56 1100 1.23 Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .900 .56 1380 1.41
Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1050 .60 1400 1.28 Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1050 .60 1550 1.46
Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1140 .65 1560 1.32 Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1140 .65 1680 1.50
NOTE: The B.t.u. content and specific gravity figures are representative figures and will vary according to area. Therefore, these tables should be used as a guide only.
MIXTURE SPECIFICATIONS
PROPANE/AIR MIXTURES BUTANE/AIR MIXTURES
B.t.u. per Percentage Percentage Percentage Specific Percentage Percentage Percentage Specific
Cubic Foot of Propane of Air by of Oxygen by Gravity of of Butane of Air by of Oxygen by Gravity of
of MIxture by Volume Volume Volume (Orsat) the MIxture by Volume Volume Volume (Orsat) the Mixture
3200 — — — — 100.00 0.00 0.000 1.950
3150 — — — — 98.44 1.56 0.328 1.935
3100 — — — — 96.88 3.12 0.656 1.920
3050 — — — — 95.32 4.68 0.984 1.905
3000 — — — — 93.75 6.25 1.312 1.891
2950 — — — — 92.20 7.80 1.643 1.875
2900 — — — — 90.62 9.38 1.967 1.861
2850 — — — — 89.08 10.92 2.297 1.846
2800 — — — — 87.51 12.49 2.625 1.831
2750 — — — — 85.95 14.05 2.953 1.817
2700 — — — — 84.38 15.62 3.280 1.802
2650 — — — — 82.82 17.18 3.612 1.786
2600 — — — — 81.25 18.75 3.935 1.771
2550 100.00 0.00 0.000 1.523 79.70 20.30 4.268 1.755
2500 98.04 1.96 0.409 1.513 78.18 21.82 4.590 1.744
2450 96.08 3.92 0.819 1.502 76.58 23.42 4.921 1.728
2400 94.12 5.88 1.288 1.492 75.00 25.00 5.249 1.712
2350 92.16 7.84 1.639 1.482 73.44 26.56 5.576 1.698
2300 90.19 9.81 2.050 1.472 71.86 28.14 5.899 1.683
2250 88.24 11.76 2.458 1.461 70.30 29.70 6.238 1.668
2200 86.27 13.73 2.869 1.451 68.79 31.21 6.561 1.653
2150 84.31 15.69 3.279 1.441 67.20 32.80 6.889 1.638
2100 82.35 17.65 3.688 1.431 65.63 34.37 7.219 1.623
2050 80.39 19.61 4.098 1.420 64.09 35.91 7.548 1.608
2000 78.43 21.56 4.506 1.410 62.52 37.48 7.869 1.593
1950 76.47 23.53 4.918 1.400 60.96 39.04 8.200 1.579
1900 74.51 25.49 5.317 1.390 59.38 40.62 8.542 1.564
1850 72.55 27.45 5.737 1.379 57.87 42.13 8.868 1.550
1800 70.58 29.42 6.149 1.369 56.25 43.75 9.162 1.535
1750 68.62 31.38 6.558 1.359 54.69 45.31 9.500 1.520
1700 66.67 33.33 6.964 1349 53.17 46.83 9.850 1.505
1650 64.70 35.30 7.378 1.338 51.60 48.40 10.180 1.490
1600 62.74 37.26 7.787 1.328 50.00 50.00 10.488 1.475
1550 60.78 39.22 8.197 1.318 48.50 51.50 10.817 1.461
1500 58.82 41.18 8.606 1.308 46.92 53.08 11.130 1.446
1450 56.86 43.14 9.016 1.297 45.35 54.65 11.490 1.431
1400 54.90 45.10 9.246 1.287 43.75 56.25 11.810 1.416
1350 52.94 47.06 9.835 1.277 42.22 57.78 12.130 1.401
1300 50.98 49.02 10.245 1.267 40.60 59.40 12.481 1.386
1250 49.02 50.98 10.654 1.256 39.09 60.91 12.795 1.371
1200 47.06 52.94 11.064 1246 37.50 62.50 13.137 1.356
1150 45.09 54.91 11.476 1.236 35.92 64.08 13.462 1.340
1100 43.13 56.87 11.886 1.226 34.38 65.62 13.787 1.326
1050 41.17 58.83 12.295 1.215 32.80 67.21 14.100 1.312
1000 39.21 60.79 12.705 1.205 31.25 68.75 14.412 1.296
950 37.25 62.75 13.115 1.195 29.75 70.25 14.775 1.282
900 35.29 64.71 13.524 1.185 28.20 71.80 15.100 1.266
850 33.33 66.67 13.934 1.174 26.55 73.45 15.425 1.252
800 31.37 68.63 14.344 1.164 25.00 75.00 15.712 1.237
750 29.41 70.59 14.753 1.154 23.50 76.50 16.081 1.223
700 27.45 72.55 15.163 1.114 21.88 78.12 16.400 1.206
650 25.49 74.51 15.573 1.133 20.38 79.62 16.750 1.194
600 23.53 76.47 15.982 1.123 18.75 81.25 17.081 1.178
550 21.56 78.44 16.394 1.113 17.25 82.75 17.412 1.163
500 19.61 80.39 16.892 1.103 15.63 84.37 17.712 1.148
450 17.65 82.35 17.211 1.092 14.13 85.87 18.081 1.135
400 15.69 84.31 17.621 1.082 12.50 87.50 18.375 1.120
350 13.73 86.27 18.031 1.072 11.00 89.00 18.687 1.105
300 11.76 88.24 18.442 1.062 9.38 90.62 19.031 1.089
250 9.80 90.20 18.852 1.051 7.75 92.25 19.313 1.074
200 7.84 92.16 19.261 1.041 6.25 93.75 19.687 1.059
150 5.88 94.12 19.670 1.031 4.75 95.25 20.000 1.045
100 3.92 96.08 20.081 1.021 3.13 96.87 20.342 1.029
24
CHAPTER 4 – OIL
FUEL OIL SPECIFICATIONS PER ANSI/ASTM D 396-79A
Car-
bon
Resi-
due
Water on Distillation Specific Cop-
Flash Pour and 10% Temperatures, Saybolt Viscosity, sD Kinematic Viscosity, cStD Gravity per
Point, Point, Sedi- Bot- Ash, °C(°F) 60/60°F Strip Sul-
°C °C ment, toms, weight 10% Universal at Furol at 50°C At 38°C At 40°C At 50°C (deg Corro- fur,
Grade of (°F) (°F) vol % % % Point 90% Point 38°C(100°F) 122°F) (100°F) (104°F) (122°F) API) sion %
Fuel Oil Min Max Max Max Max Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Max Max Max
No. 1 38 -18C 0.05 0.15 – 215 — 288 — — — — 1.4 2.2 1.3 2.1 — — 0.8499 No. 3 0.5
A distillate oil (100) (0) (420) (550) (35 min)
intended for
vaporizing pot-
type burners and
other burners
requiring this
grade of fuel
No. 2 38 -6C 0.05 0.35 — — 282C 338 (32.6) (37.9) — — 2.0C 3.6 1.9C 3.4 — — 0.8762 No. 3 0.5B
A distillate oil for(100) (20) (540) (640) (30 min)
general purpose
heating for use in
burners not
requiring No. 1
fuel oil
No. 4 55 -6C 0.50 — 0.10 — — — (45) (125) — — 5.8 26.4F 5.5 24.0F — — — — —
Preheating not(130) (20)
usually required
for handling
or burning
No. 5 (Light) 55 — 1.00 — 0.10 — — — (>125) (300) — — >26.4 65F >24.0 58F — — — — —
Preheating may(130)
be required
depending on
climate and
equipment
No. 5 (Heavy) 55 — 1.00 — 0.10 — — — (>300) (900) (23) (40) >65 194F >58 168F (42) (81) — — —
Preheating may(130)
be required
for burning and,
in cold climates,
may be required
for handling
No. 6 60 G 2.00E — — — — — (>900) (9000) (>45) (300) — — — — >92 638F — — —
Preheating (140)
required for
burning and
handling
A
It is the intent of these classifications that failure to meet any requirement of a given grade does not automatically place an oil in the next lower
grade unless in fact it meets all requirements of the lower grade.
B
In countries outside the United States other sulfur limits may apply.
C
Lower or higher pour points may be specified whenever required by conditions of storage or use. When pour point less than -18°C (0°F) is
specified, the minimum viscosity for grade No. 2 shall be 1.7 cSt (31.5 SUS) and the minimum 90% point shall be waived.
D
Viscosity values in parentheses are for information only and not necessarily limiting.
E
The amount of water by distillation plus the sediment by extraction shall not exceed 2.00%. The amount of sediment by extraction shall not
exceed 0.50%. A deduction in quanity shall be made for all water and sediment in excess of 1.0%.
F
Where low sulfur fuel oil is required, fuel oil failing in the viscosity range of a lower numbered grade down to and including No. 4 may be sup-
plied by agreement between purchaser and supplier. The viscosity range of the initial shipment shall be identified and advance notice shall be
required when changing from one viscosity range to another. This notice shall be in sufficient time to permit the user to make the necessary
adjustments.
G
Where low sulfur fuel oil is required. Grade 6 fuel oil will be classified as low pour + 15°C (60°F) max or high pour (no max). Low pour fuel oil
should be used unless all tanks and lines are heated.
© COPYRIGHT ASTM • REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION
25
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL FUEL OILS IN THE U.S.
Grade of Carbon Residue,
Fuel Oil Flash Point, °F Pour Point, °F Water, Vol. % Wt. % Ash, Wt. %
1 106 to 174 -85 to -10 0.050 max. 0.200 max. –
2 120 to 250 -60 to +35 0.060 max. 0.820 max. –
4* 150 to 276 -40 to +80 0.3 max. 0.19 to 7.6 0.07 max.
5 (Light)* 154 to 250 -15 to +55 0.08 to 0.6 2.10 to 13.6 0.001 to 0.08
5 (Heavy)* 136 to 300+ -17 to +90 0.4 max. 1.55 to 9.6 0.001 to 0.16
6 140 to 250 0 to +110 0.300 max. 1.02 to 15.80 0.001 to 0.630
Grade of Viscosity, Specific Gravity Gross Heating

Fuel Oil SSU @ 100°F 60/60°F Gravity, °API Sulfur, Wt % Value, Btu/gallon
1 37 max. 0.79 to 0.85 47.9 to 34.8 0 to 0.47 131,100 to 138,700
2 42 max. 0.80 to 0.92 45.3 to 21.9 0.04 to 0.5 132,600 to 147,400
4* 35 to 160 0.85 to 0.99 34.6 to 12.1 0.18 to 1.81 140,400 to 151,700
5 (Light)* 80 to 700 0.89 to 1.01 28.2 to 8.5 0.58 to 3.48 142,700 to 156,400
5 (Heavy)* 240 to 1300 0.91 to 1.02 23.4 to 7.5 0.6 to 2.54 144,800 to 153,600
6 240 to 6100 0.92 to 1.09 22.0 to -1.5 0.17 to 3.52 146,700 to 162,000
The above data are summarized from Heating Oils, 1984, published by the American Petroleum Institute and U.S.
Dept. of Energy. The ranges in the tables represent the extreme maximums and minimums for the oil samples
included in the survey.
*1975-1976 data. No data available for these grades in 1983-1984.
FUEL OIL VISCOSITY CONVERSIONS

This chart converts four commonly-used fuel oil viscosity
scales to a common base of centistokes
ABBREVIATIONS: SSU = Saybolt Seconds Universal
SSF = Saybolt Seconds Furol
SRI = Seconds Redwood #1
°E = Degrees Engler
10,000
Kinematic Viscosity, SSU @ 100°F, SSF @ 122°F, SR1 @ 140°F, or °E
8
6
4
3
2
F
0°
14
F
0°
@
10
1000
1
@
SR
U
8
SS
6
°F
4
2
12
3
@
2
F
SS
°E
100
8
6
4
3
2
10
8
6
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 2 3 4 6 8 100 2 3 4 6 8 1000 2 3
Kinematic Viscosity, Centistokes (CS)
26
° API VS. OIL SPECIFIC GRAVITY
& GROSS HEATING VALUE
1.1
-160
Gr0ss Heating Value, Btu/Gallon x 1000

-155
1.0
Specific Gravity @ 60°F
-150
0.9 -145
-140
0.8
-135
- 130
0.7
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
° API
To determine specific gravity of an oil, find °API at the bot- For greater accuracy or for gravities not on this chart, use
tom of the graph, read up to the curve, and left to the specific these equations:
gravity. Specific gravity @ 60/60°F = 141.5
To find gross heating value of an oil, find °API at the bot- °API + 131.5
tom of the graph, read up to the curve, and right to the heating Gross Heating Value, Btu/lb
value. = 17,887 + (57.5 x °API) - (102.2 x %S)
where %S is weight % sulfur in the oil.
Gross Heating Value, Btu/gal
= g.h.v., Btu/lb x 8.335 x specific gravity
OIL PIPING PRESSURE LOSSES

These charts show oil pressure drop per 100 equivalent
feet of horizontal schedule 40 steel pipe. To determine total 35 SSU Distillate Oil
equivalent length, add equivalent lengths of fittings and 10
valves (Page 16) to the actual linear feet of pipe. 1/2" 3/4"
Pressure Drop, psi per
1"
100 feet of equivalent
The charts for 1000 SSU and 10,000 SSU oils are
accompanied by correction factors for oils of other viscosi-
pipe length
ties. To find the pressure drop for an oil not on either of

these charts, simply multiply the drop from the chart by the 5
appropriate correction factor. 1-1/4"
If the entrance and exit ends of the oil line are at differ-
ent elevations, the static head of the oil must be added to or
subtracted from the calculated piping drop.
0
Static head, psi = 0.433 x specific gravity of oil x eleva- 0 5 10 15 20
tion difference, ft. Oil Flow, gpm
27
OIL PIPING PRESSURE LOSSES (Cont’d)
100 SSU Intermediate Oil
10
1/2" 3/4" 1"
Pressure Drop, psi per

100 feet of equivalent
pipe length
1-1/4"
5
1-1/2"
0
0 5 10 15 20
Oil Flow, gpm
1000 SSU Heavy Oil

20 Pressure Drop
1" 1-1/4" Correction Factors
1-1/2" for Other Viscosities
Viscosity, Correction
SSU Factor
Pressure Drop, psi per 100 feet
15
200 0.2
of equivalent pipe length
300 0.3
400 0.4
500 0.5
10 600 0.6
700 0.7
800 0.8
2" 900 0.9
1200 1.2
5
1500 1.5
2-1/2" 2000 2.0
2500 2.5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Oil Flow, gpm
10,000 SSU Heavy Oil

20
2" 2-1/2"
Pressure Drop
Correction Factors
for Other Viscosities
Pressure Drop, psi per 100 feet
15 Viscosity, Correction
of equivalent pipe length
SSU Factor
3"
2000 0.2
3000 0.3
4000 0.4
10
5000 0.5
6000 0.6
7000 0.7
8000 0.8
5 4" 9000 0.9
12000 1.2
15000 1.5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Oil Flow, gpm
28
OIL PIPING TEMPERATURE LOSSES
This table lists the temperature drop of 220°F oil flowing through steel pipe insulated with 1" thick 85% magnesia pipe
insulation. Ambient temperature is assumed to be 60°F. For oil temperatures other than 220°F, multiply the temperature loss by
the appropriate correction factor.
OIL TEMPERATURE DROP IN °F PER FOOT OF PIPE

Oil Flow Nominal Pipe Size
GPH 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/2 2 2-1/2 3
.5 10.92 12.18 13.68 15.48 17.64 20.6 22.50 26.30 30.00 34.8
1 5.46 6.09 6.84 7.74 8.82 10.3 11.25 13.15 15.00 17.4
2 2.73 3.04 3.42 3.87 4.41 5.15 5.63 6.57 7.50 8.70
3 1.82 2.03 2.28 2.58 2.94 3.43 3.75 4.38 5.00 5.75
4 1.365 1.52 1.71 1.933 2.205 2.58 2.82 3.28 3.75 4.35
5 1.09 1.218 1.368 1.548 1.764 2.06 2.25 2.63 3.00 3.48
10 .546 .609 .684 .774 .882 1.03 1.125 1.315 1.50 1.74
15 .364 .405 .455 .515 .588 .686 .750 .876 1.00 1.16
20 .273 .304 .342 .387 .441 .515 .563 .657 .750 .870
30 .182 .203 .228 .258 .294 .343 .375 .438 .500 .575
40 .136 .152 .171 .193 .220 .258 .282 .328 .375 .435
60 .091 .101 .114 .129 .147 .172 .187 .219 .250 .290
80 .068 .076 .086 .097 .110 .129 .141 .164 .188 .218
100 .055 .061 .068 .077 .088 .103 .113 .132 .150 .174
200 .027 .030 .034 .039 .044 .052 .056 .066 .075 .087
300 .018 .020 .023 .026 .029 .034 .038 .044 .050 .058
OIL TEMPERATURE
CORRECTION FACTORS
Oil Oil
Temperature, °F Factor Temperature, °F Factor
130 0.44 190 0.81
140 0.5 200 0.88
150 0.56 210 0.94
160 0.63 230 1.06
170 0.69 240 1.13
180 0.75 250 1.19
Temperature losses from uninsulated pipe will vary with the

pipe size. For 1/4" pipe, the losses are about 8 times the figures in
the table. For 3" pipe, they are about 6 times the table values.
29
CHAPTER 5 – STEAM & WATER
BOILER TERMINOLOGY AND CONVERSION FACTORS
Boiler horsepower – One boiler horsepower Quality – In a mixture of steam and water, the weight per-
= 33,479 Btu/hr heat to steam centage which is present as steam; in other words, the percent
= 34.5 lb/hr of water evaporated of complete vaporization which has taken place. The quality of
from and at 212°F saturated steam is 100%.
= 9.8 Kilowatts Saturated Steam – Steam which is at the same temperature as
Dry Steam – Steam which contains no liquid water. the water from which it was evaporated.
Enthalpy – Heat content, Btu/lb, of a liquid or vapor. Wet Steam – Steam which contains liquid water. Its quality is
Latent heat of vaporization – The heat required to convert a less than 100%.
material from its liquid to its vapor phase without raising its
temperature. The latent heat of vaporization of water at 1
atmosphere pressure and 212°F is 970.3 Btu/lb.
PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM

Vg,
Specific hf, hfg, hg,
Volume of Heat Content Latent Heat, Heat Content
Temperature, Pressure, psi Vapor of Liquid, of Vaporization, of Vapor
°F Absolute Gauge cu ft/lb Btu/lb Btu/lb Btu/lb
32 .089 – 3304.7 -0.018 1075.5 1075.5
40 .121 – 2445.8 8.03 1071.0 1079.0
50 .178 – 1704.8 18.05 1065.3 1083.4
60 .256 – 1207.6 28.06 1059.7 1087.7
70 .363 – 868.4 38.05 1054.0 1092.1
80 .507 – 633.3 48.04 1048.4 1096.4
90 .698 – 468.1 58.02 1042.7 1100.8
100 .949 – 350.4 68.00 1037.1 1105.1
110 1.28 – 265.4 77.98 1031.4 1109.3
120 1.69 – 203.3 87.97 1025.6 1113.6
130 2.22 – 157.3 97.96 1019.8 1117.8
140 2.89 _ 123.0 107.95 1014.0 1122.0
150 3.72 – 97.07 117.95 1008.2 1126.1
160 4.74 – 77.29 127.96 1002.2 1130.2
170 5.99 – 62.06 137.97 996.2 1134.2
180 7.51 – 50.22 148.00 990.2 1138.2
190 9.34 – 40.96 158.04 984.1 1142.1
200 11.53 – 33.64 168.09 977.9 1146.0
212 14.696 0 26.80 180.17 970.3 1150.5
220 17.19 2.49 23.15 188.23 965.2 1153.4
240 24.97 10.27 16.32 208.45 952.1 1160.6
260 35.43 20.73 11.76 228.76 938.6 1167.4
280 49.20 34.50 8.64 294.17 924.6 1173.8
300 67.01 52.31 6.47 269.7 910.0 1179.7
320 89.64 74.94 4.91 290.4 894.8 1185.2
340 117.99 103.29 3.79 311.3 878.8 1190.1
360 153.01 138.31 2.96 332.3 862.1 1194.4
380 195.73 181.03 2.34 353.6 844.5 1198.0
400 247.26 232.56 1.86 375.1 825.9 1201.0
500 680.86 666.16 0.67 487.9 714.3 1202.2
600 1543.2 1528.5 0.27 617.1 550.6 1167.7
700 3094.3 3079.6 0.075 822.4 172.7 995.2
705.47* 3208.2 3193.5 0.051 906.0 0 906.0
*Critical Temperature
30
BTU/HR REQUIRED TO GENERATE ONE BOILER H.P.
50
Input Required to Generate

One Boiler Horsepower
1000's of Btu/hr Burner
45
40
35
70 75 80 85 90
% Boiler Efficiency
SIZING WATER PIPING

1/2" 3/4" 1" 1-1/4"1-1/2" 2" 2-1/2" 3" 4"
10
8
6
4
3 6"
Pressuer Drop, psi per 100 ft of pipe
1
.8 8"
.6
.4
.3
.2
.1
.08
.06
.04
.03
.02
.01
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300 500 1000
Water Flow, Gallons Per Minute
Pressure drops are for 60°F water flowing in horizontal Schedule 40 steel pipe.
31
SIZING STEAM PIPING
Pipe Size, Lb/hr steam for piping pressure drop of 1 psi/100ft Lb/hr steam for piping drop of 5 psi/100 ft
Inches Steam Pressure, psig Steam Pressure, psig
(Schedule 40) 5 10 25 50 100 150 10 25 50 100 150
3/4 31 34 43 53 70 84 73 93 120 155 185
1 61 68 86 110 140 170 145 185 235 315 375
1-1/4 135 150 190 235 310 370 320 410 520 690 820
1-1/2 210 230 290 370 485 570 500 640 810 1,050 1,300
2 425 470 590 750 980 1,150 1,000 1,300 1,650 2,150 2,600
2-1/2 700 780 980 1,250 1,600 1,900 1,650 2,150 2,700 3,600 4,250
3 1,280 1,450 1,800 2,250 2,950 3,500 3,050 3,900 4,300 6,600 7,800
4 2,700 3,000 3,800 4,750 6,200 7,400 6,500 8,200 10,500 14,000 16,500
6 8,200 9,200 11,500 14,500 19,000 22,500 19,500 25,000 31,500 42,000 50,000
8 17,000 19,000 24,000 30,000 39,500 47,000 41,000 52,000 66,000 88,000 105,000
These flows were calculated from Babcock’s Equation,
Pd D5 where W = steam flow, lb/minute

P = pressure drop, psi
W = 87 (1 + 3.6 ) L D = inside diameter of pipe, inches
D d = density of steam, lb/cu ft
L = length of pipe run, feet
32
CHAPTER 6 – ELECRICAL DATA
ELECTRICAL FORMULAS
Ohm’s Law Motor Formulas D.C. Circuit Power Formulas

Amperes = Volts/Ohms Torque (lb-ft) = 5250 x Horsepower Watts = Volts x Amperes
Ohms = Volts/Amperes rpm Amperes = Watts/Volts
Volts = Amperes x Ohms Synchronous rpm = Hertz x 120 Volts = Watts/Amperes
Poles Horsepower = Volts x Amperes x Efficiency*
746
A.C. Circuit Power Formulas
Single-Phase Three-Phase
Watts = Volts x Amps x Power Factor* = 1.73 x Volts x Amps x Power Factor*
Amperes = WattsVolts x Power Factor* = Watts/1.73 x Volts x Power Factor*
= kVA x 1000/Volts = kVA x 1000/1.73 x Volts
= Horsepower x 746 = Horsepower x 746
Volts x Efficiency* x Power Factor* 1.73 x Volts x Effic.* x Power Factor*
Kilowatts = Amps x Volts x Power Factor* = 1.73 x Amps x Volts x Power Factor*
1000 1000
kVA = Amps x Volts = 1.73 x Amps x Volts
1000 1000
Horsepower = Volts x Amps x Effic.* x Pwr. Factor* = 1.73 x Volts x Amps x Effic.* x Pwr. Fact.*
746 746
*Expressed as a decimal
ELECTRICAL WIRE – NEMA SIZE STARTERS FOR MOTORS

DIMENSIONS & RATINGS Starter size for
All data for solid copper wire 460/3/60
A.W.G. Resistance, Maximum Allowable Horsepower 115/1/60 230/1/60 230/3/60 380/3/60 575/3/60
Wire Diameter, Ohms per 1000 Ft Current Capacity per
Gauge Inches @ 77˚F NFPA 70-1984*, Amps Up to 1/3 00 00 00 00 00
1/2 to 1 0 00 00 00 00
0 .3249 .100 125-170 1-1/2 1 1 00 00 00
1 .2893 .126 110-150 2 1 1 0 0 00
2 .2576 .159 95-130 3 2 2 0 0 0
3 .2294 .201 85-110 5 3 2 1 0 0
4 .2043 .253 70-95 7-1/2 3 2 1 1 1
6 .1620 .403 55-75 10 – 3 2 1 1
15 – – 2 2 2
8 .1285 .641 40-55
10 .1019 1.02 30-40 20-25 – – 3 2 2
12 .0808 1.62 20-30 30 – – 3 3 3
40-50 – – 4 3 3
14 .0641 2.58 15-25 60-75 – – 5 4 4
16 .0508 4.09 18 100 – – 5 5 4
18 .0403 6.51 14 125-150 – – 6 5 5
*Maximum current capacity permitted by National Electrical Code, 200 – – 6 6 5
NFPA 70-1984, varies with type of insulation, ambient tempera- All sizes listed apply only to magnetic starters with fusible
ture, voltage carried, and other factors. Consult NFPA 70-1984 for alloy overload relays.
specific information.
33
NEMA ENCLOSURES ELECTRIC MOTORS–
NEMA 1. General Purpose – Indoor FULL LOAD CURRENT, AMPERES
Sheet metal enclosures intended for indoor use. Primary pur-
pose is to prevent accidental personnel contact with enclosed Three-Phase AC Motors
equipment, although they will also provide some protection Single Induction Type –
against falling dirt. Phase Squirrel Cage &
Horse AC Motors Wound-Rotor
NEMA 2. Drip Proof – Indoor Power 115V 230V 115V 230V 460V 575V
Indoor enclosure that protects contents against falling noncor-
rosive liquids and dirt. Must be equipped with a drain. 1/6 4.4 2.2 — — — —
1/4 5.8 2.9 — — — —
NEMA 3. Dust Tight, Raintight & Sleet-Resistant (Ice- 1/3 7.2 3.6 — — — —
Resistant),
NEMA 3R. Rainproof & Sleet-Resistant (Ice-Resistant). 1/2 9.8 4.9 4 2 1 .8
NEMA 3S. Dust Tight, Raintight & Sleet-Proof (Ice-Proof) 3/4 13.8 6.9 5.6 2.8 1.4 1.1
Outdoor enclosures for protection against windblown dust, rain 1 16 8 7.2 3.6 1.8 1.4
and sleet. All have provision for locking. 1-1/2 20 10 10.4 5.2 2.6 2.1
NEMA 4. Water Tight & Dust Tight – Indoor & Outdoor 2 24 12 13.6 6.8 3.4 2.7
Protect contents against splashing, seeping, falling, or hose- 3 34 17 — 9.6 4.8 3.9
directed water and severe external condensation. Commonly used 5 56 28 — 15.2 7.6 6.1
in food-processing plants where equipment hosedown is required. 7-1/2 80 40 — 22 11 9
NEMA 6. Submersible, Watertight, Dust Tight and Sleet (Ice)- 10 100 50 — 28 14 11
Resistant–Indoor & Outdoor 15 — — — 42 21 17
Capable of being submerged up to 30 minutes in up to 6 feet of 20 — — — 54 27 22
water without harm to the contents. 25 — — — 68 34 27
NEMA 7. Hazardous Locations – Indoor – Air Break 30 — — — 80 40 32
Equipment 40 — — — 104 52 41
Enclosures for use in atmospheres containing explosive gases 50 — — — 130 65 52
and vapors as defined in Class 1, Division I, Groups A, B, C or D 60 — — — 154 77 62
of the National Electrical Code. Enclosure must contain an inter- 75 — — — 192 96 77
nal explosion without causing an external hazard. Construction 100 — — — 248 124 99
details vary with the nature of the explosive gas or vapor.
125 — — — 312 156 125
NEMA 8. Hazardous Locations – Indoor – Oil-Immersed 150 — — — 360 180 144
Equipment 200 — — — 480 240 192
Enclosures for oil-immersed circuit breakers in Class I,
Division I, Group A, B, C or D hazardous atmospheres.
NEMA 9. Hazardous Locations – Indoor – Air-Break
Equipment
Used in Class II, Division I, Group E, F, or G hazardous loca-
tions as defined by the National Electrical Code. Enclosures are
designed to exclude combustible or explosive dusts.
NEMA 10. Mine Atmospheres
For use in mines containing methane or natural gas.
NEMA 11. Corrosion-Resistant and Drip Proof – Indoor
Indoor enclosures that protect contents from dripping, seepage
and external condensation of corrosive liquids, as well as corrosive
fumes.
NEMA 12. Industrial Use – Dust Tight & Drip Tight – Indoor
Protect enclosed equipment from lint, fibers, flyings, dust, dirt
and light splashing, seepage, dripping and external condensation
of noncorrosive liquids.
NEMA 13. Oil Tight & Dust Tight – Indoor
Protect enclosed equipment from lint, dust and seepage, exter-
nal condensation and spraying of water, oil, or coolant. They have
oil-resistant gaskets and must have provision for oiltight conduit
entry.
For more complete details on application and construction specifi-

cations for NEMA Enclosures, refer to NEMA Standards
Publication No. ICS 6.
34
CHAPTER 7 – PROCESS HEATING
HEAT BALANCES–DETERMINIING THE HEAT NEEDS OF
FURNACES AND OVENS
Although rules of thumb are frequently used to size fur- For out-of-the ordinary conditions, or where more accurate
nace and oven burners, they have to be used with care. All results are required, heat balance calculations are preferred. A
rules of thumb are based on certain assumptions about pro- heat balance consists of calculating load heat requirements
duction rates, furnace dimensions, and insulation. If the sys- and adding losses to them to determine the heat input.
tem under consideration differs from these assumed condi- Below is a schematic representation of the heat balance in
tions, using a rule of thumb can result in a significant error. a fuel-fired heat processing device.
Flue Gas Loss
Wall
Loss
Radiation
Loss
Gross
Input
(Purchased
Fuel) Available Net Output
Heat (Heat To Load)
Stored
Heat
Conveyor
Loss
General heat balance in a fuel-fired heat processing device.
The terms used in heat balance calculations, and their def- the inside and outside. At a constant temperature, wall losses
initions, are: will remain constant regardless of production rate.
Gross heat input – the total amount of heat used by the fur- Radiation losses – heat lost from the furnace as radiant ener-
nace. It equals the amount of fuel burned multiplied by its gy escaping through openings in walls, doors, etc.
heating value. Conveyor losses – heat which is stored in conveying devices
Available heat – heat that is available to the furnace and its such as furnace cars and conveyor belts and which is lost
workload. It equals gross input minus flue gas losses. when the heated conveyor is removed from the furnace.
Flue gas losses – heat contained in flue gases as they are Net output – this is the heat that ultimately reaches the prod-
exhausted from the furnace. uct in the oven or furnace.
Stored heat – heat absorbed by the insulation and structural On page 36 is a simplified worksheet for carrying out a
components of the furnace or oven to raise them to operating heat balance. By following this format, you can determine the
temperature. This stored heat becomes a loss each time the fur- gross heat input required at maximum load and minimum
nace is cooled down, because it has to be replaced on the next load conditions, along with the furnace turndown and theo-
startup. Heat storage can usually be ignored on continuous fur- retical thermal efficiency.
naces, because cooldowns and restarts don't occur often.
Wall losses – heat conducted out through the walls, roof and
floor of the furnace due to the temperature difference between
35
HEAT BALANCE TABLE
Maximum Load Minimum Load
Heat Balance Conditions Conditions
Component (Full Production Rate) (Empty and Idling)
Heat to load __________Btu/hr ____0____Btu/hr
+ Wall losses + __________Btu/hr + _________Btu/hr
+ Radiation losses + __________Btu/hr + _________Btu/hr
+ Conveyor losses + __________Btu/hr + ____0____Btu/hr
= Available heat = __________Btu/hr = _________Btu/hr
required
÷ Available heat, ÷ __________ ÷ _________
expessed as a
decimal
= Gross heat input = __________Btu/hr = _________Btu/hr
Furnace turndown = Gross heat input, maximum load conditions = _________

Gross heat input, minimum load conditions
Theoretical Thermal efficiency, % = Heat to load, maximum load conditions x 100 = _________
Gross heat input, maximum load conditions
Supporting Calculations: Next, consult the available heat charts (page 51) to deter-
Heat to Load mine the percent available heat for the fuel, operating tem-
perature, and fuel/air ratio conditions of this application.
Heat to load = lb per hour x specific heat x temperature rise. Enter this figure as a decimal on both sides above.
Specific heats for many materials are listed on pages 37-39.
Gross Input:
For most common metals and alloys, use the graphs on page 40.
Simply multiply lb/hr production rate by the heat content Gross Input = Available heat (Btu/hr) ÷ Available heat
picked from the graph. (decimal).
Enter the heat to load under Maximum Load Conditions. Figure this for both maximum and minimum load conditions.
Heat to load is usually zero under Minimum Load Conditions Gross input, maximum conditions, is the maximum heating
because no material is being processed through the oven or input required of the combustion system you select.
furnace.
Furnace Turndown:
Wall Losses: Divide maximum load gross input by minimum load gross
Wall loss = Wall Area (inside) x heat loss, Btu/sq ft/hr. input. The result is the furnace or oven turndown. Your
Typical heat loss data are tabulated on page 44 . combustion system must provide at least this much turn-
If the roof and floor of the furnace are insulated with different down or the furnace will overshoot setpoint on idle.
materials than the walls, calculate their losses separately. Theoretical Thermal Efficiency:
Add all the losses together and enter them in both the
% Efficiency = Heat to load, maximum load conditions x 100
Maximum Load and Minimum Load columns above. Gross heat input, maximum load conditions
Caution: If the furnace is to be idled at a temperature lower This is the maximum theoretical efficiency of the furnace,
than its normal operating temperature, wall losses will be cor- assuming it operates at 100% of rating with no production inter-
respondingly lower. Calculate them on the basis of the actual ruptions and with a properly adjusted combustion system.
idling temperature.
Heat Storage
Radiation Losses: Heat Storage was left out of this analysis. Althought it is a
Radiation Losses = Opening Area x Black Body Radiation factor in furnace efficiency, burner systems are rarely sized
Rate x Shape Factor. See page 49 for radiation rates. Assume on the heat storage needs of the furnace.
a Shape Factor of 1. On continuous furnaces where cold startups occur infre-
Conveyor Losses: quently, heat storage can usually be ignored without any
major effect on efficiency calculations. On batch-type fur-
Treat the conveyor as you would a furnace load. naces that cycle from hot to cold frequently, storage should be
Conveyor Loss = Lb/hr of conveyor heated x specific heat x factored into efficiency calculations.
(Temperature leaving furnace – temperature entering furnace)
Heat Storage = Inside refractory surface area, ft2 x Heat
At minimum load, conveyor losses are usually zero because Storage Capacity, Btu/ft2
no material is being processed through the furnace.
Heat storage capacities for typical types of refractory con-
Available Heat: struction are tabulated on Page 44.
Available heat = Heat to load + wall losses + radiation losses
+ conveyor losses.
Calculate available heat for both maximum and minimum
load conditions.
36
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS
Solid Latent Liquid Latent
Density Specific Melting Heat of Specific Boiling Heat of
Lb/Cu Ft Heat Point, Fusion, Heat, Point, Vaporization,
Material @60°F Btu/Lb-°F °F Btu/Lb Btu/Lb-°F °F Btu/Lb
Acetone – – -138 33.5 0.530 128-134 225.5

Acetic Acid 65.8 0.540 62.6 44 0.462 244.4 152.8
Air .0765 – – – 0.237 -311.0 91.7
Alcohol-Ethyl 49.26 0.232 -173.2 44.8 0.648 172.4 369.0
-Methyl 49.6 – -142.6 29.5 0.601 150.8 480.6
Alumina 243.5 0.197 3722 – – – –
Aluminum 166.7 0.248 1214 169.1 0.252 3272 –
Ammonia 32° 45.6 0.502 -83.0 195 1.099 -37.3 543.2
Andalusite 199.8 0.168 3290 – – – –
Aniline 2.25 0.741 17.6 37.8 0.514 363 198
Antimony 422 0.054 1166 70.0 0.054 2624 –
Asbestos 124-174 0.195 – – – – –
Asphalt-Trinidad 97 0.55 190 – 0.55 – –
-Gilsonite 67.5 0.55 300 – 0.55 – –
Arsenic 357.6 0.082 Sublimes – – – –
Babbit 75 Pb 15 Sb 10 Sn – 0.039 462 26.2 0.038 – –
84 Sn 8 Sb 8 Cu – 0.071 464 34.1 0.063 – –
Bakelite – 0.30 – – – – –
Beef Tallow 57-61 0.50 80-100 – – – –
Beeswax 60 0.82 144 76.2 – – –
Benzene-Benzol 55 0.299 41.8 55.6 0.423 176.3 169.4
Beryllium 113.8 0.50 2345 621.9 0.425 5036 –
Bismuth 615 0.033 518 18.5 0.035 2606 –
Borax 105.5 0.238 1366 – – – –
Brass 67 Cu 33 Zn 528 0.105 1688 71.0 0.123 – –
85 Cu 15 Zn – 0.104 1877 84.4 0.116 – –
90 Cu 10 Zn – 0.104 1952 86.6 0.115 – –
Brick-Fireclay 137-150 0.240 – – – – –
-Red 118 0.230 – – – – –
-Silica 144-162 0.260 – – – – –
Bronze 90 Cu 10 Al – 0.126 1922 98.6 0.125 – –
90 Cu 10 Sn – 0.107 1850 84.2 0.106 – –
80 Cu 10 Zn 10 Sn 534 0.095 1832 79.9 0.109 – –
Cadmium 540 0.038 610 19.5 0.074 1412 409
Calcium 96.6 0.170 1564 – – 2709 –
Calcium Carbonate 175 0.210 Dec. 1517 – – – –
Calcium Chloride 157 0.16 1422 97.7 – >2912 –
Camphor 62.4 0.440 353 19.4 0.61 408 –
Carbon, Amorphous 129 0.241 6300 – – 8721 –
Carbon, Disulfide 79.2 – -166 – 0.24 115 150.8
Carbon, Graphite 138.3 0.184 6300 – – 8721 –
Castor Oil 59.6 – – – – – –
Celotex – 0.40 – – – – –
Celluloid – 0.36 – – – – –
Cellulose 95 0.320 – – – – –
Cement – 0.20 – – – – –
Charcoal 18-38 0.165 – – – – –
Chlorine 0.190 0.19 -151 41.3 – -30.3 121
Chloroform 95.5 – -85 – 0.149 142.1 105.3
Chromite 281 0.22 3956 – – – –
Chromium 437 0.12 2822 57.1 – 4500 –
Clay, Dry 112-162 0.224 3160 – – – –
Coal (Anthracite) – 0.31 – – – – –
Coal (Bituminous) – 0.30 – – – – –
Coal Tar 76.7 0.413 196 – – 325 –
Coal Tar Oil – – – – 0.34 390-910 136
Cobalt 555 0.145 2723 – – 5252 –
Coke – 0.2-0.38 – – – – –
Concrete – 0.27 – – – – –
Copper 558 0.104 1982 90.8 0.111 4703 –
Cork – 0.48 – – – – –
Corundum 250 0.304 3722 – – 6332 –
Cotton – 0.32 – – – – –
Cottonseed Oil 58 – 32 – 0.474 – –
Cream – – – – 0.78 – –
Cuprice Oxide 374-406 0.227 1944 – – – –
T = Transformation Point Subl. = Sublimes Dec = Decomposes
37
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS (Cont’d)
Cyanite 225 0.227 3290 – – – –

Diasporite 215 0.260 3722 – – – –
Die Cast Metal: – – – – – – –
87.3 Zn 8.1 Sn 4.1 Cu 0.5Al – 0.103 780 48.3 0.138 – –
90 Sn 4.5 Cu 5.5 Sb – 0.070 450 30.3 0.062 – –
80 Pb 10 Sn 10 Sb – 0.038 600 17.4 0.037 – –
92 Al 8 Cu – 0.236 1150 163.1 0.241 – –
Diphenyl 103 0.385 159 47 0.481 492 136.5
Dolomite 181 0.222 – – – – –
Dowtherm 58.8 0.53 180 – – 500 123
Earth – 0.44 – – – – –
Ebonite – 0.35 – – – – –
Ether 45.9 – -180.4 – 0.529 94.3 159.1
Fats – 0.46 – – – – –
Fosterite 200 0.22 3470 – – – –
Fuel Oil – – – – 0.45 – –
Gasoline 42 – – – 0.514 176 128-146
German Silver – 0.109 1850 86.2 0.123 – –
Glass, Crown – 0.16 – – – – –
Glass, Flint – 0.13 – – – – –
Glass, Pyrex – 0.20 – – – – –
Glass, Window (Soda Lime)160 0.19 2192 – – – –
Glass Wool 1.5 0.16 – – – – –
Glycerine 78.7 0.047 68 85.5 0.576 554 –
Gold 1205 0.032 1945 28.5 0.034 5371 29
Granite – – – – – – –
Graphite 0.30-0.38 – Subl. 6606 – – – –
Gypsum 145 0.259 2480 – – – –
Hydrochloric Acid 75 – -12 – – – –
Hydrogen .0053 – -434 27 – -423 194
Hydrogen Sulfide – – -117 – – -79 –
Iron 491 0.1162 2795 117 – 5430 –
Iron, Gray Cast 443 0.119 2330 41.7 – – –
Iron, White Cast 480 0.119 2000 59.5 – – –
Kerosene – – – – 0.470 – 108
Lead 711 0.032 621 9.9 0.032 3171 –
Lead Oxide 575-593 0.049 1749 – – – –
Leather – 0.36 – – – – –
Lucite – 0.35 – – – – –
Light Oil – – – – 0.5 600 145-150
Linseed Oil 58 – -5 – 0.441 – –
Lipowitz Metal – 0.041 140 17.2 0.041 – –
Magnesite 187 0.200 Dec. 662 – – – –
Magnesium 108.6 0.272 1204 83.7 0.266 – –
Magnesium Oxide 223 0.23-0.30 5072 – – – –
Manganese 500 0.171 2246 65.9 0.192 – –
– – T = 1958 T = 43.5 – – –
Marble – 0.21 – – – – –
Mercury 885 0.033 -38 5.1 0.033 675 117
Mica – 0.21 – – – – –
Milk 63.4 – – – 0.847 – –
Molasses 87.4 – – – 0.60 – –
Molybdenum 636 0.065 4748 – – 8672 –
Monel 550 0.129 2415 117.4 0.139 – –
Mallite 188.8 – 3290 – 0.175 – –
Naptha 41.2 – – – 0.493 306 184
Napthalene 71.8 0.325 176 64.1 0.427 424.4 135.7
Neats Foot Oil – – 32 – 0.457 – –
Nickel 556 0.134 2646 131.4 0.124 – –
Nichrome 517 – – – 0.111 – –
Nitric Acid 96.1 – -43.6 – 0.445 186.8 207.2
Nitrogen .0741 – -346 11.1 – -320 85.6
Nylon – 0.55 – – – – _
T = Transformation Point Subl. = Sublimes Dec = Decomposes
38
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS (Cont’d)
Olive Oil 57.4 – 40 – 0.471 572 –

Oxygen .0847 0.336 -361 5.98 0.394 -297 91.6
Paraffin 54-57 0.622 126 63 0.712 750
Petroleum 48-55 – – – 0.511 – –
Phosphorus 114 0.189 111 9.05 – 536 234
Pitch, Coal Tar 62-81 0.45 86-300 – – – –
Plaster of Paris 0.265 1.14 – – – – –
Platinum 1335 0.036 3224 49 0.032 7933 –
Porcelain 150 0.26 – – – – –
Potassium Nitrate 129.2 0.19 646 88 – Dec. 752 –
Quartz 165.5 0.23 – – – – –
Resin-Phenolic 80-100 0.3-0.4 – – – – –
-Copals 68.6 0.39 300-680 – – – –
Rhodium 773 0.058 3571 – – – –
Rockwool 6 0.198 – – – – –
Rose’s Metal – 0.043 230 18.3 0.041 – –
Rosin 68 0.5 170-212 – – – –
Rubber 62-125 0.48 248 – – – –
Salt-Rock 135 0.22 1495 – – 2575 –
Sand 162 0.20 – – – – –
Sandstone – 0.22 – – – –
Sawdust – 0.5 – – – – –
Shellac 75 0.40 170-180 – – – –
Silica 180 – 3182 – 0.1910 4046 –
Silicon 155 0.176 2600 – – 4149
Silicon Carbide 199 0.23 4082 – – Subl. 3032 –
Sillimanite 202 0.175 3290 – – – –
Silk 84 0.33 – – – – –
Silver 656 0.063 1761 46.8 0.070 3634 –
Snow – 0.5 32 – – – –
Sodium Carbonate 151.5 0.306 1566 – – Dec. –
Sodium Nitrate 140.5 0.231 597 116.8 – 1716 –
Sodium Oxide 142 0.231 Subl. 2327 – – – –
Sodium Sulfate 168 0.21 – – – – –
Solder - 50 Pb 50 Sn 580 0.051 450 23 0.046 – –
- 63 Pb 37 Sn – 0.044 468 14.8 0.041
Steel - 0.3% C 491 0.129 (70-1330°)* *Phase change between 1330 & 1500° requires
0.166 (1500-2500°) additional 80 Btu/lb.
Stone 168 0.20 – – – – –
Sugar - Cane 102 0.30 320 _ – – –
Sulfur 119-130 0.19 235 16.9 0.234 840 652
Sulfuric Acid 115.9 0.239 50.0 – 0.370 – –
Talc – 0.21 – – – –
Tar-Coal 71-81 0.35 – – – – –
Tin 460 0.069 450 25.9 0.0545 4118 –
Titanium 281 0.14 3272 – – – –
Toluene 53.7 – – – 0.40 230.5 150.3
Tungsten 1204 0.034 6098 – – 10652 –
Turpentine 53.7 – – – 0.411 318.8 133.3
Type Metal-Linotype – 0.036 486 21.5 0.036 – –
Type Metal-Stereotype 670 0.036 500 26.2 0.036 – –
Uranium 370 0.028 2071 – – – –
Vanadium 372 0.115 3110 – – 5432 –
Varnish – – – – – 600 –
Water 62.37 0.480 32 144 1.00 212 970.4
Wood 19-56 0.33 – – – – –
Wood’s Metal – 0.041 158 17.2 0.042 – –
Wool 81 0.325 – – – –
Xylene 54.3 – -18 – 0.411 288 147
Zinc 443 0.107 786 47.9 0.146 1706 –
Zinc Oxide 341 0.125 >3272 – – – –
Zircon 293 0.132 4622 – – – –
Zirconia 349 0.103 4919 – – – –
Zirconium 399 0.067 3100 – – 9122 –
T = Transformation Point Subl. = Sublimes Dec. = Decomposes
39
THERMAL CAPACITIES OF METALS & ALLOYS
150
Alloy 903 Die Cast Zinc

Heat Content, Btu/lb
100
Babbit
75 Pb/15Sb/10Sn
Pure Zinc
50
Solder
50 Pb/50Sn
Lead
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Temperature, °F
600
Pure Aluminum
500 Aluminum Die Cast Alloy 380.0

Pure Magnesium
Magnesium Casting Alloy AZ91A
400 0.3% Carbon

Steel
Heat Content, Btu/lb
Pure
Copper
Titanium Alloy
Ti-6AI-4V
300
65-35 Yellow Brass
200
85-15 Red Brass
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
Temperature, °F
40
INDUSTRIAL HEATING OPERATIONS–TEMPERATURE & HEAT REQUIREMENTS
Approximate Heat Content of
Material Operation Temperature, °F Material, Btu/lb*
Aluminum Age 190-470 30-100
Anneal 645-775 130-190
Homogenize 850-1150 175-300
Hot Work (Extrude,
Roll, Forge) 500-950 100-240
Melt 1175-1500 370-550
Solution Heat Treat 820-1025 170-280
Stabilize 435-655 80-160
Stress Relieve 650-775 130-190
Asphalt Melt 350-450 160-220
Babbit Melt 600-1000 60-75
Brass Anneal 800-1450 70-150
Hot Work (Extrude,
Roll, Forge) 1150-1650 100-150
Melt 1930-2370 230-290
Recrystallize 550-700 40-70
Stress Relieve 475 30-40
Bread Bake 300-500 –
Bronze Anneal 800-1650 70-170
Hot Work (Extrude,
Roll, Forge) 1200-1750 100-160
Melt 1600-2350 220-320
Brick, common Burn 1900-2000 800-950
fireclay Burn 2100-2200 900-1050
Cake Bake 300-350 –
Candy Cook 225-300 –
Cast Iron (Gray) Anneal 1300-1750 290-420
Austenitize (Harden) 1450-1700 330-410
Melt 2800-2900 720-750
Normalize 1600-1700 380-410
Temper (Draw) 300-1020 35-175
Cast Iron, Ductile Anneal 1300-1650 290-390
(Nodular Iron) Austenitize (Harden) 1550-1700 360-410
Normalize 1600-1725 380-415
Temper (Draw) 800-1300 120-290
Cast Iron (Malleable) Anneal (Malleablize) 1650-1750 290-420
Temper (Draw) 1100-1300 190-290
Cement Calcine 2800-3000 –
China Fire 1900-2650 450-600
Glaze 1500-1900 350-450
Coffee Roast 600-800 –
Cookies Bake 375-450 –
Copper Anneal 500-1200 50-120
Hot Work (Extrude,
Roll, Forge) 1300-1750 130-180
Melt 1970-2100 290-310
Enamel
(Paint) Bake 250-450 –
(Porcelain) Fire 1700-1800 –
*Heat contained in material only. Does not include furnace or oven losses or available
heat correction.
41
INDUSTRIAL HEATING OPERATIONS–TEMPERATURE & HEAT REQUIREMENTS
(Cont’d)
Approximate Heat Content of

Material Operation Temperature, °F Material, Btu/lb*
Frit Smelt 2000-2400 400-550
Glass Melt 2200-2900 400-650
Anneal 1000-1200 –
Gold Melt 2000-2370 125-145
Lacquer Dry 150-200 –
Lead Melt 620-700 18-32
Lime Calcine 2000-2200 –
Magnesium Age 265-625 70-140
Homogenize 200-800 30-190
Hot Work (Extrude,
Roll, Forge) 550-850 110-200
Melt 1150-1550 375-490
Meat Smoke 100-150 –
Pie Bake 500 –
Potato Chips Fry 350-400 –
Sand Dry 350-500 60-90
Sand Cores Bake 400-450 70-80
Silver Melt 1800-1900 155-165
Solder Melt 400-500 40-45
Steel Anneal 1150-1650 150-270
(Carbon & Alloy) Austenitize 1320-1650 180-270
Carbonitride 1300-1650 180-270
Carburize 1600-1800 260-300
Cyanide 1400-1600 210-260
Hot Work (Forge,
Roll) 2200-2400 360-400
Nitride 925-1050 110-140
Normalize 1500-1700 240-280
Steel (Stainless) Anneal 1150-2050 150-340
Hot Work (Forge,
Roll) 1600-2350 260-390
Temper (Draw) 300-1200 25-160
Tin Melt 500-650 70-80
Titanium Age 900-1000 120-140
Anneal 1100-1600 150-250
Hot Work (Roll,
Forge) 1300-1900 180-310
Varnish Cook 500-750 –
Zinc Galvanize 850-900 130-140
Melt 800-900 130-150
Hot Work (Extrusion,
Rolling) 200-575 10-55
*Heat contained in material only. Does not include furnace or oven losses or available
heat correction.
42
CRUCIBLES FOR METAL MELTING – DIMENSIONS & CAPACITIES
Dimensions, inches Approximate Capacity, lb

A, B, C,
Size Top Bilge Bottom D, Red
B Number OD OD OD Height Aluminum Brass Copper Magnesium
20 711⁄16 83⁄8 61⁄8 1015⁄16 20 65 67 13
A 25 83⁄16 87⁄8 61⁄2 1015⁄16 25 81 84 16
30 85⁄8 95⁄16 613⁄16 111⁄2 30 97 100 20
35 9 93⁄4 71⁄8 12 35 113 117 23
40 93⁄8 101⁄8 77⁄16 121⁄2 40 129 134 26
45 97⁄8 1011⁄16 713⁄16 133⁄16 45 146 151 29
50 101⁄4 111⁄8 81⁄8 133⁄4 50 162 167 33
D 60 1013⁄16 1111⁄16 89⁄16 147⁄16 60 194 201 39
70 111⁄4 123⁄16 815⁄16 151⁄16 70 226 234 46
80 1111⁄16 1211⁄16 91⁄4 155⁄8 80 259 268 52
90 121⁄8 131⁄8 99⁄16 163⁄16 90 291 301 59
100 121⁄2 131⁄2 97⁄8 1611⁄16 100 323 335 65
125 13 141⁄16 105⁄16 173⁄8 125 404 418 81
C 150 13 ⁄4
3
14 ⁄8
7
10 ⁄8
7
183⁄8 150 485 502 98
175 143⁄8 159⁄16 113⁄8 191⁄4 175 566 586 114
200 15 161⁄4 117⁄8 20 200 657 669 130
225 151⁄2 1613⁄16 125⁄16 203⁄4 225 728 753 147
250 16 175⁄16 1211⁄16 213⁄8 250 808 837 163
275 167⁄16 1713⁄16 13 22 275 889 921 179
300 167⁄8 181⁄4 133⁄8 221⁄2 300 970 1004 195
400 183⁄16 1911⁄16 147⁄16 245⁄16 400 1293 1339 261
RADIANT TUBES – SIZING & INPUT DATA
TUBE EXTERNAL SURFACE AREA DATA

Straight Tube
Tube Sq. In. 180° Short Radius Elbow 180° Long Radius Elbow
OD, Per Foot Maximum Heat Transfer Rates
Inches of Length C
L to C
L, in. sq. in. CL to C
L, in. sq. in.
For Good Service Life of Alloy Tubes
3 113 6 89 9 133
31⁄4 123 6 96 9 144
70
Rate, Btu/hr per sq. in. of
Maximum Heat Transfer
31⁄2 132 6 104 9 155

External Tube Surface
33⁄4 141 6 111 9 167 Tube free to radiate on 3 sides

4 151 8 158 12 237 60
41⁄4 160 8 168 12 252
41⁄2 170 8 178 12 267
43⁄4 179 8 188 12 281 50
5 188 10 247 15 370
51⁄4 198 10 259 15 389 40
51⁄2 207 10 271 15 407
53⁄4 217 10 284 15 426
Tube enclosed
30 on 3 sides
6 226 12 355 18 533
61⁄4 236 12 370 18 555 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900
61⁄2 245 12 385 18 577
63⁄4 254 12 400 18 600 Furnace Temperature, °F
8 302 16 632 24 947
81⁄4 311 16 651 24 977
81⁄2 320 16 671 24 1007
43
HEAT LOSSES, HEAT STORAGE & COLD FACE
TEMPERATURES – REFRACTORY WALLS
HL Hot Face Temperature, °F
Wall HS
Construction TC 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
HL 550 705 862 1030 1200 1375 1570 1768
9" Hard Firebrick HS 12,500 15,400 18,400 21,500 24,700 27,950 31,200 34,500
TC 282 320 355 387 418 447 477 505
9" Hard Firebrick + HL 130 168 228 251 296 341 390 447
41⁄2" 2300° Insulating F.B. HS 22,380 27,700 33,060 38,450 43,930 49,350 55,800 61,920
TC 147 162 188 195 211 227 242 260
9" Hard Firebrick + HL 111 128 155 185 209 244 282 325
41⁄2" 2000° Insulating F.B. + HS 23,750 29,650 35,640 41,940 48,420 54,890 61,410 68,120
2" Block Insulation TC 138 144 156 169 179 193 205 218
HL 185 237 300 365 440 521 – –
41⁄2" 2000° Insulating F.B. HS 1180 1450 1750 2075 2400 2720 – –
TC 170 190 211 230 253 274 – –
HL 95 124 159 189 225 266 – –
9" 2000° Insulating F.B. HS 2260 2840 3420 4000 4620 5240 – –
TC 132 146 160 172 187 200 – –
HL 142 178 218 264 312 362 416 474
9" 2800° Insulating F.B. HS 3170 3970 4790 5630 6480 7360 8230 9160
TC 151 166 183 200 217 234 250 267
9" 2800° Insulating F.B. + HL 115 140 167 197 232 272 307 347
41⁄2" 2000° Insulating F.B. + HS 14,860 17,340 19,910 22,508 24,908 28,360 31,531 34,664
TC 142 149 161 164 183 202 215 228
9" 2800° Insulating F.B. + HL 71 91 112 134 154 184 204 230
41⁄2" 2000° Insulating F.B. + HS 10,670 14,836 19,220 23,771 27,491 31,654 35,078 38,252
2" Block Insulation TC 119 127 136 147 156 168 177 187
9" 2800° Insulating F.B. + HL 114 142 172 201 232 264 298 333
3" Block Insulation HS 7730 9765 11,760 13,810 15,880 17,973 20,084 22,209
TC 139 150 163 175 188 200 212 224
HL 575 730 897 1075 1300 1525 1775 2030
41⁄2" Dense Castable HS 5270 9520 11,310 13,060 14,820 16,120 18,300 20,030
TC 282 319 356 393 430 467 504 541
HL 315 410 500 627 694 844 947 1134
9" Dense Castable HS 13,120 16,240 19,960 23,673 26,355 29,212 32,019 35,861
TC 218 248 280 305 321 352 377 406
HL 390 490 610 730 860 1000 1155 1332
9" Plastic HS 17,825 21,735 25,640 29,610 33,345 37,125 41,040 44,415
TC 232 261 290 319 348 378 407 436
8" Ceramic Fiber – HL 27 45 64 86 114 146 178 216
Stacked Strips, 8 #/cu ft HS 850 1018 1190 1358 1528 1692 1823 2039
Density TC 95 105 115 126 138 152 165 180
10" Ceramic Fiber – HL 16 35 54 76 94 120 142 172
Density TC 92 101 110 119 129 140 151 163
12" Ceramic Fiber – HL 13 27 43 60 79 98 118 143
Density TC 91 97 104 112 121 130 140 151
9" Hard Firebrick + 3" HL 177 240 309 383 463 642 721 800
Ceramic Fiber Veneer, HS 1920 3680 5430 7178 9219 11,200 12,503 14,891
8 #/cu ft Density TC 170 191 214 235 259 305 320 341
9" 2800° Insulating F.B. + HL 102 125 151 183 227 274 325 408
3" Ceramic Fiber Veneer, HS 1150 2012 2910 3795 4576 5402 6272 7450
8 #/cu ft Density TC 134 143 153 167 183 200 217 242
9" Dense Castable + HL 170 221 273 329 381 487 559 635
3" Ceramic Fiber Veneer, HS 1910 3603 5340 7083 8899 10,576 12,136 14,149
8 #/cu ft Density TC 164 183 202 222 240 270 289 307
HL = Heat Loss, Btu/hr – sq ft HS = Heat Storage, Btu/sq ft TC = Cold Face Temperature, °F
Note:These values are typical for the materials listed and are sufficiently accurate for estimating
purposes. Values for specific brands of refractories may differ.
44
AIR HEATING & FUME INCINERATION
HEAT REQUIREMENTS USING “RAW GAS” BURNERS
2000 These curves show the heat input required per
scfm of process air stream where the burner derives
Btu/Hr Required Per SCFM of Process Stream
T T1 T2 its combustion air from the stream. They can also be

2=
15 used to calculate heat requirements for direct-fired
00
°F fume incinerators, provided:
tre S
1500 am 1. Oxygen content of the fume stream is at least 20%,
14 Ou and
00 tle
13 °F tT 2. Combustible solvents in the fume stream make a
00 em
12 °F pe negligible contribution to the heat input.
00 rat
11 °F ure The curves are calculated from the relationship.
00
1000 10 °F
00 Btu/hr = scfm x 1.1 x (T2-T1)
90 °F available heat, expressed as a decimal
0
80 °F For high stream inlet and outlet temperatures, they
0°
70 F produce more accurate results than the traditional rela-
0
60 °F tionship
0°
500 F Btu/hr = scfm x 1.1 x (T2-T1),
which does not take variations of available heat into
account.
If the application requires a burner with a separate
0 combustion air source, use the curves below.
0 200 400 600 800 1000
T1, Process Stream Inlet Temperature, °F
AIR HEATING & FUME INCINERATION

HEAT REQUIREMENTS USING BURNERS WITH SEPARATE
COMBUSTION AIR SOURCES
3500 These curves show the heat input required per scfm
of process air stream using a burner with a separate
T1 T2 combustion air source. They are calculated from the
relationship:
3000
Btu/hr = scfm x 1.1 x (T2-T1)
Btu/Hr Required Per SCFM of Process Stream
available heat, expressed as a decimal

T See above for heat requirements of systems using a
2 =
15 “raw gas” burner.
2500 00
°F
St
re
a m
Ou
14 tle
2000 00 tT
°F em
13 pe
00 ra
12 °F t ur
e
00
1500 11 °F
00
°F
10
00
°F
90
0°F
1000 80
70 °F
0
0°F
60
0°F
500
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
T1, Process Stream Inlet Temperature, °F
45
FUME INCERATION – SELECTION & SIZING GUIDELINES
I. Process Information Required IV. Sizing Profile Plates
A. Fume stream flow rate, scfm or acfm. (If acfm, If the burner is the type that is placed inside the
specify temperature at which flow is measured.) fume duct, it has to be surrounded with a profile plate.
Maximum and minimum flow rates are required. Fumes are forced to pass through the gap between the
B. Fume stream temperature at inlet to burner at profile plate and burner, ensuring that they mix com-
maximum and minimum flow rates. pletely with the burner flame.
C. Oxygen content of fume stream. To size the profile gap, you need to know:
D. Amount of particulates or other non-volatile 1.Temperature of the fume stream passing over the
matter in fume stream. burner,
E. Incineration temperature required, typically: 2.Fume stream pressure drop required across the pro-
600-900°F for catalytic incinerators file gap (see burner manufacturer’s catalog data).
1200-1500°F for thermal incinerators. Refer to the chart on page 17. Locate the required
F. Residence time required in combustion chamber, pressure drop at the bottom of the chart, then read up
typically, 0.3 to 0.7 seconds. to the appropriate temperature curve and left to the
II. Burner Type Selection stream velocity. Divide this velocity into the fume
Two basic types of burners are used to fire fume incin- stream flow expressed in acfm:
erators: raw gas burners, which obtain their combustion Profile gap, sq ft = Fume stream flow, acfm
air from the incoming fume stream, and fresh air burners, Fume stream velocity, ft/min
which obtain theirs from an external source. For best results, the profile gap must be uniform
Raw gas burners permit higher fuel efficiency, but they width around the perimeter of the burner. Check man-
can’t be used under as wide a variety of operating condi- ufacturer’s literature for specific recommendations on
tions. The table below provides some general guidelines design and location of profile plates.
for burner selection. NOTE: The air diffuser openings in some types of
Fresh Air burners are considered part of the profile area. If so,
Selection Factor Raw Gas Burner Burner
{
deduct the area of these openings from the total pro-
Oxygen content of 18-21% ok ok file area. The result will be the area of the gap around
fume stream 13-18% maybe–check mfr. ok
the burner.
{
below 13% no ok
Fume stream Up to 1100°F Depends on burner– ok V. Sizing Downstream Combustion Chamber
temperature check mfr. A. Chamber Cross-sectional area (A), Good practice
entering burner Over 1100°F no ok requires no great than 30 ft/sec velocity in the com-
{
Particulates or None ok ok bustion chamber, so
other non-vola- Low probably ok ok A, sq ft = acfm of heated fume stream
tiles in stream Heavy Depends on burner– ok 1800
check mfr. B. Combustion chamber length (L) is dictated by
III. Calculating Burner Input the required residence time.
A. For raw gas burners, use the chart on the top of page L, feet = Stream velocity x residence time.
45. If, for example, velocity is 30 ft/sec, and residence
B. For fresh air burners use the chart on the bottom of time is 0.5 seconds, L is 15 feet.
page 45. WARNING! Incineration of fume streams containing
These charts give Btu/hr required per scfm of compounds of chlorine, fluorine, or sulfur will produce
fume stream. Multiply this figure by the fume combustion products which may be toxic or corrosive, or
stream flow rate, in scfm, to determine total burn- both. Consult with environmental authorities before con-
er heat input. sidering fume incineration.
C. If the burner will take part of its combustion air
from the fume stream and the rest from an outside
source, heat input can be closely estimated with
this method:
From page 45, deteremine Btu/hr required with
a raw gas burner. Call this Br.
From page 45, deteremine Btu/hr required with
a 100% fresh air burner. Call this Bf.
Btu/hr (partial fresh air) =
Br + % fresh combustion air (Bf–Br)
100
46
LIQUID HEATING – BURNER SIZING GUIDELINES
I. Tank Heating B. Heat Balance – Steady State Heat Requirements
To determine the immersion burner size for heating a 1.Heat to workload
liquid tank, conduct two heat balances–one for heat-
up requirements, the other for steady-state operating Btu/hr =
Lb of work processed x
requirements. Use the larger of the two Btu inputs
hr
obtained from these calculations.
A. Heat Balance – Heatup Requirements specific heat x temperature rise, °F
1.Heat to water (Work weight must include all baskets & fixtures)
Btu/hr = Lb water x temperature rise, °F Specific heat of steel is 0.14 Btu/lb - °F.
heatup time required, hr See pages 37 to 39 for other materials.
or 2.Surface losses – evaporation & radiation
Same as Step A.2.
Btu/hr = 8.3 x gallons water x temperature rise, °F 3.Tank wall losses
heatup time required, hr
Same as Step A.3.
or 4.Heat to makeup water
Btu/hr = 62.4 x cu ft water x temperature rise, °F Btu/hr =
heatup time required, hr makeup rate, gal/hr x 8.3 x temperature rise, °F
Common practice allows the following heatup 5.Total steady state heat requirement
times for various size tanks: Heat to workload
Tank Capacity Heatup + Surface losses
Gallons Cu Ft Time, hr + Tank wall losses
0-375 0-50 2 + Heat to makeup water
375-750 50-100 4 = Total steady state requirement
750-1500 100-200 6 C. Compare the heat requirements calculated in
Over 1500 Over 200 8 Steps A.5 and B.5. Select the larger of the two .
2.Surface losses – evaporation & radiation (This is the net hourly input to the tank.)
Btu/hr = Exposed bath surface x heat loss D. Gross Heat Input (Burner Firing Rate)
from Table 1. Gross Input, Btu/hr = Net Input from A.5 or B.5 x 100
3.Tank wall losses % Efficiency required
Efficiency is a function of immersion tube
Btu/hr = Total sq ft of tank walls & bottom x wall
length and burner firing rate. 70% is a commonly
loss from Table 1.
used efficiency rating.
4.Tank heat storage E. Immersion Tube Sizing
Btu/hr = See burner manufacturer’s product literature
Total sq ft, tank walls & bottom x storage, Table 1. for tube sizing recommendations.
heatup time required, hr
5.Total heatup requirements Table 1. Tank losses & storage
Heat to water Surface Losses, Wall Losses, Btu/sq ft-hr Heat Storage,
Liquid Btu/sq ft-hr Btu/sq ft
+ Surface losses Temperature, Evapor- Radia- Insulation Thickness Steel Thickness
+ Tank wall losses °F ation* tion Total* None 1" 2" 3" 1/8" 1/4"
+ Tank heat storage 90 80 50 130 50 12 6 4 21 42
100 160 70 230 70 15 8 6 28 56
= Total heatup requirement 110 240 90 330 90 19 10 7 35 70
120 360 110 470 110 23 12 9 42 84
130 480 135 615 135 27 14 10 49 98

140 660 160 820 160 31 16 12 56 112
150 860 180 1040 180 34 18 13 63 126
160 1100 210 1310 210 38 21 15 70 140
170 1380 235 1615 235 42 23 16 77 154

180 1740 260 2000 260 46 25 17 84 168
190 2160 290 2450 290 50 27 19 91 182
200 2680 320 3000 320 53 29 20 98 196
210 3240 360 3590 360 57 31 22 105 210

220 4000 420 4420 380 62 33 23 112 224
250 — 510 — 510 70 40 25 133 266
275 — 600 — 600 81 45 29 151 301
300 — 705 — 705 92 51 33 168 336

325 — 850 — 850 103 57 36 186 371
350 — 990 — 990 114 63 40 203 406
400 — 1335 — 1335 138 75 49 238 476
*Water or water-based solutions only.
47
II. Spray Washers B. Temperature Drop Rule of Thumb
Three methods are presented for calculating spray 1.Data required:
washer heat requirements. The first is the most accu- Gpm capacity of spray nozzles
rate, making use of detailed heat loss factors. The Temperature of liquid
other two are rule-of-thumb methods. While not as Tube efficiency (usually 70%)
accurate as method A, they are useful for quickly
2.Approximate temperature drop of water. Table
estimating burner inputs.
3 lists the approximate loss in water tempera-
A. Heat Loss Method
ture as it is sprayed onto the workload.
1.Data required:
Gpm capacity of spray nozzles Table 3. Water Temperature Drop
Height & width of washer housing (hood) Water Temperature
Height & width of opening through which Temperature, °F Drop, °F
work passes 150 5
Liquid pressure head 160 6
Liquid temperature 170 7
Location of stage in washer 180 8
2.Heat Loss factors 190 9
From Table 2, find the heat loss factors for 200 10
housing height opening width 3.Calculation of gross burner input.
housing width liquid pressure Gpm x 500 x Temp Drop
opening height liquid temperature Btu/hr = x 100
% Efficiency
Add all these factors together to get the com-
4.Tank sizing
bined factor, f.
3.Stage location multiplier, M Tank capacity = 3 x Gpm spray capacity
Location Multiplier C. Quick Method Rule of Thumb
Entrance Stage 1.75 Btu/hr gross burner input =
Intermediate Stage 1.00 4000 x Gpm sprayed @ 30 psi x 100
After a Cold Rinse 1.25 % Efficiency
Exist Stage 1.50
Capacities of spray nozzles are listed in Table 4.
4.Calculation of Gross Burner Input
Btu/hr = Gpm x 500 x f x M Table 4. Capacities of Spray Nozzles
This method yields gross burner input because Gallons per minute of water through
PSI Ft. Hd. a nozzle diameter of:
an immersion tube efficiency of 70% has Press (Approx.) 1/4" 5/16" 3/8" 7/16" 1/2" 5/8" 3/4"
already been assumed in the heat loss factors.
5 11.5 3.3 5.2 7.4 10.2 13.3 20.8 30.0
10 23.0 4.7 7.3 10.4 14.3 18.7 29.3 42.3
15 35.0 5.8 9.1 12.9 17.7 23.2 36.2 52.3
20 46.5 6.7 10.5 14.8 20.7 26.7 41.8 60.5

25 57.5 7.4 11.7 16.6 22.7 29.7 46.8 67.0
30 68.5 8.1 12.9 18.2 24.8 32.4 50.7 73.0
Table 2. Spray Washer Heat Loss Factors
35 81.0 8.8 13.8 19.7 27.0 35.2 55.1 79.5
Housing Opening Liquid
40 92.5 9.4 14.8 21.3 28.8 37.7 58.9 85.0
Wide High Wide High Press. Temp. 45 104.0 10.0 15.7 22.4 30.6 39.9 65.1 90.0
Ft. f Ft. f Ft. f Ft. f PSIG f °F f
2 .7 1 .8 140 .4 50 115.0 10.5 16.5 23.5 32.1 42.0 65.7 94.6
3 .8 1 .3 2 .9 1 .5 5 .4 145 .5 55 126.5 11.0 17.3 24.7 33.7 44.1 68.9 99.5
4 .9 2 .4 3 1.0 2 .6 7.5 .5 150 .6 60 138.0 11.0 18.1 25.8 35.2 46.1 72.1 104.0
5 1.0 3 .5 4 1.1 3 .7 10 .6 155 .7
6 1.1 4 .6 5 1.2 4 .8 12.5 .7 160 .8 65 150.0 12.0 18.8 26.9 36.7 48.0 75.0 108.2
7 1.2 5 .7 6 1.3 5 .9 15 .8 165 .9 70 162.0 12.4 19.6 27.9 38.1 49.7 77.9 112.0
8 1.3 6 .8 7 1.4 6 1.0 17.5 .9 170 1.0 75 172.0 12.9 20.2 28.9 39.4 51.5 80.6 116.0
9 1.4 7 .9 8 1.5 7 1.1 20 1.0 175 1.3 80 184.5 13.3 20.9 29.9 40.7 53.3 83.1 119.9
10 1.5 8 1.0 9 1.6 8 1.3 22.5 1.2 180 1.6 85 195.0 13.7 21.5 30.7 41.8 54.7 85.5 123.5
11 1.6 9 1.1 10 1.7 9 1.5 30 1.4 185 1.9 90 205.0 14.0 22.0 31.4 42.9 56.2 87.7 126.7
12 1.7 10 1.2 11 1.8 10 1.7 32.5 1.6 190 2.2
13 1.8 11 1.3 12 1.9 11 1.9 35 1.8 95 214.5 14.4 22.6 32.1 43.9 57.5 89.8 129.5
14 1.9 12 1.4 13 2.0 12 2.1 37.5 2.0 100 224.0 14.6 23.1 32.8 44.8 58.7 91.7 132.0
15 2.0 13 1.5 14 2.1 13 2.3 40 2.2
16 2.1 14 1.6 15 2.2 14 2.5 50 2.6 Above values are based on an orifice discharge coefficient of .80
17 2.2 100 3.5
ORIFICE FLOW EQUATION:
Q = 19.65 C D2 H
WHERE:
Q = Gallons per minute
D = Diameter of orifice in inches
H = Pressure drop across orifice in feet head
C = Orifice discharge coefficient
48
BLACK BODY RADIATION
350
300
Heat Transfer Rate, Btu/Sq Ft x 1000

250
200
t ure
ra
150
pe
em
r) T
e
old
(C
100
er
eiv
c
Re
50
°F
60
0°F
0°F
0°F
0°F
°F
°F
°F °F
20 0°F
°F
00
00
000 00
280
320
300
260
00
1
0
15
24
22
18
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Source (Hotter) Temperature, °F
These curves are plotted from the relationship
AK (T14-T24) (page 8.2)
Q=
1 + 1 -1
P1 P2
where P1 & P2 equal 1, that is, the heat source and receiver both
have emissivities of 1.0, and they are arranged so there is no bar-
rier to heat transfer between them.
THERMOCOUPLE DATA
ANSI Calibration Code B E J K R S T
Useful Temp. Range, °F 1600-3100 32-1600 400-1400 700-2300 1800-2700 1800-2700 -300 + 700
Positive Element Pt-30%Rh* Chromel** Iron Chromel** Pt-13%Rh* Pt-10%Rh* Copper
Negative Element Pt-6%Rh* Constantan Constantan Alumel** Pt* Pt* Constantan
Color Coding
Positive Element Gray Purple White Yellow Black Black Blue
Negative Element Red Red Red Red Red Red Red
Outer Insulation on Purple or Black or Yellow or Blue or
Duplex Wire Gray Brown/Purple Brown/Black Brown/Yellow Green Green Brown/Blue
Plugs & Jacks Gray Purple Black Yellow Green Green Blue
*Pt = Platinum, Rh = Rhodium
**Trademarks - Hoskins Mfg. Co.
How to Deteremine Thermocouple Polarity if Wire Identification is Missing:
Types B, R, and S: Gently flex the ends of both wires. The stiffer wire is the positive element.
Type K: Negative element is slightly magnetic.
Type J: Positive element is magnetic.
Type T: Positive element has characteristic pinkish-orange color of copper.
49
ORTON STANDARD PYROMETRIC CONES
TEMPERATURE EQUIVALENTS
Cone Type Self- Self- Cone Type
Heating Rate Large Regular Large Iron Free Supporting Regular Supporting Iron Free Small Regular Small PCE Heating Rate
Cone number 108°F/hr 270°F/hr 108°F/hr 270°F/hr 108°F/hr 270°F/hr 108°F/hr 270°F/hr 540°F/hr 270°F/hr Cone number
022 1074 1092 1087 1094 1157 022

021 1105 1132 1112 1143 1195 021
020 1148 1173 1159 1180 1227 020
019 1240 1265 1243 1267 1314 019
018 1306 1337 1314 1341 1391 018
017 1348 1386 1353 1391 1445 017
016 1407 1443 1411 1445 1517* 016
015 1449 1485 1452 1488 1549* 015
014 1485 1528 1488 1531 1616 014
013 1539 1578 1542 1582 1638 013
012 1571 1587 1575 1591 1652 012
011 1603 1623 1607 1627 1684 011
010 1629* 1641* 1623 1656 1632 1645 1627 1659 1686* 010
09 1679* 1693* 1683 1720 1683 1697 1686 1724 1751* 09
08 1733* 1751* 1733 1773 1737 1755 1735 1774 1801* 08
07 1783* 1803* 1778 1816 1787 1807 1780 1818 1846* 07
06 1816* 1830* 1816 1843 1819 1834 1816 1845 1873* 06
05 1/2 1852 1873 1852 1886 1855 1877 1854 1888 1908 05 1/2
05 1888* 1915* 1890 1929 1891 1918 1899 1931 1944* 05
04 1922* 1940* 1940 1967 1926 1944 1942 1969 2008* 04
03 1987* 2014* 1989 2007 1990 2017 1990 2010 2068* 03
02 2014* 2048* 2016 2050 2017 2052 2021 2052 2098* 02
01 2043* 2079* 2052 2088 2046 2082 2053 2089 2152* 01
1 2077* 2109* 2079 2111 2080 2113 2082 2115 2154* 1
2 2088* 2124* Not Manufactured 2091 2127 Not Manufactured 2154* 2
3 2106* 2134* 2104 2136 2109 2138 2109 2140 2185* 3
4 2134* 2167* 2142 2169 2208* 4
5 2151* 2185* 2165 2199 2230* 5
6 2194* 2232* 2199 2232 2291* 6
7 2219* 2264* 2228 2273 2307* 7
8 2257* 2305* 2273 2314 2372* 8
9 2300* 2336* 2300 2336 2403* 9
10 2345* 2381* 2345 2381 2426* 10
11 2361* 2399* 2361 2399 2437* 11
12 2383* 2419* 2383 2419 2471* 2439* 12
13 2410* 2455* 2428 2458 2460 2460* 13
13 1/2 Not Manufactured 2466 2493 Not Manufactured 13 1/2
14 2530* 2491* 2489 2523 2548 2548* 14
15 2595* 2608* 2583 2602 2606 2606* 15
16 2651* 2683* 2655 2687 2716 2716* 16
17 2691* 2705* 2694 2709 2754 2754* 17
18 2732* 2743* 2736 2746 2772 2772* 18
19 2768* 2782* 2772 2786 2806 2806* 19
20 2808* 2820* 2811 2824 2847 2847* 20
21 2847* 2856* 2851 2860 2883* 21
23 2887* 2894* 2890 2898 2921* 23
26 2892* 2921* 2950* 26
27 2937* 2961* 2984* 27
28 2937* 2971* 2995* 28
29 2955* 2993* 3018* 29
30 2977* 3009* 3029* 30
31 3022* 3054* 3061* 31
31 1/2 ND ND 3090* 31 1/2
32 3103* 3123* 3123* 32
32 1/2 3124* 3146* 3135* 32 1/2
33 3150* 3166* 3169* 33
34 3195* 3198* 3205* 34
35 3243* 3243* 3245* 35
36 3268* 3265* 3279* 36
37 ND ND 3308 37
38 ND ND 3362 38
39 ND ND 3389 39
40 ND ND 3425 40
41 ND ND 3578 41
42 ND ND 3659 42
The temperature equivalent tables are designed to be a guide for the selection of cones to use during firing. The temperature listed may only have a relative value to
the user. However, the values do provide a good starting point and once the proper cones are determined for a particular firing condition, excellent firing control can
be maintained. NOTES: ND = Not determined *Temperature equivalents as determined by the National Bureau of Standards by H.P. Beerman (See Journal of the
American Ceramic Society Volume 39, 1956) Large cones at 2 inch mounting height, Small & PCE cones at 15/16 inch.
1. The temperature equivalents in this table apply only to Orton Standard Pyrometric Cones, heated at the rate indicated in air atmosphere.
2. The rates of heating shown at the head of each column of temperature equivalents were maintained during the last several hundred degrees of temperature rise.
3. The temperature equivalents are not necessarily those at which cones will deform under firing conditions different from those under which the calibration determi-
nation were made.
4. For reproducible results, care should be taken to insure that the cones are set in a plaque with the bending face at the correct angle of 8° from the vertical with the
cone tips at a uniform height above the plaque.
©1986 The Edward Orton Jr. Ceramic Foundation. Reprinted with permission.
50
CHAPTER 8 – COMBUSTION DATA
AVAILABLE HEAT CHARTS

Available heat for Birmingham Natural Gas (1002 Btu/cu ft, 0.60 sp gr) vs. % Excess Air and Combustion Air Temperature
(at 10% excess air).
60°F Copyright 1983, GTE Products Corp., Towanda, PA 18848 USA

10% Excess Air (preheated) Used by Permission
90
% Available Heat (Higher Heating Value)
80
70 1400
1200 °F
1000 °F
60 °
800° F
F
400°
50 F
0% X
S AIR
40
25% 10%
50% XS A XS A
100 XS IR IR
30 15 %X AIR
0% SA
20 XS IR
25 0% AIR
20 0% XS
30 XS AIR
0% AI
35 XS R
10 0%
XS AI
R
AI
R
0
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Flue Gas Exit Temperature °F
AVAILABLE HEAT FOR VARIOUS FUEL GASES

These curves assume 0% excess air. The excess air curves above for Birmingham Natural Gas can be used for butane,
propane, natural, mixed, coke oven, & carbureted water gas without more than 5% error in the available heat.
BUTANE 3200 BTU

2400
PROPANE 2500 BTU 2200
2000
1800
Available Heat Btu/Cu. Ft.
1600
1400
1200
NATURAL GAS 1232 BTU
1000
NATURAL GAS 1050 BTU
NATURAL GAS 967 BTU 800
MIXED GAS 800 BTU
600
COKE OVEN GAS 600 BTU
CARBURETED WATER GAS 534 BTU
COKE OVEN GAS 490 BTU 400
BLUE WATER GAS 310 BTU
PRODUCER GAS 157 BTU 200
PRODUCER GAS 116 BTU
0
200 600 1000 1400 1800 2200 2600 3000 3400 3800
Flue Gas Temperature °F
51
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS CHART
16
% CO2 - #6 OIL
% O2 - DRY SAMPLE
14
% CO2 - #2 OIL
12
% Flue Gas Constituent
% O2 - SATURATED SAMPLE
10
% CO2 - PROPANE
% CO2 - NATURAL GAS

2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
% Excess Air
Oxygen curves are plotted for 1002 Btu/cu ft Birmingham gas sample. For analyzers which add water to produce a satu-
natural gas. These curves can be used for all common fuel rated sample, use the “O2 – saturated sample” curve.
gases and fuel oils with no more than 0.2% error in oxygen % CO2 curves are based on typical propane and fuel oil
content. anlyses. If the fuel composition differs, actual CO2 curves
Use the “O2 – dry sample” curve with flue gas analyzers may vary slightly from those shown.
that use dryers or condensers to remove water from the flue
THEORETICAL FLAME TIP HEAT TRANSFER RELATIONSHIPS

TEMPERATURE VS. EXCESS AIR Q =heat transferred, Btu/hr
Conduction
The maximum theoretical temperature of combustion gases Q = kA (t1-t2) A =surface area across which heat is
at the tip of a flame decreases with increasing amounts of L being transferred, sq. ft.
excess air. The curve bleow shows this relationship for natur- Convection t1 =temperature of heat source, °F
al gas completely burned in 60°F combustion air, but is reaon- Q = fA (t1-t2) t2 =temperature of heat receiver, °F
sably accurate for most other common hydrocarbon fuels. Radiation L =thickness of object through which heat
is conducted
Q = AK (T1 2
4-T 4)
1 + 1-1 k =conductivity of material, Btu-ft
3200 P1 P2 hr-sq ft-°F
3000 f =convection film coefficient, Btu-ft
Maximum Theoretical Temperature
hr-sq ft-°F
of Products of Combustion (°F)
2500 K =Stefan-Boltzmann constant,

=.1724 x 10-8 Btu/sq ft-hr-(°R)4
2000 P1 =emissivity of heat source
P2 =emissivity of heat receiver
1500 T1 =temperature of heat source, °R
T2 =temperature of heat receiver, °R
1000 (°R = °F + 460)
500
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
% Excess Air in Flue Gas
52
THERMAL HEAD & COLD AIR INFILTRATION INTO FURNACES
.20 The natural buoyancy of heated gases causes them to rise
and collect under the roof of a furnace or oven. This creates
Furnace a natural pressure differential, called thermal head or draft,
Height Above which tends to pull cold air in through furnace leaks on top-
Hearth
Furnacr Thermal Head or Draft, "wc
flued furnaces. These leaks are most pronounced at low fire,

.15 when burner combustion gas flow is insufficient to replace
16' furnace gases drawn out by thermal head.
Due to Gas Buoyancy
14' This graph can be used to predict thermal head and cold
air infiltration.
12' Example: Determine thermal head and cold air infiltration
.10
10'
in a 10' tall furnace operating at 1600°F.
Solution: Read up from 1600°F furnace temperature to the
8' intersection of the 10' curve. Read to the left to find thermal
head, 0.08" w.c. To determine air infiltration, read right to
6'
.05 the infiltration curve and then down to the infiltration rate,
4'
280 scfh per square inch.
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 100 200 300 400 500
Furnace Air Infiltration
Temperature °F SCFH/ Sq. In.
FURNACE FLUE SIZING

30
20
Flue Cross-Sectional Area, Sq. In.
Per 1000 SCFH of Flue Gases
10
6
5
3 2500°F
1500°F
500°F
2 Average
Flue Gas
Temp.
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 30 40 50
Stack Height, Ft, Above Furnace Hearth
These curves predict the flue area required per 1000 scfh of Refer to Page 23 for volumes of combustion products for
flue gases, based on the average temperature of those gases various fuels. Remember that if the combustion system is to
and the height of the furnace stack. Flue openings are assumed be operated with excess air, the volume of combustion prod-
to be simple orifices with a discharge coefficient of 0.6, and ucts has to be adjusted accordingly.
all pressure drop across those orifices is provided by the ther- Average flue gas temperature will have to be estimated,
mal head of the flue gases. taking into account the effect of stack heat losses and dilution
This method is conservative – it will produce generously air.
sized flues.
53
CHAPTER 9 – MECHANICAL DATA
DIMENSIONAL AND CAPACITY DATA – SCHEDULE 40 PIPE
Diameter, Inches Cross-Sectional Area Weight Per Foot, lb.

Wall Sq. in. of of of
Actual Actual Thickness, Pipe Water Pipe and
Nominal Inside Outside Inches Outside Inside Metal Alone In Pipe Water
1/8 0.269 0.405 0.068 0.129 0.057 0.072 0.25 0.028 0.278
1/4 0.364 0.540 0.088 0.229 0.104 0.125 0.43 0.045 0.475
3/8 0.493 0.675 0.091 0.358 0.191 0.167 0.57 0.083 0.653
1/2 0.622 0.840 0.109 0.554 0.304 0.250 0.86 0.132 0.992
3/4 0.824 1.050 0.113 0.866 0.533 0.333 1.14 0.232 1.372
1 1.049 1.315 0.133 1.358 0.864 0.494 1.68 0.375 2.055
1-1/4 1.380 1.660 0.140 2.164 1.495 0.669 2.28 0.649 2.929
1-1/2 1.610 1.900 0.145 2.835 2.036 0.799 2.72 0.882 3.602
2 2.067 2.375 0.154 4.431 3.356 1.075 3.66 1.454 5.114
2-1/2 2.469 2.875 0.203 6.492 4.788 1.704 5.80 2.073 7.873
3 3.068 3.500 0.216 9.621 7.393 2.228 7.58 3.201 10.781
3-1/2 3.548 4.000 0.226 12.568 9.888 2.680 9.11 4.287 13.397
4 4.026 4.500 0.237 15.903 12.730 3.173 10.80 5.516 16.316
5 5.047 5.563 0.258 24.308 20.004 4.304 14.70 8.674 23.374
6 6.065 6.625 0.280 34.474 28.890 5.584 19.00 12.52 31.52
8 7.981 8.625 0.322 58.426 50.030 8.396 28.60 21.68 50.28
10 10.020 10.750 0.365 90.79 78.85 11.90 40.50 34.16 74.66
12 11.938 12.750 0.406 127.67 113.09 15.77 53.60 48.50 102.10
14 13.126 14.000 0.437 153.94 135.33 18.61 63.30 58.64 121.94
16 15.000 16.000 0.500 201.06 176.71 24.35 82.80 76.58 159.38
18 16.876 18.000 0.562 254.47 223.68 30.79 105.00 96.93 201.93
20 18.814 20.000 0.593 314.16 278.01 36.15 123.00 120.46 243.46
Circumference, Sq. Ft. of Surface Contents of Pipe Lineal Feet To Contain

Inches Per Lineal Foot Per Lineal Foot
Nominal 1 LB.
Dia. In. Outside Inside Outside Inside Cu. Ft. Gal. 1 Cu. Ft. 1 Gal. of Water
1/8 1.27 0.84 0.106 0.070 0.0004 0.003 2533.775 338.74 35.714
1/4 1.69 1.14 0.141 0.095 0.0007 0.005 1383.789 185.00 22.222
3/8 2.12 1.55 0.177 0.129 0.0013 0.010 754.360 100.85 12.048
1/2 2.65 1.95 0.221 0.167 0.0021 0.016 473.906 63.36 7.576
3/4 3.29 2.58 0.275 0.215 0.0037 0.028 270.034 36.10 4.310
1 4.13 3.29 0.344 0.274 0.0062 0.045 166.618 22.28 2.667
1-1/4 5.21 4.33 0.435 0.361 0.0104 0.077 96.275 12.87 1.541
1-1/2 5.96 5.06 0.497 0.422 0.0141 0.106 70.733 9.46 1.134
2 7.46 6.49 0.622 0.540 0.0233 0.174 42.913 5.74 0.688
2-1/2 9.03 7.75 0.753 0.654 0.0332 0.248 30.077 4.02 0.482
3 10.96 9.63 0.916 0.803 0.0514 0.383 19.479 2.60 0.312
3-1/2 12.56 11.14 1.047 0.928 0.0682 0.513 14.565 1.95 0.233
4 14.13 12.64 1.178 1.052 0.0884 0.660 11.312 1.51 0.181
5 17.47 15.84 1.456 1.319 0.1390 1.040 7.198 0.96 0.115
6 20.81 19.05 1.734 1.585 0.2010 1.500 4.984 0.67 0.080
8 27.09 26.07 2.258 2.090 0.3480 2.600 2.878 0.38 0.046
10 33.77 31.47 2.814 2.622 0.5470 4.100 1.826 0.24 0.029
12 40.05 37.70 3.370 3.140 0.7850 5.870 1.273 0.17 0.021
14 47.12 44.76 3.930 3.722 1.0690 7.030 1.067 0.14 0.017
16 53.41 51.52 4.440 4.310 1.3920 9.180 0.814 0.11 0.013
18 56.55 53.00 4.712 4.420 1.5530 11.120 0.644 0.09 0.010
20 62.83 59.09 5.236 4.920 1.9250 14.400 0.517 0.07 0.008
54
DIMENSIONS OF MALLEABLE IRON THREADED FITTINGS
per ANSI B 16.3-1977
A A
A A A
C A C
A
A A
A A A
90° Elbow 90° Street Elbow Street Tee Tee Cross

(150 lb only)
M1
M2
B E
J K M3
G
F
B D G H
45° Elbow 45° Street Elbow 45° Y-Bend Cap Coupling Reducer Return Bend
(150 lb only)
CLASS 150 FITTINGS

Thread M1 M2 M3
Engage- Close Med. Open
Size ment A B C D E F G H J K Pattern Pattern Pattern
1/8 0.25 0.69 – 1.00 – – – – 0.53 0.96 – – – –
1/4 0.32 0.81 0.73 1.19 0.73 0.94 – – 0.63 1.06 1.00 – – –
3/8 0.36 0.95 0.80 1.44 0.80 1.03 1.93 1.43 0.74 1.16 1.13 – – –
1/2 0.43 1.12 0.88 1.63 0.88 1.15 2.32 1.71 0.87 1.34 1.25 1.00 1.25 1.50
3/4 0.50 1.31 0.98 1.89 0.98 1.29 2.77 2.05 0.97 1.52 1.44 1.25 1.50 2.00
1 0.58 1.50 1.12 2.14 1.12 1.47 3.28 2.43 1.16 1.67 1.69 1.50 1.87 2.50
1-1/4 0.67 1.75 1.29 2.45 1.29 1.71 3.94 2.92 1.28 1.93 2.06 1.75 2.25 3.00
1-1/2 0.70 1.94 1.43 2.69 1.43 1.88 4.38 3.28 1.33 2.15 2.31 2.19 2.50 3.50
2 0.75 2.25 1.68 3.26 1.68 2.22 5.17 3.93 1.45 2.53 2.81 2.62 3.00 4.00
2-1/2 0.92 2.70 1.95 3.86 1.95 2.57 6.25 4.73 1.70 2.88 3.25 – – 4.50
3 0.98 3.08 2.17 4.51 2.17 3.00 7.26 5.55 1.80 3.18 3.69 – – 5.00
3-1/2 1.03 3.42 2.39 – – – – – 1.90 – – – – –
4 1.08 3.79 2.61 5.69 2.61 3.70 8.98 6.97 2.08 3.69 4.38 – – 6.00
5 1.18 4.50 3.05 6.86 – – – – 2.32 – – – – –
6 1.28 5.13 3.46 8.03 – – – – 2.55 – – – – –
CLASS 300 FITTINGS

Thread
Engage-
Size ment A B C D E H J K M1 M2 M3
1/4 0.43 0.94 0.81 1.44 – – 0.78 1.37 – – – –
3/8 0.47 1.06 0.88 1.63 – – 0.83 1.62 1.44 – – –
1/2 0.57 1.25 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.38 0.98 1.87 1.69 – – –
3/4 0.64 1.44 1.13 2.19 1.13 1.56 1.08 2.12 1.75 – – –
1 0.75 1.63 1.31 2.56 1.31 1.81 1.26 2.37 2.00 1.75 2.50 3.00
1-1/4 0.84 1.94 1.50 2.88 1.50 2.13 1.38 2.87 2.38 2.25 2.50 3.00
1-1/2 0.87 2.13 1.69 3.13 1.69 2.31 1.43 2.87 2.69 3.00 3.50 6.00
2 1.00 2.50 2.00 3.69 2.00 2.69 1.68 3.62 3.19 4.00 6.00 8.00
2-1/2 1.17 2.94 2.25 4.50 – – 2.06 4.12 3.69 – – –
3 1.23 3.38 2.50 5.13 – – 2.17 4.12 4.06 – – –
55
SHEET METAL GAUGES & WEIGHTS
Carbon Steel Galvanized Steel Stainless (Cr-Ni) Steel
Gauge Thickness, Thickness, Thickness,
No. in. lb. per sq. ft. in. lb per sq. ft in. lb. per sq. ft.
7 .1793 7.500 – – – –
8 .1644 6.875 .1681 7.031 .165 6.930
9 .1495 6.250 .1532 6.406 .1563 6.563
10 .1345 5.625 .1382 5.781 .135 5.670
11 .1196 5.000 .1233 5.156 .120 5.040
12 .1096 4.375 .1084 4.531 .1054 4.427
13 .0897 3.750 .0934 3.906 .090 3.780
14 .0747 3.125 .0785 3.281 .0751 3.154
15 .0673 2.812 .0710 2.969 .0703 2.953
16 .0598 2.500 .0635 2.656 .0595 2.499
17 .0538 2.250 .0575 2.406 .0563 2.363
18 .0478 2.000 .0516 2.156 .048 2.016
19 .0418 1.750 .0456 1.906 .042 1.764
20 .0359 1.500 .0396 1.656 .0355 1.491
21 .0329 1.375 .0366 1.531 .0344 1.444
22 .0299 1.250 .0336 1.406 .0293 1.231
23 .0269 1.125 .0306 1.281 .0281 1.181
24 .0239 1.000 .0276 1.156 .0235 .987
25 .0209 .875 .0247 1.031 .0219 .919
26 .0179 .750 .0217 .906 .0178 .748
27 .0164 .688 .0202 .844 .0172 .722
28 .0149 .625 .0187 .781 .0151 .634
29 .0135 .563 .0172 .719 – –
30 .0120 .500 .0157 .656 – –
SHEET WIRE GAUGES & WEIGHTS
Diameter, inches Diameter, inches

Steel Steel
Gauge Wire Gauge Wire
No. AWG1 Gauge2 BWG3 No. AWG1 Gauge2 BWG3
0 .3249 .3065 .340 15 .0571 .0720 .072
1 .2893 .2830 .300 16 .0508 .0625 .065
2 .2576 .2625 .284 17 .0453 .0540 .058
3 .2294 .2437 .259 18 .0403 .0475 .049
4 .2043 .2253 .238 19 .0359 .0410 .042
5 .1819 .2070 .220 20 .0320 .0348 .035
6 .1620 .1920 .203 21 .0285 .0317 .032
7 .1443 .1770 .180 22 .0253 .0286 .028
8 .1285 .1620 .165 23 .0226 .0258 .025
9 .1144 .1483 .148 24 .0201 .0230 .022
10 .1019 .1350 .134 25 .0179 .0204 .020
11 .0907 .1205 .120 26 .0159 .0181 .018
12 .0808 .1055 .109 27 .0142 .0173 .016
13 .0720 .0915 .095 28 .0126 .0162 .014
14 .0641 .0800 .083 29 .0113 .0150 .013
30 .0100 .0140 .012
1
American Wire Gauge or Brown & Sharpe Gauge for
non-ferrous wire, including electrical wire.
2
Or Washburn & Moen Gauge.
3
Birmingham Wire Gauge or Stubs Gauge.
56
CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES
In Inches
Dia. Circum. Area Dia. Circum. Area Dia. Circum. Area
1/64 .04909 .00019 3 9.4248 7.0686 8 25.133 50.265
1/32 .09818 .00077 1/16 9.6211 7.3662 1/8 25.525 51.849
3/64 .14726 .00173 1/8 9.8175 7.6699 1/4 25.918 53.456
1/16 .19635 .00307 3/16 10.014 7.9798 3/8 26.311 55.088
3/32 .29452 .00690 1/4 10.210 8.2958 1/2 26.704 56.745
1/8 .39270 .01227 5/16 10.407 8.6179 5/8 27.096 58.426
5/32 .49087 .01917 3/8 10.603 8.9462 3/4 27.489 60.132
3/16 .58905 .02761 7/16 10.799 9.2806 7/8 27.882 61.862
7/32 .68722 .03758 1/2 10.996 9.6211 9 28.274 63.617
1/4 .78540 .04909 9/16 11.192 9.9678 1/8 28.667 65.397
9/32 .88357 .06213 5/8 11.388 10.321 1/4 29.060 67.201
5/16 .98175 .07670 11/16 11.585 10.680 3/8 29.452 69.029
11/32 1.0799 .09281 3/4 11.781 11.045 1/2 29.845 70.882
3/8 1.1781 .11045 13/16 11.977 11.416 5/8 30.238 72.760
13/32 1.2763 .12962 7/8 12.174 11.793 3/4 30.631 74.662
7/16 1.3744 .15033 15/16 12.370 12.177 7/8 31.023 76.589
15/32 1.4726 .17257 4 12.566 12.566 10 31.416 78.540
1/2 1.5708 .19635 1/16 12.763 12.962 1/8 31.809 80.516
17/32 1.6690 .22166 1/8 12.959 13.364 1/4 32.201 82.516
9/16 1.7671 .24850 3/16 13.155 13.772 3/8 32.594 84.541
19/32 1.8653 .27688 1/4 13.352 14.186 1/2 32.987 86.590
5/8 1.9635 .30680 5/16 13.548 14.607 5/8 33.379 88.664
21/32 2.0617 .33824 3/8 13.744 15.033 3/4 33.772 90.763
11/16 2.1598 .37122 7/16 13.941 15.466 7/8 34.165 92.886
23/32 2.2580 .40574 1/2 14.137 15.904 11 34.558 95.033
3/4 2.3562 .44179 9/16 14.334 16.349 1/8 34.950 97.205
25/32 2.4544 .47937 5/8 14.530 16.800 1/4 35.343 99.402
13/16 2.5525 .51849 11/16 14.726 17.257 3/8 35.736 101.62
27/32 2.6507 .55914 3/4 14.923 17.721 1/2 36.128 103.87
7/8 2.7489 .60132 13/16 15.119 18.190 5/8 36.521 106.14
29/32 2.8471 .64504 7/8 15.315 18.665 3/4 36.914 108.43
15/16 2.9452 .69029 15/16 15.512 19.147 7/8 37.306 110.75
31/32 3.0434 .73708 5 15.708 19.635 12 37.699 113.10
1 3.1416 .7854 1/16 15.904 20.129 1/8 38.092 115.47
1/16 3.3379 .8866 1/8 16.101 20.629 1/4 38.485 117.86
1/8 3.5343 .9940 3/16 16.297 21.135 3/8 38.877 120.28
3/16 3.7306 1.1075 1/4 16.493 21.648 1/2 39.270 122.72
1/4 3.9270 1.2272 5/16 16.690 22.166 5/8 39.663 125.19
5/16 4.1233 1.3530 3/8 16.886 22.691 3/4 40.055 127.68
3/8 4.3197 1.4849 7/16 17.082 23.221 7/8 40.448 130.19
7/16 4.5160 1.6230 1/2 17.279 23.758 13 40.841 132.73
1/2 4.7124 1.7671 9/16 17.475 24.301 1/8 41.233 135.30
9/16 4.9087 1.9175 5/8 17.671 24.850 1/4 41.626 137.89
5/8 5.1051 2.0739 11/16 17.868 25.406 3/8 42.019 140.50
11/16 5.3014 2.2365 3/4 18.064 25.967 1/2 42.412 143.14
3/4 5.4978 2.4053 13/16 18.261 26.535 5/8 42.804 145.80
13/16 5.6941 2.5802 7/8 18.457 27.109 3/4 43.197 148.49
7/8 5.8905 2.7612 15/16 18.653 27.688 7/8 43.590 151.20
15/16 6.0868 2.9483 6 18.850 28.274 14 43.982 153.94
2 6.2832 3.1416 1/8 19.242 29.465 1/8 44.374 156.70
1/16 6.4795 3.3410 1/4 19.635 30.680 1/4 44.768 159.48
1/8 6.6759 3.5466 3/8 20.028 31.919 3/8 45.160 162.30
3/16 6.8722 3.7583 1/2 20.420 33.183 1/2 45.553 165.13
1/4 7.0686 3.9761 5/8 20.813 34.472 5/8 45.946 167.99
5/16 7.2649 4.2000 3/4 21.206 35.785 3/4 46.338 170.87
3/8 7.4613 4.4301 7/8 21.598 37.122 7/8 46.731 173.78
7/16 7.6576 4.6664 7 21.991 38.485 15 47.124 176.71
1/2 7.8540 4.9087 1/8 22.384 39.871 1/8 47.517 179.67
9/16 8.0503 5.1572 1/4 22.776 41.282 1/4 47.909 182.65
5/8 8.2467 5.4119 3/8 23.169 42.718 3/8 48.302 185.66
11/16 8.4430 5.6727 1/2 23.562 44.179 1/2 48.695 188.69
3/4 8.6394 5.9396 5/8 23.955 45.664 5/8 49.087 191.75
13/16 8.8357 6.2126 3/4 24.347 47.173 3/4 49.480 194.83
7/8 9.0321 6.4918 7/8 24.740 48.707 7/8 49.873 197.93
15/16 9.2284 6.7771
57
CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES (Cont’d)
In Inches
Dia. Circum. Area Dia. Circum. Area Dia. Circum. Area
16 50.265 201.06 24 75.398 452.39 39 122.522 1194.6
1/8 50.658 204.22 1/8 75.791 457.11 40 125.664 1256.6
1/4 51.051 207.39 1/4 76.184 461.86 41 128.805 1320.3
3/8 51.444 210.60 3/8 76.576 466.64 42 131.947 1385.4
1/2 51.836 213.82 1/2 76.969 471.44 43 135.088 1452.2
5/8 52.229 217.08 5/8 77.362 476.26 44 138.230 1520.5
3/4 52.622 220.35 3/4 77.754 481.11 45 141.372 1590.4
7/8 53.014 223.65 7/8 78.147 485.98 46 144.513 1661.9
17 53.407 226.98 25 78.540 490.87 47 147.655 1734.9
1/8 53.800 230.33 1/8 78.933 495.79 48 150.796 1809.6
1/4 54.192 233.71 1/4 79.325 500.74 49 153.939 1885.7
3/8 54.585 237.10 3/8 79.718 505.71 50 157.080 1963.5
1/2 54.978 240.53 1/2 80.111 510.71 51 160.221 2042.8
5/8 55.371 243.98 5/8 80.503 515.72 52 163.363 2123.7
3/4 55.763 247.45 3/4 80.896 520.77 53 166.504 2206.2
7/8 56.156 250.95 7/8 81.289 525.84 54 169.646 2290.2
18 56.549 254.47 26 81.681 530.93 55 172.788 2375.8
1/8 56.941 258.02 1/8 82.074 536.05 56 175.929 2463.0
1/4 57.334 261.59 1/4 82.467 541.19 57 179.071 2551.8
3/8 57.727 265.18 3/8 82.860 546.35 58 182.212 2642.1
1/2 58.119 268.80 1/2 83.252 551.55 59 185.354 2734.0
5/8 58.512 272.45 5/8 83.645 556.76 60 188.496 2827.4
3/4 58.905 276.12 3/4 84.038 562.00 61 191.637 2922.5
7/8 59.298 279.81 7/8 84.430 567.27 62 194.779 3019.1
19 59.690 283.53 27 84.823 572.56 63 197.920 3117.2
1/8 60.083 287.27 1/8 85.216 577.87 64 201.062 3217.0
1/4 60.476 291.04 1/4 85.608 583.21 65 204.204 3318.3
3/8 60.868 294.83 3/8 86.001 588.57 66 207.345 3421.2
1/2 61.261 298.65 1/2 86.394 593.96 67 210.487 3525.7
5/8 61.654 302.49 5/8 86.786 599.37 68 213.628 3631.7
3/4 62.046 306.35 3/4 87.179 604.81 69 216.770 3739.3
7/8 62.439 310.24 7/8 85.572 610.27 70 219.911 3848.5
20 62.832 314.16 28 87.965 615.75 71 223.053 3959.2
1/8 63.225 318.10 1/8 88.357 621.26 72 226.195 4071.5
1/4 63.617 322.06 1/4 88.750 626.80 73 229.336 4185.4
3/8 64.010 326.05 3/8 89.143 632.36 74 232.478 4300.8
1/2 64.403 330.06 1/2 89.535 637.94 75 235.619 4417.9
5/8 64.795 334.10 5/8 89.928 643.55 76 238.761 4536.6
3/4 65.188 338.16 3/4 90.321 649.18 77 241.903 4656.6
7/8 65.581 342.25 7/8 90.713 654.84 78 245.044 4778.4
21 65.973 346.36 29 91.106 660.52 79 248.186 4901.7
1/8 66.366 350.50 1/8 91.499 666.23 80 251.327 5026.5
1/4 66.759 354.66 1/4 91.892 671.96 81 254.469 5153.0
3/8 67.152 358.84 3/8 92.284 677.71 82 257.611 5281.0
1/2 67.544 363.05 1/2 92.677 683.49 83 260.752 5410.6
5/8 67.937 367.28 5/8 93.070 689.30 84 263.894 5541.8
3/4 68.330 371.54 3/4 93.462 695.13 85 267.035 5674.5
7/8 68.722 375.83 7/8 93.855 700.98 86 270.177 5808.8
22 69.115 380.13 30 94.248 706.86 87 273.319 5944.7
1/8 69.508 384.46 1/8 94.640 712.76 88 276.460 6082.1
1/4 69.900 388.82 1/4 95.033 718.69 89 279.602 6221.1
3/8 70.293 393.20 3/8 95.426 724.64 90 282.743 6361.7
1/2 70.686 397.61 1/2 95.819 730.62 91 285.885 6503.9
5/8 71.079 402.04 5/8 96.211 736.62 92 289.027 6647.6
3/4 71.471 406.49 3/4 96.604 742.64 93 292.168 6792.9
7/8 71.864 410.97 7/8 96.997 748.69 94 295.310 6939.8
23 72.257 415.48 31 97.389 754.77 95 298.451 7088.2
1/8 72.649 420.00 32 100.531 804.25 96 301.593 7238.2
1/4 73.042 424.56 33 103.673 855.30 97 304.734 7389.8
3/8 73.435 429.13 34 106.814 907.92 98 307.876 7543.0
1/2 73.827 433.74 35 109.956 962.11 99 311.018 7697.7
5/8 74.220 438.36 36 113.097 1017.9 100 314.159 7854.0
3/4 74.613 443.01 37 116.239 1075.2
7/8 75.006 447.69 38 119.381 1134.1
58
DRILL SIZE DATA
Twist Dia. Area Twist Dia. Area Twist Dia. Area

Drill Size In. Sq. In. Drill Size In. Sq. In. Drill Size In. Sq. In.
– 80 .0135 .000143 – 32 .116 .0106 19/64 – .2968 .0692
– 79 .0145 .000165 – 31 .120 .0113 – N .302 .0716
1/64 – .0156 .00019 1/8 – .125 .0123 5/16 – .3125 .0767
– 78 .016 .00020 – 30 .1285 .0130 – O .316 .0784
– 77 .018 .00025 – 29 .136 .0145 – P .323 .0820
– 76 .020 .00031 – 28 .1405 .0155 21/64 – .3281 .0846
– 75 .021 .00035 9/64 – .1406 .0156 – Q .332 .0866
– 74 .0225 .00040 – 27 .144 .0163 – R .339 .0901
– 73 .024 .00045 – 26 .147 .0174 11/32 – .3437 .0928
– 72 .025 .00049 – 25 .1495 .0175 – S .348 .0950
– 71 .026 .00053 – 24 .152 .0181 – T .358 .1005
– 70 .028 .00062 – 23 .154 .0186 23/64 – .3593 .1014
– 69 .0292 .00067 5/32 – .1562 .0192 – U .368 .1063
– 68 .030 .00075 – 22 .157 .0193 3/8 – .375 .1104
1/32 – .0312 .00076 – 21 .159 .0198 – V .377 .1116
– 67 .032 .00080 – 20 .161 .0203 – W .386 .1170
– 66 .033 .00086 – 19 .166 .0216 25/64 – .3906 .1198
– 65 .035 .00096 – 18 .1695 .0226 – X .397 .1236
– 64 .036 .00102 11/64 – .1719 .0232 – Y .404 .1278
– 63 .037 .00108 – 17 .175 .0235 13/32 – .4062 .1296
– 62 .038 .00113 – 16 .177 .0246 – Z .413 .1340
– 61 .039 .00119 – 15 .180 .0254 7/16 – .4375 .1503
– 60 .040 .00126 – 14 .182 .0260 29/64 – .4531 .1613
– 59 .041 .00132 – 13 .185 .0269 15/32 – .4687 .1726
– 58 .042 .00138 3/16 – .1875 .0276 31/64 – .4843 .1843
– 57 .043 .00145 – 12 .189 .02805 1/2 – .5000 .1963
– 56 .0465 .00170 – 11 .191 .02865 33/64 – .5156 .2088
3/64 – .0469 .00173 – 10 .1935 .0294 17/32 – .5312 .2217
– 55 .0520 .00210 – 9 .196 .0302 35/64 – .5468 .2349
– 54 .0550 .0023 – 8 .199 .0311 9/16 – .5625 .2485
– 53 .0595 .0028 – 7 .201 .0316 37/64 – .5781 .2625
1/16 – .0625 .0031 13/64 – .2031 .0324 19/32 – .5937 .2769
– 52 .0635 .0032 – 6 .204 .0327 39/64 – .6093 .2916
– 51 .0670 .0035 – 5 .2055 .0332 5/8 – .625 .3068
– 50 .070 .0038 – 4 .209 .0343 41/64 – .6406 .3223
– 49 .073 .0042 – 3 .213 .0356 21/32 – .6562 .3382
– 48 .076 .0043 7/32 – .2187 .0376 43/64 – .6718 .3545
5/64 – .0781 .0048 – 2 .221 .0384 11/16 – .6875 .3712
– 47 .0785 .0049 – 1 .228 .0409 45/64 – .7031 .3883
– 46 .081 .0051 – A .234 .0430 23/32 – .7187 .4057
– 45 .082 .0053 15/64 – .2343 .0431 47/64 – .7343 .4236
– 44 .086 .0058 – B .238 .0444 3/4 – .750 .4418
– 43 .089 .0062 – C .242 .0460 49/64 – .7656 .4604
– 42 .0935 .0069 – D .246 .0475 25/32 – .7812 .4794
3/32 – .0937 .0069 1/4 E .250 .0491 51/64 – .7968 .4987
– 41 .096 .0072 – F .257 .0519 13/16 – .8125 .5185
– 40 .098 .0075 – G .261 .0535 53/64 – .8281 .5386
– 39 .0995 .0078 17/64 – .2656 .0554 27/32 – .8337 .5591
– 38 .1015 .0081 – H .266 .0556 55/64 – .8593 .5800
– 37 .104 .0085 – I .272 .0580 7/8 – .875 .6013
– 36 .1065 .0090 – J .277 .0601
7/64 – .1093 .0094 – K .281 .0620
– 35 .110 .0095 9/32 – .2812 .0621
– 34 .111 .0097 – L .290 .0660
– 33 .113 .0100 – M .295 .0683
59
TAP DRILL SIZES
Taps for Machine Threads – Drill sizes for 75% of full Pipe Taps – American Standard and Dryseal Pipe
thread Threads
Thread Tap Drill Thread Tap Drill Pipe Threads Tap Pipe Threads Tap
Size Size Size Size Size, Per Drill Size Per Drill
Inches Inch Size Inches Inch Size
6-32 NC 36 3/8-16 NC 5/16
6-40 NF 34 3/8-24 NF Q 1/8 27 11/32 2 11-1/2 2-7/32
8-32 NC 30 7/16-14 NC U 1/4 18 7/16 2-1/2 8 2-5/8
8-36 NF 29 7/16-20 NF W 3/8 18 9/16 3 8 3-1/4
1/2 14 45/64 4 8 4-1/4
10-24 NC 25 1/2-13 NC .425
10-32 NF 21 1/2-20 NF 29/64 3/4 14 29/32 5 8 5-5/16
12-24 NC 17 9/16-12 NC 31/64 1 11-1/2 1-9/64 6 8 6-3/8
12-28 NF 15 9/16-18 NF .508 1-1/4 11-1/2 1-31/64 8 8 8-3/8
1-1/2 11-1/2 1-47/64
1/4-20 NC 7 5/8-11 NC 17/32
1/4-28 NF 3 5/8-18 NF .571
5/16-18 NC F 3/4-10 NC 21/32
5/16-24 NF I 3/4-16 NF 11/16
7/8-9 NC 49/64
7/8-14 NF .805
1-8 NC 7/8
See page 59 for diameters of numbered and lettered
tap drills.
DRILLING TEMPLATES – PIPE FLANGES

Drilling template dimensions of Class 150 pipe flanges per Nominal All dimensions in inches
ANSI B 16.5 – 1981. Pipe Bolt
Size A B C N Diameter
1/2 3.50 2.38 .62 4 1/2
C - Bolt Hole Diameter 3/4 3.88 2.75 .62 4 1/2
N - Number of Bolt Holes 1 4.25 3.12 .62 4 1/2
A - O.D. 1-1/4 4.62 3.50 .62 4 1/2
1-1/2 5.00 3.88 .62 4 1/2
2 6.00 4.75 .75 4 5/8
2-1/2 7.00 5.50 .75 4 5/8
3 7.50 6.00 .75 4 5/8
4 9.00 7.50 .75 8 5/8
6 11.00 9.50 .88 8 3/4
8 13.50 11.75 .88 8 3/4
10 16.00 14.25 1.00 12 7/8
12 19.00 17.00 1.00 12 7/8
14 21.00 18.75 1.12 12 1
B - Bolt Circle 16 23.50 21.25 1.12 16 1
Diameter 18 25.00 22.75 1.25 16 1-1/8
20 27.50 25.00 1.25 20 1-1/8
24 32.00 29.50 1.38 20 1-1/4
60
CHAPTER 10 – ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS
ABBREVIATIONS
A – ampere(s), area in3 – cubic inch(es)
A, C, or a-c – alternating current JIC – Joint Industrial Council
acfh – actual cubic feet per hour
K – Stefan – Boltzmann constant
acfm – actual cubic feet per minute
k – thermal conductivity
ANSI – American National Standards Institute °K – degrees Kelvin
API – American Petroleum Institute kcal – kilogram-calorie or kilo-calorie (same as Cal)
°API – degrees API (a measurement of fuel oil specific gravity) kPa – kiloPascal
ASTM – American Society for Testing and Materials kVA – kilo volt – amperes
AWG – American Wire Gauge L – length or thickness
Btu – British thermal unit lb – pound(s)
BWG – Birmginham Wire Gauge LPG – liquified petroleum gas
C or °C – degrees Celsius or Centigrade
mbar – millibar(s)
Cal – kilogram-calorie or kilo-calorie (equals 1000 calories) mmHg – millimeters of mercury column
cal – calorie mmw.c. – millimeters of water column
Cd – coefficient of discharge
N.C. – normally closed
cfh – cubic feet per hour
NEMA – National Electrical Manufacturers Association
cfm – cubic feet per minute NFPA – National Fire Protection Association
CL – centerline N.O. – normally open
cm – centimeter(s)
OD or od – outside diameter
cs or cSt – centistoke(s)
osi – ounces per square inch
cu ft – cubic feet oz – ounce(s)
cu in – cubic inches
P – pressure or pressure drop
cu m – cubic meters
psi – pounds per square inch
Cv - flow coefficient or flow factor (for valve capacities)
psia – pounds per square inch, absolute
D or d – density, diameter psig – pounds per square inch, gauge
D.C. or d-c – direct current Pv – velocity pressure
deg – degree(s)
dia – diameter Q – flow (of gases, liquids, or heat)
e - emissivity °R – degrees Rankine
°E – degrees Engler (a measurement of fuel oil viscosity) rpm – revolutions per minute
F or °F – degrees Fahrenheit scfh – standard cubic feet per hour
f – convection film coefficient scfm – standard cubic feet per minute
F.B. – firebrick sec – second
fpm – feet per minute S.G. or sg – specific gravity
fps – feet per second sp ht – specific heat
ft – foot or feet sp gr – specific gravity
sq ft – square feet
G or g – gravity or specific gravity sq in – square inch(es)
gal – gallon(s) SR1 – seconds Redwood #1 (a measurement of fuel oil viscosity)
gph – gallons per hour SSF – seconds Saybolt Furol (a measurement of fuel oil viscosity)
gpm – gallons per minute SSU – seconds Saybolt Universal (a measurement of fuel oil
h - pressure drop viscosity)
hf – heat content of liquid (water & steam) T or t – temperature
hfg – latent heat of vaporization, water to steam Tabs – absolute temperature
hg – heat content of vapor (steam) TC – cold face temperature or thermocouple
"Hg – inches of mercury column
V – vacuum, volts, or volume
HL – heat loss
HP or hp – horsepower Vg – specific volume of water vapor
hr – hour(s) W – flow rate
HS – heat storage "w.c. – inches of water column
Hz – Hertz (cycles per second in alternating current) "w.g. – inches of water gauge (same as "w.c.)
ID or id – inside diameter wt – weight
I.F.B. – insulating firebrick
in – inch(es)
in2 – square inch(es)
61
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
Shown below are graphic symbols commonly used in JIC-
type ladder diagrams for combustion control systems. For
a complete list of symbols, refer to JIC Electrical Standard
EMP-1.
Description Symbol Description Symbol Description Symbol

Coils Contacts Pilot Light LT
–Relays (CR) CR TR – Relays (CR) (Letter denotes
M CON
–Timers (TR) – Motor Starters (M) CR M color) R
CON
– Motor Starters (M) – Contactors (CON)
– Contactors (CON) – N.O.
Pilot Light–
LT
Coils SOL CR M Push to Test R
–Solenoids – N.C. CON (Letter denotes
color)
Conductors Contacts Pushbutton PB

–Not Connected –Thermal Overload OL
–Single
–Overload Relay IOL Circuit, N.O. PB
(OL) –Single
–Connected –Instataneous Circuit, N.C.
Overload (IOL) PB
H1 H3 H4
–Double
H2
Connections GRD Control Circuit Circuit
–Ground Transformer
T
–Double PB
–Chassis or Circuit,
X1 X2
Frame (not CH
Mushroom
necessarily FU
Head
Fuses – All
grounded)
PL Types
PB
–Plug and PB
Receptacle
AH –Maintained
Horn or Siren
Contact
(Alarm)
RECP
Contacts DISC
Meters Switches
–Time Delay
TR –Volt VM – Disconnect
After Coil
Energized
–N.O.
–Amp AM CI
– Circuit
TR MTR Interruptor
–N.C. Motors
–3 Phase
CB
MTR – Circuit
–Time Delay TR Breaker
After Coil –D.C . A
De-energized
–N.O. POT
TR
Potentiometer
–N.C.
62
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS (Cont’d)
Description Symbol Description Symbol Description Symbol
Switch, Limit LS Switch, Selector SS

1 2
— N.O. — 2 Position Switch, Vacuum PS
or Pressure
— Held Closed
LS — N.O.
LS PS
— N.C. — N.C.
LS SS
— Held Open — 3 Position 1 2 3
LS Thermal Overload
— Neutral Element OL
NP
Position, — Overload (OL) IOL
— Instantaneous
Overload (IOL)
LS
— Neutral NP
Position,
Actuated Switch, TAS Thermocouple T/C
Temperature
— N.O.
Switch, Liquid FS
Level — N.C. TAS
— N.O.
— N.C. FS
Switch, TGS
Toggle
63
CHAPTER 11 – CONVERSION FACTORS
GENERAL CONVERSION FACTORS
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
atmospheres . . . . . . . . .33.90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feet of H2O circular mils . . . . . ..00000507 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq.cm.
29.92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Inches of Hg .785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq.mils
14.70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Psi .000000785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches
1013.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Millibars cubic centimeters . ..0000353 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic ft.
760.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .mm. of Hg .061 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic in.
1.058 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Tons/sq..ft .000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic meters
1.033 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Kg./sq. cm. .00000131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic yards
barrels (oil) . . . . . . . . . . . .42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Gallons (oil) .000264 . . . . . . . . .gallons (U.S. liquid)
bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..9869 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Atmospheres .001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
1020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg./sq. meter .00211 . . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liquid)
btu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .778.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-pounds 00106 . . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid)
252 . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram-calories cubic feet . . . . . . . . . . .28320 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.
.000393 . . . . . . . . . .horsepower-hours 1728 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches
1055 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules .028 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters
.252 . . . . . . . . . . .kilogram-calories .037 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards
.000293 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hours 7.48 . . . . . . . . .gallons (U.S. liquid)
btu/cu. ft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8.9 . . . . . . . . . .kilogram-calories/ 28.32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
cu. meter 59.84 . . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liquid)
btu/hr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..216 . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft.-pounds/sec. 29.92 . . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid)
.007 . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram-cal./sec. cubic feet/min. . . . . . . . . .472 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms./sec.
.000393 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower .125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons/sec.
.293 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watts .472 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters/sec.
btu ft./hr. sq. ft. °F . . . . .14.88 . . . . . . . .Cal-cm/hr. sq. cm °C 62.43 . . . . . . . . . .pounds water/min.
8890.0 . . . . . . . . . .Cal. gm/cu. meter cubic inches . . . . . . . . .16.39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.
btu/lb . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.556 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .calories/gm. .000579 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.
btu/lb. °F . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . .calories/gm °C .0000164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters
btu/sec. . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.055 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kW .0000214 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards
btu/sq. ft.-min . . . . . . . . . .122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watts/sq. in. .00433 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons
calories-gram . . . . . . ..00397 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Btu .0164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
calorie-Kg . . . . . . . . . . . .3.97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Btu .0346 . . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liquid)
calorie-Kg/cu. meter 0.1124 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Btu/cu. ft. @ .0173 . . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .32°F 30" Hg cubic meters . . . . .1,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.
calorie/hr. sq. cm. . . . . .3.687 . . . . . . . . . . . . .Btu/hr. sq. foot 35.31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.
centiliters . . . . . . . . . . . ..001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters 6102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches
centimeters . . . . . . . . . ..0328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet 1.308 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards
.0394 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches 264.2 . . . . . . . . .gallons (U.S. liquid)
.00001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers 1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters 2113 . . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liuqid)
.0000062 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles 1057 . . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid)
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .millimeters cubic yards . . . . . . . .764,600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.
393.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .mils 27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.
.0109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .yards 46656 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches
1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .microns .765 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters
centimeters of mercury ..0132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres decigrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams
.446 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft. of water deciliters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg./sq. meter decimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters
27.85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft. degrees (angle) . . . . . . ..011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .quadrants
.193 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in. .0175 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .radians
centimeters/sec. . . . . . .1.969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/min. 3600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seconds
.0328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/sec. degrees/sec. . . . . . . . . ..0175 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .radians/sec.
.036 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers/hr. .0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . .rvolutions/min.
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters/min. .00278 . . . . . . . . . . . .revolutions/sec.
.0224 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr. dekagrams . . . . . . . . . . . .10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams
.00373 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/min. dekaliters . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
centimeters/sec./sec. . ..0328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft./sec./sec. dekameters . . . . . . . . . . . .10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters
.036 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr.sec. dynes/sq. cm. . . ..000000987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres
.01 . . . . . . . . . . . .meters/sec.sec. .0000295 . . . . . .in. of mercury (at 0°C.)
.0224 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr.sec. .000402 . . . . . . . . .in. of water (at 4°C)
centipoise . . . . . . . . . . . . ..01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gr.cm.-sec. .00001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .bars
.00067 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pound/ft.-sec. feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30.48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .centimeters
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pound/ft.-hr. .000305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers
.305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters
.000189 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles (stat.)
304.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .millimeters
64
GENERAL CONVERSION FACTORS (Cont’d)

feet of water . . . . . . . . ..0295 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres grams/sq. cm. . . . . . . . .2.048 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft.
.883 . . . . . . . . . . . . .in. of mercury gram-calories . . . . . . ..00397 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu
.0305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. cm. 3.086 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-pounds
304.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. meter .00000156 . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower-hrs.
62.43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft. .00000116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hrs.
.434 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in. .00116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watt-hrs.
feet/min. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..508 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec. gram-calories/sec. . . . .14.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/hr.
.0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/sec. hectares . . . . . . . . . . . .2.471 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .acres
.0183 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr. 10760 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. feet
.305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters/min. hectograms . . . . . . . . . . .100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams
.0114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr. hectoliters . . . . . . . . . . . .100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
30.48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec. hectometers . . . . . . . . . . .100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters
feet/sec. . . . . . . . . . . . .1.097 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr. hectowatts . . . . . . . . . . . .100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watts
18.29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters/min. horsepower . . . . . . . . . .42.44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/min.
.682 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr. 33000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs./min.
.0114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/min. 550 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs./sec.
feet/sec./sec. . . . . . . . .30.48 . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec./sec. horsepower (metric) . . . ..986 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower
1.097 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr./sec. horsepower . . . . . . . . ..1.014 . . . . . . . .horsepower (metric)
.305 . . . . . . . . . . .meters/sec./sec. 10.68 . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories/min.
foot-pounds . . . . . . . . ..00129 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu .746 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatts
.324 . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram-calories 745.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watts
.000000505 . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower-hrs. horsepower-hours . . . . ..2547 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu
1.356 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules 1,980,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs.
.000324 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories 641,190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram-caloies
.138 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-meters 2,684,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules
.000000377 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hrs. 641.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories
foot-pounds/sec. . . . . . . .4.63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/hr. 273,700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-meters
.0772 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/min. .746 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hrs.
.00182 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..0417 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .days
.00195 . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories/min. .00595 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .weeks
.00136 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatts 25.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .millimeters
.00001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers 1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .mils
gallons . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms. .0278 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .yards
.134 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. feet in. of mercury . . . . . . . ..0334 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres
231 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches 1.133 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet of water
.00379 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters .0345 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. cm.
.00495 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards 345.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. meter
3.785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters 70.73 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft
gallons (liq. Br. imp.) . . .1.201 . . . . . . . . .gallons (U.S. liuqid) .491 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in.
gallons (U.S.) . . . . . . . . ..833 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons (imp.) in. of water (at 4°C) . . ..00246 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres
gallons of water . . . . . . .8.34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons (imp.) .0736 . . . . . . . . . .inches of mercury
gallons/min. . . . . . . . ..00223 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. feet/sec. .00254 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. cm.
.0631 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters/sec. .578 . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces/sq. in.
8.021 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. feet/hr. 5.204 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft.
grains (troy) . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains (avdp.) .0361 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in.
.0648 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams joules . . . . . . . . . . . ..000949 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu
.00208 . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (avdp.) .774 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-pounds
grams . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15.43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains (troy) .000239 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories
.0000981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules/cm. .102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-meters
.00981 . . . . . .joules/meter (newtons) .000278 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watt-hrs.
.001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilograms kilograms . . . . . . . . . . . .1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams
1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .milligrams .0981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules/cm.
.0353 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (troy) 9.807 . . . . . .joules/meter (newtons)
.00221 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds 2.205 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds
grams/cu. cm. . . . . . . . .62.43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. ft. .000984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (long)
.0361 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. in. .00110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (short)
grams/liter . . . . . . . . . . .58.42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains/gal. 35.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (avdp.)
8.345 . . . . . . . . . .pounds/1,000 gal.
.0624 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. ft.
65
kilograms/cu. meter . . . . ..001 . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams/cu. cm. meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .centimeters
.0624 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. ft 3.281 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet
.0000361 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. in. 39.37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches
kilograms/sq. cm. . . . .980665 . . . . . . . . . . . . .dynes/sq. cm. .001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers
.968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres .00054 . . . . . . . . . . . .miles (nautical)
32.81 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet of water .000621 . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles (statute)
28.96 . . . . . . . . . .inches of mercury 1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .millimeters
2048 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft. 1.094 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .yards
14.22 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in. meters/min. . . . . . . . . . .1.667 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec.
kilograms/sq. meter ..0000968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres 3.281 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/min.
.0000981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .bars .0547 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/sec.
.00328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet of water
.06 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr.
.0029 . . . . . . . . . .inches of mercury
.0373 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr.
.205 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. ft.
meters/sec. . . . . . . . . . .196.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/min.
.00142 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in.
3.281 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/sec.
98.07 . . . . . . . . . . . . .dynes/sq. cm.
kilograms/sq. mm . .1,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. meter 3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers/hr.
kilogram-calories . . . . . .3.968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu .06 . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers/min.
3086 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-pounds 2.237 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr.
.00156 . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower-hrs. .0373 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/min.
4183 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules meters/sec./sec. . . . . . . .100 . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec./sec.
1163 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hrs. 3.281 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft./sec./sec.
kilogram-meters . . . . . .7.233 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-pounds 3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr.sec.
9.807 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules 2.237 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/hr./sec.
.00234 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories micrograms . . . . . . . ..000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams
.00000272 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hrs. micrograms/cu. ft. . . ..000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams/cu. ft
kiloliters . . . . . . . . . . . . .1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters .0000353 . . . . . . . . . . .grams/cu. meter
kilometers . . . . . . . . .100,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .centimeters .00000022 . . . . . . . . . . . .lbs./1000 cu. ft.
3281 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet 35.314 . . . . . . .micrograms/cu. meter
39,370 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches micrograms/cu. m. . . . .0.001 . . . . . . . . . . .milligrams/cu. m.
1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters 0.02832 . . . . . . . . . . .micrograms/cu. ft
.621 . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles (statute) microhms . . . . . . . . ..000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ohms
.54 . . . . . . . . . . . .miles (nautical) microliters . . . . . . . . ..000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
1,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .millimeters micromicrons ..000000000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters
1093.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .yards microns . . . . . . . . . . ..000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters
kilometers/hr. . . . . . . . .27.78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec. miles (statute) . . . . . .160,900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .centimeters
54.68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/min. 5280 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet
.911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet/sec. 63360 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches
kilowatts . . . . . . . . . . . . .3413 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/hr
1.609 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers
44,260 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs./min.
1609 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters
737.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs.sec.
.868 . . . . . . . . . . . .miles (nautical)
1.341 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower
1760 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .yards
14.34 . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories/min.
1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .watts miles/hr. . . . . . . . . . . . .44.70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cms./sec.
kilowatt-hrs. . . . . . . . . . .3413 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu 88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft./min.
2,655,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs. 1.467 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft./sec.
859,850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram calories 1.609 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./hr.
1.341 . . . . . . . . . .horsepower-hours .0268 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kms./min.
3,600,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .joules 26.82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters/min.
860.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories .0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles/min.
367,100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-meters milligrams . . . . . . . . . . . ..001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams
3.53 . .pounds of water evaporated milligrams/liter . . . . . . . . . .1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .parts/million
from and at 212°F milliters . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
22.75 . . . . . .pounds of water raised millimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .centimeters
from 62° to 212°F. .00328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet
liters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cm. .0394 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches
.0353 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft. .000001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers
61.02 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches .001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters
.001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters .000000621 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles
.00131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards 39.37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .mils
.264 . . . . . . . . .gallons (U.S. liquid) .00109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .yards
2.113 . . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liquid) mils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..00254 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .centimeters
1.057 . . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid) .0000833 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet
liters/min. . . . . . . . . . ..00589 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft./sec. .001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches
.0044 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gals./sec.
66

minutes (angles) . . . . . ..0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .degrees pounds/sq. ft. . . . . . ..000473 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres
.000185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .quadrants .016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet of water
.000291 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .radians .0141 . . . . . . . . . .inches of mercury
60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seconds .192 . . . . . . . . . . . .inches of water
minutes (time) . . . . ..0000992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .weeks 4.882 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. meter
.000694 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .days .111 . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces/sq. inch
.0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .hours .00694 . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. inch
60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seconds pounds/sq. inc. . . . . . . . ..068 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres
ounces . . . . . . . . . . . . .437.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains 2.307 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet of water
28.35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains 2.036 . . . . . . . . . .inches of mercury
.0625 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds 27.71 . . . . . . . . . . . .inches of water
.912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (troy) 703.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. meter
ounces (fluid) . . . . . . . .1.805 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches 16 . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces/sq. inch
.0296 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters 144 . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. foot
ounces (troy) . . . . . . . . . .480 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains quadrants (angle) . . . . . . .90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .degrees
31.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams 5400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .minutes
1.097 . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (avdp.) 1.571 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .radians
ounce/sq. in. . . . . . . . . .4309 . . . . . . . . . . . . .dynes/sq. cm. 324,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seconds
.0625 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. in. quarts (liquid) . . . . . . . .946.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.
1.732 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .inches w.c. .0334 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.
parts/million . . . . . . . . ..0584 . . . . . . . . . . . .grains/U.S. gal. 57.75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches
.0702 . . . . . . . . . . . .grains/imp. gal. .000946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters
8.345 . . . . . . . . . .pounds/million gal. .00124 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards
ppm (volume) . . .385,100,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lb/ft3 .25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons
0.02404 . . . . . . . . . .micrograms/cu. m. .946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
ppm (weight) . . . . . . . . .0012 . . . . . . . . . .micrograms/cu. m. radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .degrees
pints (liquid) . . . . . . . . .473.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic cms. 3438 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .minutes
.0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic ft. .637 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .quadrants
28.87 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic inches 206,300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seconds
.000473 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic meters radian/sec. . . . . . . . . . . .9.55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rpm
.000619 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic yards rpm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.1047 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rad./sec.
.125 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons seconds (angle) . . . ..000278 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .degrees
.473 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters .0167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .minutes
.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . .quarts (liquid) square centimeters . .197,300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .circular mils
poise 1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram/cm.-sec. .00108 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. feet
pounds 7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grains .155 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches
453.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams .0001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. meters
4.448 . . . . . .joules/meter (newtons)
100 . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. millimeters
.454 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilograms
.00012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards
16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces
square feet . . . . . . . . . . .929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. cms.
14.58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (troy)
144 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches
.0005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (short)
.093 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. meters
pounds of water . . . . . . ..016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.
.0000000359 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. miles
27.68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches
92900 . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. millimeters
.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons
.111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards
pounds of water/min. .000267 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft/sec.
square inches . . . . . . . .6.452 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. cms.
pounds/cu. ft. . . . . . . . . ..016 . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams/cu. cm.
.00694 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft.
16.02 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./cu. meter
645.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. millimeters
133,700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ppm (weight)
1,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. mils
.000579 . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. in.
.000772 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards
pounds/cu. in. . . . . . . . .27.68 . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams/cu. cm.
square kilometers .10,760,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft.
27680 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./cu. meter
1,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. meters
1728 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/cu. ft
.386 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. miles
pounds/ft. . . . . . . . . . . .1.488 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./meter
pounds/in. . . . . . . . . . . .178.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams/cm.
67
square meters . . . . . . .10000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. cms. ton refrigeration (U.S.) .12,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/hr
10.76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft. 83.33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lb. ice melted
1550 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches per hr. from and at 32°F
1,000,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. millimeters watts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.413 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/hr.
1,196 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards .0569 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/min.
square miles . . . .27,880,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft. 44.27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft.-lbs./min.
2.590 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. kms. .738 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ft.-lbs./sec.
2,590,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. meters .00134 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .horsepower
3,098,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards .00136 . . . . . . . .horsepower (metric)
square millimeters . . . . .1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .circular mils .0143 . . . . . . . . . . .kg.-calories/min.
.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. cms. .001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatts
.0000108 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft. watt-hours . . . . . . . . . . .3.413 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu
.00155 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches 2656 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .foot-lbs.
therms . . . . . . . . . . .100,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu 860.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . .gram-calories
tons (long) . . . . . . . . . . .1016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilograms .00134 . . . . . . . . . .horsepower-hours
2240 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds .861 . . . . . . . . . . .kilogram-calories
1.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (short) 367.2 . . . . . . . . . . .kologram-meters
tons (metric) . . . . . . . . .1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilograms .001 . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilowatt-hours
2205 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds watt/sq.cm. . . . . . . . . .3170.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu/hr./sq. foot
tons (short) . . . . . . . . . .907.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilograms
watt cm btu-ft
32000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces
sq. cm. °F . . . . . . . . . . .57.79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .hr. sq. ft. °F
2917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (troy)
2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds
2430 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds (troy)
.893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (long)
.908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (metric)
TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS
°Fahrenheit = 9/5°C + 32
°Celsius = 5/9 (°F–32)
°Rankine = °F absolute = °F + 459.69
°Kelvin = °C absolute = °C + 273.16
Fahrenheit to Celsius Celsius to Fahrenheit
°F °C °F °C °C °F °C °F
0 -17.78 950 510.0 0 32 850 1562
20 -6.67 1000 537.8 10 50 900 1652
40 4.44 1100 593.3 20 68 950 1742
60 15.56 1200 648.9 30 86 1000 1832
80 26.67 1300 704.4 40 104 1050 1922
100 37.78 1400 760.0 50 122 1100 2012
120 48.89 1500 815.6 60 140 1150 2102
140 60.00 1600 871.1 70 158 1200 2192
160 71.11 1700 926.7 80 176 1250 2282
180 82.22 1800 982.2 90 194 1300 2372
200 93.33 1900 1038 100 212 1350 2462
250 121.1 2000 1093 150 302 1400 2552
300 148.9 2100 1149 200 392 1450 2642
350 176.7 2200 1204 250 482 1500 2732
400 204.4 2300 1260 300 572 1550 2822
450 232.2 2400 1316 350 662 1600 2912
500 260.0 2500 1371 400 752 1650 3002
550 287.8 2600 1427 450 842 1700 3092
600 315.6 2700 1482 500 932 1750 3182
650 343.3 2800 1538 550 1022 1800 3272
700 371.1 2900 1593 600 1112 1850 3362
750 398.9 3000 1649 650 1202 1900 3452
800 426.7 3200 1760 700 1292 1950 3542
850 454.4 3400 1871 750 1382 2000 3632
900 482.2 3600 1982 800 1472 2050 3722
68
PRESSURE CONVERSIONS
inches ounces/ inches kilograms/ millimeters kilo-
water sq in lb/sq in mercury millibars sq cm water pascals
("w.c.) (osi) (psi) ("Hg) (mbar) (kg/cm2) (mm H2O) (kPa)
.04 .023 .001 .003 .1 .0001 1 .01
.1 .058 .004 .007 .25 .0003 2.54 .02
.17 .1 .006 .013 .42 .0004 4.4 .04
.2 .115 .007 .015 .5 .0005 5.08 .05
.35 .2 .013 .026 .87 .0009 8.8 .09
.39 .227 .014 .029 .97 .001 10 .1
.40 .23 .015 .029 1 .0010 10.2 .1
.5 .29 .018 .037 1.24 .0013 12.7 .12
.787 .45 .028 .058 1.96 .002 20 .2
.80 .46 .029 .059 2 .0020 20.4 .2
.87 .5 .031 .064 2.16 .0022 22 .22
1 .58 .036 .074 2.49 .0025 25.4 .25
1.73 1 .063 .127 4.30 .0044 44 .43
2 1.15 .072 .147 4.98 .0051 50.8 .5
2.01 1.16 .073 .148 5 .0051 51 .5
2.77 1.6 .1 .204 6.89 .0070 70.3 .69
3 1.73 .108 .221 7.46 .0076 76.2 .75
3.46 2 .125 .254 8.61 .0088 87.9 .86
4 2.31 .144 .294 9.95 .010 101.6 1
4.02 2.32 .145 .296 10 .010 102 1
5 2.89 .181 .368 12.5 .013 127 1.25
5.2 3 .188 .382 12.9 .013 131.9 1.29
5.54 3.2 .2 .407 13.8 .014 140.7 1.38
6 3.46 .216 .441 14.9 .015 152.4 1.49
6.93 4 .25 .51 17.2 .018 175.8 1.72
7 4.04 .253 .515 17.4 .018 177.8 1.74
8 4.62 .289 .588 19.9 .020 203.2 1.99
8.03 4.64 .29 .591 20 .020 204 2
8.66 5 .313 .637 21.5 .022 219.8 2.15
9 5.2 .325 .662 22.4 .023 228.6 2.24
10 5.77 .361 .735 24.9 .025 254 2.49
10.39 6 .375 .764 25.9 .026 263.8 2.59
11 6.35 .397 .809 27.4 .028 279.4 2.74
12 6.93 .433 .882 29.9 .030 304.8 2.99
12.05 6.96 .435 .887 30 .031 306 3
12.12 7 .438 .891 30.2 .031 307.7 3.02
13 7.51 .469 .956 32.4 .033 330.2 3.24
13.6 7.85 .491 1 33.8 .035 345.4 3.38
13.86 8 .5 1.02 34.5 .035 351.6 3.45
14 8.08 .505 1.03 34.9 .036 355.5 3.49
15 8.66 .541 1.10 37.4 .038 381 3.74
15.59 9 .563 1.15 38.8 .04 395.6 3.88
16 9.24 .578 1.18 39.8 .041 406.4 3.98
16.06 9.28 .58 1.18 40 .041 408 4
17 9.82 .614 1.25 42.3 .043 431.8 4.23
17.32 10 .625 1.27 43.1 .044 439.6 4.31
18 10.39 .649 1.32 44.8 .046 457.2 4.48
19 10.97 .686 1.4 47.3 .048 482.6 4.73
19.05 11 .688 1.40 47.4 .048 483.6 4.74
20 11.55 .722 1.47 49.8 .051 508 4.98
69
PRESSURE CONVERSIONS (Cont’d)
20.1 11.6 .725 1.48 50 .051 510 5
20.78 12 .75 1.53 51.7 .053 528 5.17
21 12.12 .758 1.54 52.3 .053 533 5.23
22 12.7 .794 1.62 54.8 .056 559 5.48
22.52 13 .813 1.66 56.0 .057 572 5.60
23 13.28 .83 1.69 57.3 .058 584 5.73
24 13.86 .866 1.76 59.7 .061 610 5.98
24.1 13.92 .87 1.77 60 .061 612 6
24.25 14 .875 1.78 60.3 .062 615 6.03
25 14.43 .902 1.84 62.3 .064 635 6.23
25.98 15 .938 1.91 64.6 .066 659 6.46
26 15.01 .938 1.91 64.7 .066 660 6.47
27 15.59 .974 1.99 67.2 .069 686 6.72
27.2 15.7 .982 2 67.7 .069 711 6.77
27.71 16 1 2.04 68.9 .070 703 6.89
28 16.17 1.01 2.06 69.7 .071 711 6.97
28.11 16.24 1.02 2.07 70 .071 714 7
29 16.74 1.05 2.13 72.2 .074 737 7.22
29.44 17 1.06 2.16 73.3 .075 747 7.33
30 17.32 1.08 2.21 74.7 .076 762 7.47
31 17.9 1.12 2.28 77.2 .079 787 7.72
31.18 18 1.13 2.29 77.6 .079 791 7.76
32 18.48 1.16 2.35 79.7 .081 813 7.97
32.13 18.56 1.16 2.36 80 .082 816 8
32.91 19 1.19 2.42 81.9 .084 835 8.19
33 19.05 1.19 2.43 82.2 .084 838 8.22
34 19.63 1.23 2.5 84.7 .086 864 8.47
34-64 20 1.25 2.55 86.2 .088 879 8.62
35 20.21 1.26 2.57 87.2 .089 889 8.72
36 20.79 1.3 2.65 89.6 .091 914 8.96
36.14 20.88 1.31 2.66 90 .092 918 9
36.37 21 1.31 2.67 90.5 .092 923 9.05
37 21.36 1.34 2.72 92.1 .094 940 9.21
38 21.94 1.37 2.79 94.6 .097 965 9.46
38.1 22 1.38 2.80 94.8 .097 967 9.48
39 22.52 1.41 2.87 97.1 .099 991 9.71
39.37 22.73 1.42 2.89 98.0 .1 1000 9.80
39.84 23 1.44 2.93 99.1 .101 1011 9.91
40 23.09 1.44 2.94 99.6 .102 1016 9.96
40.16 23.20 1.45 2.96 100 .102 1020 10
40.8 23.56 1.47 3 101.5 .104 1036 10.2
41 23.67 1.48 3.01 102.0 .104 1041 10.2
41.57 24 1.5 3.06 103.4 .106 1055 10.3
42 24.25 1.52 3.09 104.5 .107 1067 10.5
43 24.83 1.55 3.16 107 .109 1092 10.7
43.3 25 1.56 3.18 107.7 .11 1099 10.8
44 25.4 1.59 3.24 109.5 .112 1118 11
45 26 1.63 3.31 112 .114 1144 11.2
46 26.56 1.66 3.38 114.5 .117 1168 11.5
46.76 27 1.69 3.44 116.3 .118 1184 11.6
70
PRESSURE CONVERSIONS
47 27.14 1.7 3.46 116.9 .119 1194 11.7
48 27.71 1.73 3.53 119.4 .122 1219 12
48.5 28 1.75 3.57 120.7 .123 1232 12.1
49 28.29 1.77 3.60 121.9 .124 1245 12.2
50 28.87 1.80 3.68 124.4 .127 1270 12.5
50.23 29 1.81 3.69 125 .128 1276 12.5
51 29.45 1.84 3.75 126.9 .13 1295 12.7
51.96 30 1.88 3.82 129.3 .132 1320 12.9
52 30.02 1.88 3.82 129.4 .132 1321 12.9
53 30.6 1.91 3.9 131.9 .135 1346 13.2
53.69 31 1.94 3.95 133.6 .136 1364 13.4
54 31.18 1.95 3.97 134.4 .137 1372 13.4
54.4 31.41 1.96 4 135.4 .138 1382 13.5
55.4 32 2 4.07 137.8 .141 1408 13.8
68 39.26 2.45 5 169.2 .173 1727 16.9
78.7 45.46 2.84 5.79 195.8 .2 2000 19.6
80.32 46.4 2.9 5.91 200 .204 2040 20
81.6 47.11 2.94 6 203 .207 2072 20.3
83.14 48 3 6.11 207 .211 2112 20.7
95.2 55 3.44 7 237 .242 2418 23.7
108.8 62.8 3.93 8 271 .276 2763 27.1
110.8 64 4 8.15 276 .282 2816 27.6
120.5 69.6 4.35 8.87 300 .306 3060 30
138.6 80 5 10.2 345 .352 3517 34.5
160.6 92.8 5.8 11.8 400 .408 4080 40
166.3 96 6 12.2 414 .422 4223 41.4
194 112 7 14.3 483 .493 4927 48.3
196.9 113.7 7.1 14.5 490 .5 5000 49.0
200.8 116 7.25 14.8 500 .510 5100 50
221.7 128 8 16.3 552 .563 5631 55.2
241 139 8.7 17.7 600 .612 6120 60
249.4 144 9 18.3 621 .634 6335 62.1
277.1 160 10 20.4 689 .703 7033 68.9
281.1 162 10.15 20.7 700 .714 7140 70
321.3 186 11.6 23.6 800 .816 8160 80
361.4 209 13.05 26.6 900 .918 9180 90
393.7 227 14.21 28.9 980 1 10,000 98.0
401.6 232 14.5 29.6 1000 1.02 10,200 100
415.7 240 15 30.6 1034 1.06 10,559 103.4
554 320 20 40.7 1378 1.41 14,072 137.8
693 400 25 51 1724 1.76 17,602 172.4
831 480 30 61.1 2068 2.11 21,107 206.8
970 560 35 71.3 2414 2.46 24,638 241.3
1108 640 40 81.5 2757 2.81 28,143 275.8
1386 800 50 101.9 3449 3.52 35,204 344.7
1663 960 60 122.3 4138 4.22 42,240 413.7
1940 1120 70 142.6 4827 4.93 49,276 482.6
2217 1280 80 163.0 5516 5.63 56,312 551.6
2494 1440 90 183.4 6206 6.33 63,348 620.5
2771 1600 100 203.8 6895 7.04 70,383 689.5
71
INDEX
Abbreviations 61 Flame Tip Temp. 52
Air Flow Orifices
effect of altitude 20 and Cv 16 capacities
effect of pressure 20 and duct velocity 17 high pressure 9-11
effect of temp. 21 orifices 4 low pressure 5-8
infiltration 53 Flue Gas Analysis 52 coefficients of discharge 4
pipe flow formulas 4
Flue Sizing 53
sizing 16 Pipe
pressure losses 12 Fume Incineration capacities 54
heat requirements 45 dimensions 54
Air Heating sizing 46
heat requirements 45 fittings
Furnaces dimensions 55
Alloys cold air infiltration 53 equivalent length 14
thermal capacities 40 flue sizing 53 flange templates 60
Area thermal head 53 pressure losses
of circles 57, 58 turndown 36 air 12
Available Heat Gas/Air Mixtures 24 natural gas 13, 14
definition 35-36 oil 27, 28
Gases sizing
charts 51 available heat 51 air, gas & mixture 15
Black Body Radiation 49 combustion products 23 air, quick method 15
Blowers constituents 22 branch 16
as suction device 20 density 22 steam 32
fan laws 19 flame temp. 23 water 31
horsepower 20 flame velocity 22
flammability limits 22 Pressure, Conversions 69-71
ratings 18, 19
heat release 23 Propane
Boilers heating value 23 propane/air mixtures 24
Btu/hr. & H.P. 31 ignition temp. 22 properties 22, 23
conversion factors 30 mixtures 24 see also Gases
sizing steam pipe 32 pipe, sizing 16 Pyrometric Cones 50
Butane properties 22-24,37
butane/air mixtures 24 specific gravity 22 Radiant Tubes 43
properties 22, 23 specific volume 22 Radiation, Black Body 49
Cv 16 stoichiometric ratio 22 Refractory 44
Circles Heat Sheet Metal
areas 57, 58 available 35-36 gauges 56
circumferences 57, 58 balance 35-36 weights 56
losses
Circumference general 35-36 Spray Washers
of circles 57, 58 refractory 44 heat loss factors 48
Coefficients of Discharge 4 spray washers 48 heat requirements 48
tank 47 nozzle capacities 48
Cones, Pyrometric 50
net output 35-36 Steam
Conversions required for processes 41 pipe sizing 32
boilers 30 storage, refractory 44 properties 30
h.p. & Btu/hr. 31 terminology 30
general 64 thru 68 storage, tank 47
oil viscosity 26 transfer, equations 52 Symbols
pressure 69 Heating Operations electrical 62, 63
temperature, °F & °C 69 temp. & heat req’d. 41-42 Temperature
Crucibles Liquid Heating °F & °C 68
capacities & dimensions 43 sizing, burner 47 flame tip 52
refractory face 44
Drills Metals required, various processes 41
sizes 59 thermal capacities 40
tap drill sizes 60 Thermal
Motors capacities, metals & alloys 40
Duct Velocity 17 current 34 efficiency 36
Efficiency, Thermal 36 formulas 33 head, furnaces 53
NEMA size starters 33 properties, materials 37
Electrical
formulas 33 Natural Gas, Properties 22-23 Turndown
motor current 34 Net Heat Output 35-36 furnace 36
motor starters 33 Nozzles Valves
NEMA enclosures 34 spray capacities 48 Cv and flow 16
ohm’s law 33 equivalent pipe length 14
symbols 62, 63 Ohm’s Law 33
wire specs 33 Oil Velocity, Duct 17
Equivalent Length ANSI specs 25 Washers, spray
pipe 14 heating value & °API 27 heat requirements 48
valves 14 piping pressure losses 27, 28 Wire
piping temp. losses 29 gauges 56
Fan Laws 19 s.g. & °API 27 specifications 33
Fans typical properties 26 weights 56
see blowers viscosity conversions 26
72
Tech Notes Table Of Contents
Section 1-Eclipse Equipment (numbers correspond to Bulletin numbers)

656 Selecting TVT Mixing Tees (Page 74)
810/812 Sizing Pilots, Blasts Tips & Pilot Mixers with Flow Charts (Page 76)
Section 2-Engineering Data

Part A- Combustion Data
A-1 Flue Gas Analysis vs. Excess Air (Page 80)
A-2 Flame Temperatures vs. Air Preheat & % Oxygen (Page 81)
A-3 Available Heat vs. Oxygen Enrichment (Page 82)
A-4 Available Heat-Extended Chart (Page 83)
Part C- Control systems
C-1 Summary of Fuel-Air Ratio Control Systems for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 84)
C-2 Ratio Control Using Proportioning Fixed Port Valves for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 85)
C-3 Ratio Control Using Proportioning (Adjustable Characteristic) Valves for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 87)
C-4 Ratio Control Using Cross-Connected Proportionators for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 89)
C-5 Ratio Control Using Cross-Connected Proportionator with Bleed Fitting for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 91)
C-6 Ratio Control Using Electronic Controllers for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 92)
C-7 Excess Air Operation by Controlling Fuel Only for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 94)
C-8 Excess Air Operation with Biased Proportionator for Nozzle Mixing Burners (Page 95)
C-9 Excess Air Operation with Throttled Impulse (Adjustable Bleed) to Proportionator for Nozzle Mixing
Burners (Page 96)
C-10 Backpressure Compensation System for Cross-Connected Nozzle Mix Burner Systems (Page 97)
Part E- Emissions
E-2 Conversion Factors for Emissions Calculations (Page 98)
E-3 Correcting Emissions Readings to 3% O2 or 11% O 2 Basis (Page 100)
Part H- Heat Recovery
H-1 Recuperator Efficiency: Fuel Savings & Effectiveness (Page 101)
Part R- Regulations & Codes
R-1 NFPA Requirements for Gas Burner Systems (Page 103)
R-2 IRI Requirements for Gas Burner Systems (Page 105)
Section 3-Application Data

Part I- Incineration
I-1 Heating Values of Flammable Liquids (Page 108)
Part L- Liquid Heating
L-1 Immersion Tube Sizing (Page 110)
L-2 Submerged Combustion (Page 112)
L-3 Immersion Tubes-What Will The Stack Temperature Be? (Page 116)
Part O- Ovens
O-1 Determining % O2 in a Recirculating System (Page 117)
73
Tech Notes Section I
Sheet 656
Selecting TVT Mixing Tees—Bulletin 656

General Remarks: Series TVT two-valve mixing tees lack a tapered discharge sleeve, so they are not as
efficient as LP Proportional Mixers. Their performance will also be strongly affected
by downstream piping, so use them only where gas pressure available at the mixer
connection exceeds mixture pressure by:
3" w.c. for natural or LP gas (except 166-24-TVT, which requires 7" w.c.)
6" w.c. for coke oven gas
8" w.c. for digester gas
For coke oven or digester gas, do not use the 84-16, 124-24 or 166-24; their gas inlets
are too small. Also, do not use any of these mixers with producer gas. Producer gas
flows far exceed the capacity of the gas orifices and inlet connections.
Selection Data Required: 1. CFH air flow through the mixer (if customer specifies Btu/hr, divide by 100 to
get cfh air).
2. Air pressure available at mixer inlet, "w.c.
3. Mixture pressure desired, "w.c.
Selection Procedure: 1. Refer to Table I, page 75. Select a mixer whose maximum air capacity is higher
than the required air flow.
2. To size the air jet, subtract the mixture pressure from the air pressure. This
gives you the air pressure drop available across the mixer. Then refer to the
graph. Locate the desired air flow on the horizontal axis and the air pressure
drop on the vertical axis. Locate the point where they intersect and then move
right to the next diagonal line. That line represents the optimum jet size.
3. Cross-check the air jet size against Table I to be sure it is within the range of
sizes available for the mixer. If it isn’t, select the next larger size of mixer to
avoid taking a higher pressure drop.
74
Table I - TVT Mixer Data
Range of
Mixer Maximum Jet Sizes
Catalog Air Flow, Air Jet 1/32nds of Use Mixer With
No. scfh Part No. an inch These Gases
44-17-TVT 900 0217- 10 - 16 Natural, LP, Coke Oven, Digester
84-16-TVT 3500 0225- 18 - 36 Natural, LP
124-24-TVT 8000 0695- 32 - 56 Natural, LP
166-24-TVT 15,000 0994- 36 - 80 Natural, LP
168-30-TVT 15,000 0994- 36 - 80 Natural, LP, Coke Oven, Digester
Figure I - Air Jet Sizing Chart

Air Jet Size
21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 42 46 50 54
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 44 48 52 56
30
58
25
Air ∆P Through Mixer, "w.c.
60
20 62
64
66
15
68
70
72
10 74
9 76
8 78
80
7
6
200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 8000 10,000 15,000
Maximum Max. For Maximum For Max. For

Maximum For 64-16 84-16 & 124-24 & 166-24 &
For 44-17 TVT & 66-24 TVT 86-24 TVT 126-24 TVT 168-30 TVT
Air Flow Through Mixer, scfh
75
Tech Notes Section I
Sheet 810/812
Sizing Pilots, Blast Tips & Pilot Mixers With Flow Charts
Selection Factors To select the right equipment, you need to know:

1. Type and number of pilot or blast tips;
2. Btu/hr. at which each tip will fire;
3. Air pressure (P ) available at the mixer inlet.
A
Using The Charts Properly 1. From the tip capacity chart on page 77, find the required Desired Tip
mixture pressure. Do not exceed 8" w.c. mixture pressure,
Y
X
YY
XX
unless you’ve chosen a Cumapart (CP) tip or blast tip.
Z
Mixture Pressure
ZZ
P P
A M
Air
PA - PM = Mixture P
Desired Btu/hr.
2. Subtract the mixture pressure (P ) found in Step 1 from the air pres-
M
sure (PA) which is available at the mixer. The difference is the mixer
pressure drop.
3. Figure the total air flow through the mixer by the following equation:
Btu/hr. per tip x number of tips
cfh air =
100
4. Next, refer to the mixer air capacity charts (page 78 for Series 121 mix-
ers and page 79 for Series 131). To use the charts properly, follow the
directions below:
)
4
123
C(
1 Locate the mixer

3 From the point where
AB
pressure drop figure

in Step 2, and read these lines cross, move
to the right. right to the nearest mixer
flow curve. This curve is
Pressure Drop
the proper size mixer to use.

The air jet part number
is in parentheses.
Air Flow
2 Locate the air flow figured in Step 3
and read up.
5. Do not use the Series 121 mixers above 300 scfh air or the Series 131
mixers above 600 scfh air—otherwise pipe velocities are too high.
76
Mixture Pressure, "w.c.
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
1 -K
4
5
6
2 -K
1C
P
77
10
1F
3 -K
4 -K
2C
20 P
- ST
Btu/hr. x 1000 @ 10:1 Air/Gas Ratio
20
5- K
3R
Capacities Of Eclipse Pilot & Blast Tips
2-NAFI
2F
3R
30
6-KAF
3C
P
40
3E
P
50
4R
AF
4R
A I
F 3F
60
4E
P
5R 4F
A F
5R
100
AF
I
Series 121 Pilot Mixers
Air Flow Capacity
7)
6)
)
)
0-1
0-2
0-1
0-3
0-1
52
52
52
52
52
14
14
14
14
14
Mixer Catalog No. &
6(
2(
0(
6(
0(
(Air Jet Part No.)
1-4
1-4
1-4
1-3
1-3
12
12
12
12
12
121-25 (14520-5)
50
121-22 (14520-6)
40
121-18 (14520-7)
30 121-17 (14520-15)
121-12 (14520-8)
20
121-10 (14520-14)
121-8 (14520-13)
121-6 (14520-12)
121-4 (14520-11)
121-7/32 (14520-9)
"w.c.
Mixer,"w.c.
10 121-1 (14520-10)
AcrossMixer,
P Across
5
∆P
1
10 15 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200 300
Combustion Air Flow Through Mixer, SCFH
(Btu/hr. = SCFH Air x 100)
78
Series 131 Pilot Mixers
4)
Air Flow Capacity
)
4-1
4-8
25
25
)
)
4 -1
4 -2
4 -3
10
10
25
25
25
4(
4(
Mixer Catalog No. &
(1 0
(1 0
(1 0
1 /6
3 /6
(Air Jet Part No.)
1 -4
1 -5
1 -1
1 -6
1 -1
13
13
13
13
13
50 131-7 (10254-4)
40 131-15/64 (10254-9)
131-8 (10254-5)
30
131-17/64 (10254-10)
131-9 (10254-6)
20
131-19/64 (10254-11)
131-10 (10254-7)
"w.c.
131-21/64 (10254-15)
Mixer,"w.c.
10
AcrossMixer,
P Across
5
∆P
1
20 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200 300 400 500 600
Combustion Air Flow Through Mixer, SCFH
(Btu/hr. = SCFH Air x 100)
79
Tech Notes Section 2
Sheet A-1
Flue Gas Analysis vs. Excess Air
Reference: Eclipse Combustion Engineering Guide, p. 52

The graph below supplements the flue gas analysis chart on page 52 of the
Combustion Engineering Guide, which extends to only 200% excess air.
These curves are calculated for Birmingham Natural Gas, same as the
Engineering Guide.
20
Figure 1: % Oxygen—Dry Sample
% Oxygen—Saturated Sample
Flue Gas Constituents
% Flue Gas Constituent By Volume
vs. % Excess Air

15
10
% Carbon Dioxide—Natural Gas
0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
% Excess Air
80
Sheet A-2
Flame Temperatures vs. Air Preheat & % Oxygen

General Remarks: Both preheated air and oxygen enrichment increase the theoretical tem-
perature of burner flames. The following graphs show their effect on the
theoretical flame temperature of natural gas, which, with 60°F combus-
tion air and 21% oxygen, would be about 3500 - 3550° F.
4500
Theoretical Flame Temp., °F
Figure 1:
Theoretical Flame
Temperature vs. Preheat
4000
3500
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Combustion Air Temperature, °F
5200
Figure 2:
Theoretical Flame
Temperature vs. O2 in Air
4800
Flame Temperature, °F
4400
4000
3600
20 40 60 80 100
% Oxygen In Air
81
Sheet A-3
Available Heat vs. Oxygen Enrichment

General Remarks: The graph below shows available heat as a function of flue gas temperature
and percent oxygen in the combustion air stream. These curves were cal-
culated for natural gas with combustion air at 60°F.
100
Figure 1:
Available Heat vs.
Oxygen Enrichment 80
% Available Heat
60
100% O 2
40
35% O 2
20 25% O 2
20.9% O 2
0
2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000
Flue Gas Temperature, °F
82
Sheet A-4
Available Heat—Extended Chart

Page 51 of the Eclipse Combustion Engineering Guide carries two available

heat charts, but unfortunately, the more useful one of the two doesn’t cover
flue gas temperatures below 1000°F. The chart below, calculated from the
same conditions as the Engineering guide chart, extends these curves down
to 300°F flue gas temperature.
Based On Birmingham Natural Gas (1002 Btu/Cu. ft., 0.6 Sp. Gr.)
100
Figure 1:
Available Heat vs. Flue 90
Gas Exit Temperature, °F 80
70
350% % Excess Air
% Available Heat
400%
60
500%
50 600%
40 800%
30
1000% 0
10 %
25
20 %
20
0%
50 25
0%
15
1200% % %
10
0%
0%
10
30
0%
0
0 200 600 1000 1400 1800 2200 2600 3000
Flue Gas Exit Temperature, °F
83
Sheet C-1
Summary of Fuel-Air Ratio Control Systems

for Nozzle Mixing Burners
If backpressure
On multiple burner
fluctuates, does system zones, if one is
Control Mode maintain constant:
Required shut off, do the
System Gas Fuel-Air others hold their
Control System Cost* Pressure** Hi-Low Modulating Firing Rate? Ratio? ratio?
On-ratio, linked valve I L • No *** No

On-ratio,
characterized valve M L to M • • No *** No
On-ratio, cross connected
proportionator M H • • No Yes Yes
On-ratio, cross connected
proportionator & bleeder M L to M • • No Yes Yes
On-ratio, electronic E M • • Yes Yes No

Excess air,
fuel-only control I M • • No *** No
Excess air,
biased proportionator M H • • No No Yes
Excess air,
throttled impulse M H • • No Yes† Yes
* I = Inexpensive, M = Moderate, E = Expensive

** L = Low, M = Moderate, H = High
*** Depends on air and gas pressures at burner. See sheets for individual systems.
† If bleeder vent is connected to combustion chamber.
84
Sheet C-2
Nozzle Mixing Burners

Ratio Control Using Proportioning (Linked) Fixed Port Valves
Operating Principle Air and gas passages in the burner are the fixed resistances in the system.
Control valves in the air and gas lines are the variable resistance. The two
valves are connected by linkages to a common drive motor so that, in theory,
they open and close in proportion, maintaining a fixed air-gas ratio over
the system’s turndown range.
FUEL
Advantages • Valve operation can be readily understood—confidence builder for per-

sons unfamiliar with control systems.
• Working parts are visible—little chance that a hidden defect is present.
• Can be used with low gas supply pressures. If a large enough gas valve is
selected, the pressure required is only a little higher than the burner gas
nozzle pressure (2 in above figure).
• Inexpensive.
(continued on page 86)
85
Disadvantages • Differences in valve characteristic curves make it difficult or impossible
to hold a fixed gas-air ratio across the entire turndown range. The system
is best limited to high-low control.
• Unless air and gas pressures at the burner (1 and 2 in the figure on page
85) are equal, unforeseen changes in combustion chamber pressure will
cause the burner to shift off-ratio according to the table below:
And Chamber Pressure

Goes More Stays The Goes More
If Air Pressure Is Positive (+), Then: Same (o), Then: Negative (-), Then:
Higher than gas pressure Burner goes leaner No change Burner goes richer
Same as gas pressure No change No change No change
Lower than gas pressure Burner goes richer No change Burner goes leaner
If air pressure at the burner is higher than the gas pressure (this is usu-
ally the case), they can be made equal by installing a limiting orifice valve
between the gas control valve and burner and adjusting it until pressure
(2) equals pressure (1). However, this negates one of the advantages of
linked valve systems—the low gas pressure requirement.
• If the air supply becomes starved due to a dirty blower wheel or a plugged
filter, the system will go rich. The gas valve responds only to the me-
chanical linkage, not to air flow changes.
• If multiple burners are controlled by a single set of linked valves, and the
fuel flow to one burner is throttled back manually or shut off entirely,
that fuel will go to the other burners, forcing them to run rich. In addition
to the safety hazard this presents, it makes multiple burners tedious to
set up. Any gas adjustment made to one burner upsets the settings of the
other burners in the zone.
86
Sheet C-3

Ratio Control Using Proportioning (Adjustable Characteristic) Valves
Operating Principle Air and gas passages in the burner are the fixed resistances in the system.
Control valves are the variable resistances and are connected in tandem to
a common drive motor. Because it is practically impossible to get two fixed
port valves to track together over their turndown range, at least one of the
valves is fitted with an adjustable screw rack which makes the valve open
faster or slower than the linkage calls for. This permits the valve’s flow
curve to be adjusted to more closely match that of the fixed port valve.
Advantages • Valve operation can be readily understood—confidence builder for per-

sons unfamiliar with control systems.
• Working parts are visible—little chance that a hidden defect is present.
• Can be used with low gas supply pressures.
• Can be used with proportioning or high-low control systems.
Disadvantages • Adjustable characteristic valves are usually expensive.

• Time consuming to set up. Most screw racks contain 8 to 12 adjustment
points, which must be individually set when the burner is commissioned.
• Unless air and gas pressures at the burner (1 and 2 in the figure below)
are equal, unforeseen changes in combustion chamber pressure will cause
the burner to shift off-ratio according to the table on page 88.
FUEL
87
Disadvantages (continued)
And Chamber Pressure
Goes More Stays The Goes More
If Air Pressure Is Positive (+), Then: Same (o), Then: Negative (-), Then:
Higher than gas pressure Burner goes leaner No change Burner goes richer
Same as gas pressure No change No change No change
Lower than gas pressure Burner goes richer No change Burner goes leaner
If air pressure at the burner is higher than the gas pressure (this is usu-
ally the case), they can be made equal by installing a limiting orifice valve
between the gas control valve and burner and adjusting it until pressure
(2) equals pressure (1). However, this negates one of the advantages of
linked valve systems—the low gas pressure requirement.
• If the air supply becomes starved due to a dirty blower wheel or a plugged
filter, the system will go rich. The gas valve responds only to the me-
chanical linkage, not to air flow changes.
• If multiple burners are controlled by a single set of linked valves, and the
fuel flow to one burner is throttled back manually or shut off entirely,
that fuel will go to the other burners, forcing them to run rich. In addition
to the safety hazard this presents, it makes multiple burners tedious to
set up. Any gas adjustment made to one burner upsets the settings of the
other burners in the zone.
88
Sheet C-4

Ratio Control Using Cross-Connected Proportionators
Operating Principle Burner air passage is fixed resistance for air flow. Gas passages in the
burner are usually too large to serve as the fixed resistance, so a limiting
orifice valve is installed at the gas inlet . At setup, this valve is adjusted to
provide the correct gas flow when gas pressure (2) is equal to air pressure
(1). Low fire gas-air ratio is set with spring in Proportionator.
Cross
Connection
3 2
FUEL
Proportionator Limiting
Orifice
Advantages • Easy to set up. Once high and low fire ratios are set, everything in be-
tween is taken care of.
• Can be used with proportioning or high-low control systems.
• No problem with mismatched valve flow curves. Proportionator is slave to
air valve and automatically matches its characteristic curve.
• Fuel-air ratio is unaffected by unforeseen changes in combustion cham-
ber pressure.
• Although air starvation due to a plugged filter or dirty blower wheel will
cause a loss in firing capacity, it will not cause the system to go rich. The
proportionator automatically reduces fuel flow as the air flow drops off.
• On multiple burner systems fed from a single air control valve and
proportionator, changing or shutting off the fuel flow to one burner will
not upset the fuel flow to the others. This makes initial setup easier and
eliminates the hazard of burners in a zone going rich because one of
them has been misadjusted or shut off.
• If proportionator permits, this system can be converted to an excess air
system (see page 95) with a simple proportionator spring adjustment.
89
Disadvantages • Requires higher gas pressures. Gas pressure at (3) in the figure on page
89 must equal air pressure at (1) plus gas pressure drop through
proportionator valve.
• Operating principles of proportionator are poorly understood, especially
in oven and air heating industry; operators don’t know how to set up
systems.
• Internal working of proportionator can’t be seen. Operators don’t know if
it’s working correctly and, as a result, are afraid of it.
90
Sheet C-5

Ratio Control Using Cross-Connected Proportionator With Bleed Fitting
Cross
Connection
1
Bleed Fitting
4
3 2
FUEL
Orifice
Operating Principle Used where proportionator system is desired, but where gas pressure at (3)
is insufficient to make a conventional proportionator system work (see page
89). This set-up is also used where the loading pressure on the proportionator
is equal to or higher than the maximum inlet gas pressure the proportionator
can tolerate. An adjustable bleed fitting—basically a needle valve in a tee—
reduces the loading pressure (4) on the proportionator to a pressure at
least 2" w.c. lower than the inlet gas pressure (3). This permits the
proportionator to respond to changes in air loading pressure (1) over the
entire turndown range.
If, for example, high fire air pressure (1) is 20" w.c., but gas supply (3) is
only 13" w.c., the bleeder could be set to bleed off 50% of the air loading
pressure, producing a pressure of 10" w.c. at (4) and (2).
Advantages Same as the conventional proportionator system (see page 89), except that
combustion chamber pressure fluctuations will cause the system to go off-
ratio. Can be compensated by connecting the vent of the bleed fitting to the
combustion chamber.
Disadvantages • Same as the conventional proportionator system (see page 89), except
that high inlet gas pressure is no longer required.
• Bleed fittings contain small orifices which are susceptible to plugging by
dirt. Filtered combustion air will alleviate the problem, but bleeders will
always require frequent maintenance attention and they are subject to
unauthorized tampering.
91
Sheet C-6
Nozzle Mixing Burners Cross

Connection
Ratio Control Using Electronic Controllers
Air Flow Primary

Meter Valve TC
Electronic
Fuel Flow Controller
Meter
Slave Valve
FUEL
Operating Principle For all of its sophistication, a variation of the linked valve system. In this
case, the linkage is electronic instead of mechanical. This system is also
known as a “mass flow” control system, although this a misnomer—the
flow signals fed to the controller are related either to pressure differential
or to flow velocity.
The air and fuel lines each contain a motor-driven control valve and a flow
metering device (orifice plate & ∆P transmitter, turbine meter, vortex-shed-
ding flowmeter, etc.) One of the control valves is the primary valve, driven
by the temperature controller. The second valve is slaved to the first through
the electronic ratio controller.
Flow meters in the air and fuel lines feed signals proportional to flow to the
controller. The controller compares the signals and, if they are out of ratio,
sends a correcting signal to the slave valve, which then alters its flow to
restore the desired air-fuel ratio.
Advantages • Extremely high accuracy inherent to electronic systems.

• Can be integrated with master computer to control burner, as well as
provide fuel consumption data.
• If controller can be reprogrammed, can be reconfigured as an excess air
system.
• Will not allow the burner to go rich if air starvation occurs.
• Provided that air and fuel supply pressures are adequate, will maintain a
predetermined firing rate regardless of combustion chamber backpressure
fluctuations. This is the only system that will do so.
92
Disadvantages • Most expensive of all the ratio control systems.
• No matter how sophisticated the electronics, the accuracy of the system
is no better than the flow-sensing elements. If orifice plates are used to
measure flows, accuracy degrades rapidly at turndown ratios greater than
4:1 unless systems are individually calibrated in the field.
• On a multiple burner system, turning the fuel of one burner down or off
will cause the others to run rich—this system will try to maintain a gas
flow proportional to airflow, regardless of where the gas has to go.
93
Sheet C-7

Excess Air Operation By Controlling Fuel Only
Optional Manual
Trimming Valve
FUEL
Operating Principle This system is known as the “fuel only control”, “fixed air” or “wild air”
system; it is the simplest of all excess air systems. A motor-driven valve is
placed in the fuel line, while the air has no flow controller—a manual
trimming valve might be installed for servicing or limiting the high fire
flow.
Advantages
• Low cost.
• Permits attainment of the maximum excess air capability of the burner.
• Suitable for high-low or proportioning control.
Disadvantage
• If multiple burners are controlled from a single fuel valve, reducing or
shutting off the fuel flow to one of them causes the others to go richer.
94
Sheet C-8

Excess Air Operation With Biased Proportionator
Cross
Connection
3 2
FUEL
Orifice
Operating Principle System installation is identical to conventional proportionator system

(see page 89), but requires a proportionator whose spring can be ad-
justed to produce a significant negative bias. System is customarily set
up to operate near stoichiometric ratio at high fire. As air valve closes,
the proportionator—with its negative spring bias—causes fuel flow to
decrease even more rapidly, producing increasing amounts of excess
air.
Advantages
• Better fuel economy than fuel-only control excess air system (see page
94).
• Suitable for high-low or proportioning control.
• Unlike fuel-only control system, turning down or shutting off the gas
flow to one burner in a multi-burner system will not cause the others
to go rich.
Disadvantages
• Not capable of excess air rates as high as the fuel-only control sys-
tem.
• More expensive than fuel-only control system.
95
Sheet C-9

Excess Air Operation With Throttled Impulse (Adjustable Bleed) To
Proportionator
Cross Optional Manual
Connection Trimming Valve
Motor-Driven
Small Limiting Orifice Bleed Valve
Or Needle Valve
Tee
FUEL
Orifice
Operating Principle A variation on the cross-connected proportionator system (see page 89).
There is no control valve in the combustion air line. Instead, the firing rate
control valve is placed in the bleed leg of a tee in the impulse line to the
proportionator, and the linkage is adjusted to make the bleed valve re-
verse-acting; i.e., the valve closes when the temperature controller calls
for heat. The limiting orifice or needle valve in the loading line is closed
partway to restrict air flow through the impulse line—this insures that the
motor-driven bleed valve is able to control over its entire range.
Advantage • Of all the excess air control systems, this one probably has the best
combination of sensitivity and a wide operating range.
Disadvantages • Like fixed bleed orifice sytems, this control system can be upset by accu-
mulations of airborne dirtand unauthorized tampering.
• The only valve proven suitable as a motor-driven bleed valve is the North
American 3/8" Adjustable Port Valve. Even 3/8" motorized oil valves—
whether Eclipse’s, Hauck’s or North American’s—lack the sensitivity for
this application.
96
Sheet C-10
Backpressure Compensation System

For Cross-Connected Nozzle Mix Burner Systems
Purpose: To maintain a constant burner firing rate and fuel-air ratio regardless of
random fluctuations in combustion chamber backpressure.
Method: Hold a constant differential pressure between point “B” (upstream of main
air control valve) and point “D” (combustion chamber), even if pressure at
point “D” varies. This is done by putting two air control valves in series, one
responding to the temperature controller, the other to the differential pres-
sure between points “B” and “D”.
∆P Transducer
Chamber Pressure Impulse Line
Power
Supply
TC Temperature
Pressure
PC Controller
Controller
A
B C D
Motorized Main Air

Blower Trim Valve Control Valve
ABP ALO
Example: Assume backpressure will vary uncontrollably between 0 & 10" w.c.
Assume burner ∆P is 10" w.c. @ high fire, 1" w.c. @ low fire.
Main air control valve ∆P is 5" w.c. @ high fire.
Blower develops 30" w.c. static pressure.
Static Pressures, Differential Pressures, Must Be

Firing Back "W.C. "W.C. Constant
Rate Press A B C D A-B B-C C-D A-C A-D B-D
0" w.c. 30 15 10 0 15 5 10 20 30 15
High 5" w.c. 30 20 15 5 10 5 10 15 25 15
10" w.c. 30 25 20 10 5 5 10 10 20 15
0" w.c. 30 15 1 0 15 14 1 29 30 15
Low 5" w.c. 30 20 6 5 10 14 1 24 25 15
10" w.c. 30 25 11 10 5 14 1 19 20 15
97
Sheet E-2
Conversion Factors For Emissions Calculations

Preparing emissions estimates for environmental authorities can be dif-
ficult because they often ask for emissions expressed in units not avail-
able through existing data. Here are the conversion procedures for some
of the more commonly-used measurement systems:
1) ppm at 3% O2 (15% excess air) in dry flue gases to lb./million Btu
(ppm)(F3) = lb./million Btu
Values of multiplier F3 for various fuels and emissions
NOX Aldehydes, Unburned Hydrocarbons,
Measured Measured As Measured As:
Various Fuels As NO2 CO Formaldehyde Methane Propane CO2 SO2
Birmingham Nat. Gas* .001187 .000722 .000781 .000416 .001147 .001147 .001672
Propane .001185 .000721 .000780 .000415 .001146 .001146 .001669
Butane .001212 .000735 .000798 .000424 .001172 .001172 .001707
#2 Oil** .001317 .000801 .000867 .000461 .001273 .001273 .001854
2) lb./million Btu to ppm at 3% O2 (15% excess air) in dry flue

gases
(lb./million Btu)(f3) = ppm @ 3% O2, dry
Values of multiplier f3 for various fuels and emissions
Birmingham Nat. Gas* 842 1385 1280 2404 872 872 598
Propane 844 1387 1282 2410 873 873 599
Butane 825 1361 1253 2358 853 853 586
#2 Oil** 759 1248 1153 2169 786 786 539
3) ppm at 0% O2 in dry flue gases to lb./million Btu

(ppm)(F0) = lb./million Btu
Values of multiplier F0 for various fuels and emissions
Birmingham Nat. Gas* .001017 .000617 .00067 .000356 .000983 .000983 .001432
Propane .001018 .000619 .00067 .000356 .000984 .000984 .001434
Butane .001042 .000634 .000686 .000365 .001007 .001007 .001468
#2 Oil** .001133 .00069 .000746 .000397 .001096 .001096 .001596
* 1002 Gross Btu/cubic foot, 8.48 Cubic feet dry flue products at stoichiometric ratio.
** Calculated as heptadecane, C17 H36, 19,270 Gross Btu/lb.
98
4) lb./million Btu to ppm at 0% O2 in dry flue gases
(lb./million Btu)(f0) = ppm @ 0% O2, dry
Values of multiplier f0 for various fuels and emissions
Various Fuels As NO2 CO Formaldehyde Methane Propane CO2 SO 2
Birmingham Nat. Gas* 983 1621 1493 2809 1017 1017 698
Propane 982 1616 1493 2809 1016 1016 697
Butane 960 1577 1458 2740 983 983 681
#2 Oil** 883 1449 1340 2519 912 912 627
5) ppm at 3% O2 or 0% O2 in dry flue gases to lb./year

First, calculate lb./million Btu with Step 1 or 3 on the first page.
Then convert to lbs./year with the following relationship:
(lb./million Btu) (Maximum Burner Input, million Btu/hr.) (operating
hrs./year) = lb./year
6) lb/year to ppm at 3% O2 or 0% O2 in dry flue gases

lb./year ÷ operating hrs./year ÷ Maximum Burner Input, million
Btu/hr. = lb./million Btu
Convert lb./million Btu to ppm with Step 2 or 4.
7) ppm at 3% O2 or 0% O2 in dry flue gases to gm/Nm3

(ppm)(G) = gm/Nm3
Values of multiplier G for various emissions
Emission As NO2 CO Formaldehyde Methane Propane CO2 SO 2
G .002031 .001235 .001341 .000716 .001969 .001965 .002861
8) gm/Nm3 to ppm at 3% O2 or 0% O2 in dry flue gases

(gm/Nm3)(g) = ppm
Values of multiplier g for various emissions
Emission As NO2 CO Formaldehyde Methane Propane CO2 SO2
g 492.4 809.7 745.7 1396.6 507.9 508.9 349.5
* 1002 Gross Btu/cubic foot, 8.48 Cubic feet dry flue products at stoichiometric ratio.
** Calculated as heptadecane, C17H36, 19,270 Gross Btu/lb.
99
Sheet E-3
Correcting Emissions Readings to 3% O2 or 11% O2 Basis

Multiplier For:
Many environmental authorities, including %O 2 3%O 2 11%O2
the U.S. EPA and several European agen-
0 .86 .48
cies, require that gaseous pollutants, like 1 .9 .5
NOx and CO, be reported in ppm (parts per 2 .95 .53
million by volume) corrected to a based of 3 1 .56
3% excess O2—or 15% excess air—in the flue 4 1.06 .59
5 1.13 .63
gases. Japan, on the other hand, custom- 6 1.2 .67
arily uses a base of 11% O2. 7 1.29 .71
8 1.38 .77
Emission readings taken at different oxy- 9 1.5 .83
gen levels can be easily converted to a stan- 10 1.64 .91
dard base using a multiplier: 11 1.8 1
12 2.0 1.11
ppmcorrected = ppmtest x multiplier 13 2.25 1.25
14 2.57 1.43
The multiplier is calculated from the oxy- 15 3.0 1.67
gen reading taken during the test and the 16 3.6 2
base oxygen reading required by the regu- 17 4.5 2.5
18 6 3.33
lation: 18.5 7.2 4
21 - % O2 base 19 9 5
multiplier = 19.5 12 6.67
21 - % O2 test 20 18 10
20.2 22.5 12.5
For your convenience, a table of multipliers
20.4 30 16.67
is presented to the right. 20.6 45 25
20.8 90 50
100
Sheet H-1
Recuperator Efficiency: Fuel Savings & Effectiveness

Percent Fuel Savings There are two commonly-used methods for figuring recuperator efficiency:
percent fuel savings and percent effectiveness.
Percent savings is calculated by this relationship:
% Savings= ( %% Available Heat With Recuperator)

Available Heat Less Recuperator
x100
Because available heat figures vary with the composition of the fuel and
the amount of excess air, one supplier’s fuel savings data may be different
from another’s by one or two percentage points. More often than not, the
tables will be based on natural gas at 10% excess air.
Percent Effectiveness Percent effectiveness measures the inherent heat transfer capabilities of
the recuperator without regard to fuel composition or fuel/air ratio:
Combustion Air Temp Combustion Air Temp
( )
Leaving Exchanger - Entering Exchanger
% Effectiveness= x100
Flue Gas Temp Combustion Air Temp
Entering Exchanger - Entering Exchanger
Basically, it compares the actual rise in combustion air temperature to the

maximum that could possibly be achieved (combustion air preheated to
the same temperature as the incoming flue gases). Since the maximum is
unattainable, effectiveness is always less than 100%.
The graph on page 102 relates combustion air temperature to flue gas tem-
perature and recuperator effectiveness.
To predict air preheat, read up from the flue gas temperature to the line
representing the effectiveness of the exchanger, then left to air preheat.
101
Figure 1: % Effectiveness
90% 80% 70% 60% 50%
Heat Exchanger 1500
Effectiveness Curves
Combustion Air Preheat, °F

40%
Based on Combustion Air
Entering at 60° F.
1000
30%
20%
500
10%
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Flue Gas Temp. Entering Exchanger, °F
102
TechNotes Section 2
Sheet R-1
NFPA Requirements for Gas Burner Systems

Reference: NFPA 86 – Ovens and Furnaces, 2003 Edition
General Remarks:
The schematic and notes on the following page condense the gas burner system requirements of National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) 86 into an easy-to-use format. They should provide most of the engineering
information required to lay out burner air and gas trains. Numbers in parentheses refer to the applicable
paragraphs of the standard.
In addition to the requirements shown on the schematic, NFPA 86 also requires that the combustion control
system have the following features:
1) All safety divices must be listed for their intended service (7.2.1), including purge and ignition timers
(7.2.3).
2) Safety control circuits must be single phase, one side grounded, with all breaking contacts in the
“hot”, ungrounded, circuit protected line not exceeding 120V. (7.2.11)
3) Prior to energizing spark or lighting pilot, a timed pre-purge of at least four standard cubic feet of air
per cubic foot of heating chamber volume is required (7.4.1).
a) Airflow must be proven & maintained during the purge.
b) Safety shutoff valve must be closed and when the chamber input exceeds 400,000 Btu/hr
(117 kW) it must be proved closed and interlocked. Proof of closure can be achieved by either a
proof of closure switch on at least one valve or a valve proving system.
4) Exceptions to a re-purge are allowed for momentary shutdowns if (any one): (7.4.1.5)
a) Each burner is supervised, each has safety shutoff valves, and the fuel accumulation in the
heating chamber can not exceed 25% of lower explosive limit.
b) Each burner is supervised, each has safety shutoff valves, and at least one burner remains on in
same chamber.
c) The chamber temperature is more than 1400°F (760°C).
5) Exception to the pre-purge is allowed for explosion resistant radiant tube systems. (7.4.1.4)
6) All safety interlocks must be connected in series ahead of the safety shutoff valves. Interposing
relays are allowed when the required load exceeds the rating of available safety contacts or where
safety logic requires separate inputs, AND the contact goes to a safe state on loss of power, AND
each relay serves only one interlock. (7.2.7)
7) Any motor starters required for combustion must be interlocked into the safety circuit. (7.6.3)
8) A listed manual reset excess temperature limit control is required except where the system design
can not exceed the maximum safe temperature. (7.16)
9) The user has the responsibility for establishing a program of inspection, testing, and maintenance
with documentation performed at least annually. (7.2.5.2)
The scope of NFPA 86 extends to all the factors involved in the safe operation of ovens and furnaces, and
anyone designing or building them should be familiar with the entire standard. Copies can be purchased from:
The National Fire Protection Association
1 Batterymarch Park
Quincy, MA 02269-9101
800-344-3555 (508-895-8300 if outside U.S.)
www.nfpa.org
103
Piping Schematic
Gas 5
6
2 7 8 8 13
4 12
9 9
11
Gas Flow
Controls 15
1 3 10 11 11
16 10
Air Flow
Controls 14
Reference
Item Description Paragraph
1 Facility to install drip leg or sediment trap for each fuel supply line. Must be a minimum of 3” long. 6.2.5.3
2 Individual manual shutoff valve to each piece of equipment. 1/4 turn valves recommended. 6.2.5.1
3 Filter or strainer to protect downstream safety shutoff valves. 6.2.5.3.3
4 Pressure regulator required wherever plant supply pressure exceeds level required for proper burner function
or is subject to excessive fluctuations. 6.2.5.4
5 Regulator vent to safe location outside the building with water protection & bug screen. 6.2.5.4
• Vent piping not required for listed regulator/vent limiter combination. Vent piping not required for ratio
regulator/zero governor.
6 Gas pressure switches may be vented to regulator vent lines if backloading won’t occur. 6.2.5.4.8
7 Over pressure protection required if gas pressure at regulator inlet exceeds rating of any downstream part. 7.7.1.8
8 Two listed* safety shutoff valves required for each main and pilot gas burner system. A single valve can be 7.7.2.1
used for explosion resistant radiant tube systems.
9 Visual position indication required on safety shutoff valves to burners or pilots in excess of 150,000 Btu/hr 7.7.1.9
(44 kW).
10 Proof of closure switch or valve proving system required for capacities over 400,000 Btu/hr (117 kW). 7.7.2.2
11 Permanent and ready means for checking leak tightness of safety shutoff valves. 7.7.2.3
12 Listed* low gas pressure switch (normally open, makes on pressure rise). 7.8.1
13 Listed* high gas pressure switch (normally closed, breaks on pressure rise). 7.8.2
14 Flame Supervision: 7.9.2
• Piloted burners 7.9.2.1
- Continuous pilot: Two flame sensors must be used, one for the pilot flame and one for the main burner flame.
- Intermittent pilot: Can use a single flame sensor for self-piloted burners (from same port as main, or
has a common flame base and has a common flame envelope with the main flame).
- Interrupted pilot: A single flame sensor is allowed.
• Line, Pipe, Radiant burners 7.9.2.2
- If the burners are adjacent and light safely and reliably from burner to burner, then a single sensor is
allowed if it is located at the farthest end from the source of ignition.
15 Spark Ignition:
• Except for explosion resistant radiant tube systems, direct spark igniters must be shut off after main burner 7.4.2.4
trial-for-ignition.
• If a burner must be ignited at reduced input (forced low fire start), an ignition interlock must be provided to 7.15
prove control valve position.
• Trial-for-ignition of the pilot or main must not exceed 15 seconds. An exception is allowed where fuel 7.4.2
accumulation in the heating chamber can not exceed 25% of the lower explosive limit and the authority
having jurisdiction approves a written request for extended time.
16 Listed* combustion air flow or pressure proving switch (normally open, makes on pressure rise). 7.6.2
*Underwriters Laboratory (UL) listing is accepted throughout the United States. Listed products can be found in the UL Gas and Oil
Equipment Directory, available from Underwriters Laboratory, Inc. Publications Stock, 333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, IL 60062-2096.
Factory Mutual (FM) listed equipment is also acceptable in most jurisdictions and can be found in the FM Approval Guide available from
Factory Mutual Research Corporation, 115 Boston-Providence Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062.
104
Sheet R-2
IRI Requirements For Gas Burner Systems

Reference: IM.4.2.0 & IM.4.2.1, June 1, 2000
General Remarks:
These schematic and notes condense the gas burner system requirements of GE Global Asset Protection
Services - Industrial Risk Insurers (IRI) publications “IM.4.2.0 OVENS AND FURNACES - NFPA 86-1999” and
“IM.4.2.1 HEAT TREAT FURNACES WITH INTERNAL QUENCH TANKS”. They should provide most of the
engineering information required to lay out burner air and gas trains. IRI follows the requirements of NFPA 86 but
makes additional clarifications and changes for increased safety.
In addition to the requirements shown on the following schematic, IRI also requires that the combustion control
system have the following features. Numbers in parenthesis reference the paragraphs in IM.4.2.0, IM.4.2.1, and
NFPA 86.
1) NFPA: Safety control circuits must be single phase, one side grounded, with all breaking contacts in the
“hot”, ungrounded, circuit protected line and not exceed 120V. IRI: Any time delay used to avoid nuisance
shutdowns from momentary power fluctuations cannot exceed 5 seconds and any timer must not be
adjustable above this maximum. (5-2)
2) NFPA: Prior to energizing spark or lighting pilot, a timed pre-purge of at least four standard cubic feet of
air per cubic foot of heating chamber volume is required. IRI: Any adjustable purge timer must clearly
show its setting, have limited access, and be periodically inspected. Any employee with access must be
trained on its setting and consequences if not set properly. (5-4.1.2)
a. NFPA: Airflow must be proven and maintained during the purge. IRI: The location of pressure
switch sensing points must be analyzed against all other conditions (such as dirt accumulation
and damper positions in the system) to assure it will truly prove the required airflow. (5-4.1.2.1)
b. NFPA: Where the capacity exceeds 400,000 Btu/hr (117kW) at least one of the safety shutoff
valves must be proved closed and interlocked to the purge. IRI: Both safety shutoff valves shall
be proved closed and interlocked. (5-7.2.2)
3) IRI: The trial for ignition for pilots or main burners must not exceed 10 seconds. (5-4.2.1, 5-4.2.2)
Directly control the spark from a listed flame safeguard. (5-2.3)
4) NFPA: All safety interlocks must be connected in series ahead of the safety shutoff valves. Interposing
relays are allowed when the required load exceeds the rating of available safety contacts, or where the
safety logic requires separate inputs, AND the contact goes to safe state on loss of power, AND each
relay serves only one interlock. IRI: An interposing relay can be powered by more than one safety limit if
the safety shutoff valves derive power in series through the limits. When one limit opens then the fuel is
shutoff to all burners that use the interposing relay as a permissive. (5-2.7)
5) NFPA: Any motor starters, circulation, and exhaust fans required for safe combustion or purge must be
proven. (5-6.3) IRI: Use a rotation switch if pressure switches or sail switches are not suitable. (5-5.1)
6) NFPA-IRI: A listed manual reset excess temperature limit control is required except where the system
design cannot exceed the maximum safe temperature. (5-16)
7) NFPA-IRI: Piping and electrical schematics of the proposed system must be submitted to the local IRI
office in whose jurisdiction the system will be located. Drawings must include the various device settings,
switch positions, configurations and notes on options. Stamped approval is required before construction
begins. (1-4)
8) NFPA-IRI: The user has the responsibility to establish a program of inspection, testing, and maintenance
with documentation performed at least annually. (5-2.5.2)
105
Piping Schematic
5
6 17
7 8 8 13
9 9
4 12
2
Gas Flow
Gas Controls 15
1 3 10 10
16 11
Air Flow
Controls 14
Reference
1 Facility to install drip leg or sediment trap for each fuel supply line. Must be a minimum of 3” long. 4-2.4.4
2 Individual manual shutoff valve to each piece of equipment. 1/4 turn valves recommended. Must be in an 4-2.4.1
accessible location near the floor.
3 Filter or strainer to protect downstream safety shutoff valves. 4-2.4.3
4 Pressure regulator required wherever plant supply pressure exceeds level required for proper burner function 4-2.4.5.1
or is subject to excessive fluctuations.
5 Regulator vent to safe location outside the building with water protection & bug screen.
4-2.4.5.2
• Vent piping can terminate inside the building when gas is lighter than air, vent contains restricted orifice,
and there is sufficient building ventilation, where there are high clearances between the equipment and
roof and there are no ignition sources.
• Vent piping not required for lighter than air gases at less than 1 psi, vent contains restricted orifice, and
there is sufficient ventilation. Vent piping not required for ratio regulator.
6 Gas pressure switches may be vented to regulator vent lines if backloading won’t occur. No vent line 4-2.4.5.5
required if switch has no diaphragm.
7 Relief valve required if gas pressure at regulator inlet exceeds rating of safety shutoff valve. Physical 5-7.1.7
location can be upstream to meet application requirements.
8 Two listed* safety shutoff valves required for each main and pilot gas burner system. Both safety shutoff
5-7.2.1
valves must close after interruption of interlocks, combustion safeguard, or operating controls; no exceptions
5-7.1.2
allowed for multiple burner systems. A single valve can be used for explosion resistant radiant tube systems.
9 Position indication (not proof-of-closure) required on safety shutoff valves to burners or pilots in excess of 5-7.1.8
150,000 Btu/hr (44 kW). Electrical indicators must not replace mechanical indicators.
10 For capacities over 400,000 Btu/hr (117 kW) both safety shutoff valves must have a closed position switch to 5-7.2.2
interlock with the pre-purge.
11 Permanent and ready means for checking leak tightness of safety shutoff valves. Test in progressive 5-7.2.3
intervals starting weekly, monthly, quarterly, then annually.
12 Listed* low gas pressure switch (normally open, makes on pressure rise). 5-8.1
13 Listed* high gas pressure switch (normally closed, breaks on pressure rise). 5-8.2
14 Flame Supervision:
• Piloted burners 5-9
- Continuous pilot: Two flame sensors must be used, one for the pilot flame and one for the main burner flame. 5-9.2.1
- Intermittant pilot: Can use a single flame sensor for self-piloted burners (from same port as main, or
has a common flame base and has a common flame envelope with the main flame).
- Interrupted pilot: A single flame sensor is allowed.
• Line, Pipe, Radiant burners 5-9.2.2
- If the burners are adjacent and light safely and reliably from burner to burner, then a single sensor is
allowed if it is located at the farthest end from the source of ignition.
• Continuous (>24 hr) operation with UV scanners must use self checking style scanners (or use flame rods 5-9.2
instead).
Continued on next page
106
Continued from previous page
Reference
15 Spark Ignition:
• Except for explosion resistant radiant tube systems, direct spark igniters must be shut off after main 5-15.2
burner trial-for-ignition.
• If a burner must be ignited at reduced input (forced low fire start), an ignition interlock must be provided to 5-15.1
prove control valve position.
• Trial-for-ignition of the pilot or main must not exceed 10 seconds. An exception is allowed where fuel 5-4.2.2
accumulation in the heating chamber can not exceed 25% of the lower explosive limit and the authority
having jurisdiction approves a written request for extended time.
• Manual (pushbutton) ignition systems must be designed to prevent further spark after the trial-for-ignition 5-15
until a full purge is first completed.
16 Listed* combustion air flow or pressure proving switch (normally open, makes on pressure rise). 5-6.4
17 A Listed* normally open (N.O.) vent valve with vent pipe run to a safe outside location is required when the line 5-7.2.1
capacity exceeds 400,000Btu/hr (117kW). Do not manifold to other vent lines. Size the vent line according to the
following table.
Fuel Line Size Vent Line Size
1½” ¾”
2” 1”
2½” 1¼”
3½” 1½”
4” 2”
5½” 2½”
6½” 3”
8” 3½”
As an alternate to using a vent valve, use a valve tightness proving system that is automatically activated
upon startup and shutdown
*Underwriters Laboratory (UL) listing is accepted throughout the United States. Listed products can be found in the UL Gas and Oil
Equipment Directory, available from Underwriters Laboratory, Inc. Publications Stock, 333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, IL 60062-2096.
Factory Mutual (FM) listed equipment is also acceptable in most jurisdictions and can be found in the FM Approval Guide available from
Factory Mutual Research Corporation, 115 Boston-Providence Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062.
More information can be obtained by contacting:

Industrial Risk Insurers National Fire Protection Association
85 Woodland Street 1 Batterymarch Park
Hartford, CT 06102-5010 Quincy, MA 02269-9101
860-520-7329 800-344-3555
860-520-7559 fax 508-895-8300
http://www.industrialrisk.com http://www.nfpa.org
107
Sheet I-1
Heating Values of Flammable Liquids

General Remarks: Designers of fume incinerators are sometimes concerned about the heat-
ing value of the solvents being incinerated. The table below lists approxi-
mate heating values of various commercial solvents and flammable liq-
uids, calculated from the references at the bottom of page 109.
Gross Heating Value

Liquid Btu/U.S. Gallon Btu/lb.
Acetone 87,360 13,040
n-Amyl Acetate 105,670 14,410
sec-Amyl Acetate 105,670 14,410
Amyl Alcohol 110,290 16,220
Benzene (Benzol) 132,150 18,100
n-Butyl Acetate 97,480 13,250
n-Butyl Alcohol 104,760 15,640
sec-Butyl Alcohol 104,760 15,640
Butyl Cellosolve (Glycol Monobutyl Ether) 105,630 14,040
Butyl Propionate 106,060 14,130
Camphor 143,010 17,150
Carbon Disulfide 61,210 5,650
Cellosolve (Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl) 91,960 11,790
Cellosolve Acetate (Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl Ether Acetate)
87,140 10,720
Chlorobenzene-mono 105,420 11,490
m- or p-Cresol 122,870 14,730
Cyclohexane 130,300 20,050
Cyclohexanone 117,900 15,710
p-Cymene 146,000 19,450
Denatured Alcohol 68,670 * 9,930 *
Dibutyl Phthalate 109,630 13,150
o-Dichlorobenzene 86,330 7,960
N-Dimethyl Formamide 85,340 11,370
p-Dioxane (Diethylene Dioxide) 89,380 10,720
Ethyl Acetate 82,420 10,990
Ethyl Alcohol 84,250 12,770
Ethyl Ether 93,730 16,060
* Approximate; liquid is a mixture whose composition may vary.
108
Gross Heating Value
Liquid Btu/U.S. Gallon Btu/lb.
Ethyl Lactate 78,990 9,470
Ethyl Methyl Ether 86,700 14,850
Ethyl Propionate 90,970 12,290
Gasoline 129,000 * 21,050 *
Hexane 113,850 20,700
Kerosene (Fuel Oil #1) 131,000–137,000 * 19,700–19,900 *
Methyl Acetate 71,610 9,300
Methyl Alcohol 63,490 9,620
Methyl Carbitol (Diethylene Glycol Methyl Ether) 89,650 10,340
Methyl Cellosolve 81,190 10,080
Methyl Cellosolve Acetate 79,530 9,470
Methyl Ethyl Kerosene (2-Butanone) 97,710 14,580
Methyl Lactate 80,160 8,810
Nitrobenzene 90,170 9,010
Nitroethane 50,190 5,470
Nitromethane 17,010 1,850
1-Nitropropane 66,290 7,950
2-Nitropropane 65,760 7,950
Propyl Acetate 85,770 11,430
Propyl Alcohol 96,560 14,410
iso-Propyl Alcohol 93,160 14,120
n-Propyl Ether 109,280 17,470
Pyridine 122,210 14,920
Toluene 131,970 18,330
Turpentine 163,500 * 20,000 *
Vinyl Acetate 71,610 9,540
o-Xylene 135,870 18,610
* Approximate; liquid is a mixture whose composition may vary.
References NFPA 325M-1984, Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases, and
Volatile Solids.
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 40th Edition, 1959.
109
Sheet L-1
Immersion Tube Sizing

General Remarks In 1944, AGA Testing Laboratories published Research Bulletin No. 24, “Re-
search in Fundamentals of Immersion Tube Heating With Gas”. This land-
mark paper established beyond a doubt that the thermal efficiency of im-
mersion tubes was strictly a function of their length—tube diameter had
no effect. From their tests, AGA also developed an empirical relationship
between thermal efficiency, effective tube length and burner firing rate for
immersion tubes in boiling water:
2
L + 71
E = 20log
R
where E = thermal efficiency, %
L = effective tube length, ft.
R = burner input rate, 1000’s of Btu/hr
Effective tube length is the total centerline length of the tube immersed in
water, including elbows, plus 1.1 feet for each elbow or return bend.
This equation is the basis of the tube sizing charts in Eclipse literature.
The fact that tube diameter had no effect on efficiency came as a shock to
many people, but it makes sense when you think about it. Increasing the
tube diameter increases the heat transfer surface, but it also produces
lower gas velocity inside the tube, thus promoting a thicker gas boundary
layer along the inside walls of the tube. This leads to poorer heat transfer.
AGA’s studies determined that the loss in convection heat transfer almost
exactly offset the gain in transfer surface.
Over 40 years have passed since this paper was published. Far more so-
phisticated heat transfer equations have been developed, and we now have
computers to perform the calculations, yet no one has been able to make a
significant improvement to the speed and accuracy of AGA’s equation.
The curves in the graph on page 111 were calculated from the AGA equa-
tion.
110
Figure 1: % E ffec tive
E ffic ienc y L ength, ft.
Immersion Tube 60 .47r where r =
Efficiency vs. Length 150
65 .771r
heat
transferred 80%
70 1.273r to the tank,
75 2.113r Btu/hr X 1000
E ffec tive Tube L ength, In F eet

80 3.523r
75%
100
E ffic ienc y
70%
65%
50 60%
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Heat Trans fered To Tank, B tu/hr. (In Million's )
Burner Design If heat transfer requirements don't determine immersion tube diameters,
what does?
Burner design does–more specifically, the burner's ability to fire against
the back pressure of the immersion tube.
Atmospheric burners operate at very low mixture pressures and depend on
natural draft to pull secondary air into the tube. Consequently, the firing
rate has to be kept low to avoid hot gases backing out of the tube around
the burner head.
Sealed, forced draft burners operate at higher pressures, so they can be
used to push tubes to higher firing rates. The operating pressures of the
combustion system determine just how hard the tube can be fired. That's
why Immerso-Jet small bore burner systems, with their high operating
pressures, can operate satisfactorily at higher inputs per sq. in. of tube
cross-section than packaged IP burners. Figure 2 lists approximate maxi-
mum firing rates in Btu/sq. in. of tube cross-section for various types of
burner systems.
Figure 2: Max. Firing rate,

Burner Design vs. Btu/Sq. In. of
Burner System Type Tube Cross-Section
Firing Rate
Atmospheric, natural draft, 7' high stack 7000 - 8000
Atmospheric with eductor, 0.2" w.c. draft 15,000 - 18,000
Atmospheric with eductor, 0.4" w.c. draft 21,000 - 25,000
Packaged forced draft, low pressure fan 15,000 - 35,000
Sealed nozzle-mix, high pressure blower 30,000 - 85,000
Small bore nozzle-mix 80,000 - 180,000
111
Sheet L-2
Submerged Combustion
Process Description: Submerged combustion is the practice of heating liquids by bubbling a
burner’s hot combustion products through them. The process, which origi-
nated over 100 years ago, was first used to generate low pressure steam,
but later became popular as a way to concentrate chemical solutions by
evaporation. It is also viewed as an efficient way to heat water solutions to
moderate temperatures, although its success has been somewhat spotty in
this application. It agitates the bath and causes the water to become more
acidic as CO2 in the combustion products dissolves in the bath. Depending
on the process, these features can be either advantages or drawbacks.
Combustor Description: Over the years a variety of designs have evolved, but most modern units
are some version of either the single-tube or manifold design.
Single Tube
Combustor Manifold Type Combustor
Single-tube units have a relatively small coverage area, so their use is re-
stricted to tanks with fairly confined dimensions. On the other hand, mani-
fold-type combustors can be custom-designed to fit tanks of any reason-
able dimensions without the need to locate the combustor near the center
of the tank. This permits submerged combustors to be used on dip tanks
and other jobs where the tank volume must be free of obstructions.
System Efficiency: Submerged combustion gets its reputation for high efficiency from the fact
that the combustion gases come into direct contact with the liquid, creat-
ing excellent heat transfer. Below about 140° F, all the water vapor in the
combustion products condenses into the bath, releasing its latent heat of
vaporization and producing thermal efficiencies of 90-95%, based on the
higher heating value of the fuel.
112
Above 140° F water begins to vaporize, and the efficiency drops quickly.
One unusual effect of bubbling combustion products through water is that
it lowers the water’s boiling point. For natural gas burned at sea level, the
boiling point is about 190° F; for propane, it is about 180° F. Higher alti-
tudes will depress the boiling point even further. If the purpose of the sys-
tem is to boil water away, this is an asset, but if its purpose is only heating
water, process thermal efficiency is zero at the boiling point.
From the efficiency curve below, you can see that at 165° F liquid temper–
ature, a submerged combustion system has a thermal efficiency of 70%,
equivalent to a conventional immersion tube system. At higher tempera-
tures, it is less efficient. To compete with an 80% efficient immersion tube
such as the IJ Small Bore system, a submerged combustion system would
have to operate at 155° F or less.
100
Figure 1:
Thermal Efficiency
of a Submerged
80
Combustion System
Burning Natural Gas at Sea Level
% Thermal Efficiency
60
40
20
0
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Water Temperature, °F
System Design:
Custom-built submerged combustion units are available, although many
successful jobs have been done with standard burner equipment.
Tank Depth: The tank must be deep enough to provide at least 16-20" of bubble path
through the liquid. Shallower tanks will not allow time for optimum heat
transfer. Beyond 20", the improvement in heat transfer is negligible, but
the tank may have to be deeper simply to accommodate the length of the
combustion tube, which has to be large enough to allow completion of the
flame.
Combustor Tube: All portions of the tube immersed in the tank can be bare metal. Customary
practice is to locate the burner mounting flange within a few inches of the
liquid level so the entire tube can be left bare. Be sure to choose an alloy
that won’t corrode in the solution.
113
Distribution Tubes: Single-tube combustors are often provided with a perforated conical skirt
on the bottom to aid in breaking up and distributing the flue gases. Mani-
fold systems are subject to a lot of design variations, but a few general
rules apply:
• Large tanks will require distribution pipes to carry the combustion prod-
ucts throughout the tank. Don’t depend on a single combustor isolated
in one corner to provide uniform tank heating.
• Gas distribution openings in the pipe manifolds are most commonly
single rows of drilled holes, although slot openings have also been used.
There aren’t any universally accepted rules on hole sizing, but any-
thing smaller than 1/4" diameter is probably a waste of effort.
• The effect of hole location (facing up, down or sideways) on heat trans-
fer is probably negligible. However, facing the holes downward aids drain-
ing the water out of the manifold when the system is started up. Be
sure to provide a couple of inches clearance between the manifolds and
the tank floor (more, if you expect sludge or debris to accumulate).
• Total area of the distribution holes is, again, a matter of individual
preference, but one square inch of opening for every 50-60,000 Btu/hr
firing rate gives a good compromise between even distribution and low
pressure drops.
• Design the manifold so it is free to expand without constraint. Other-
wise, broken welds and leaks are sure to result.
• When filled with combustion gases, the distribution tube will become
buoyant and try to float. Long, cantilevered tubes will vibrate and thrash
around the tank. Be sure they’re properly anchored to the tank bottom.
Supply Pressures: Remember that the head pressure of the liquid in the tank has to be added
to all the normal air and gas supply pressures.
Burner: Nozzle mix burners are strongly preferred; the flashback tendencies of premix
burners can be aggravated by fluctuations in system back pressure.
Moisture Protection: Flame length should be no more than 1/2 to 2/3 the length of the combus-
tor tube, or the flame is apt to be quenched, forming CO and aldehydes.
High levels of humidity are normal around tanks heated with submerged
combustors. Condensation will tend to collect on spark igniters, flame rods
and scanner cells. Provide them with air purging if this is expected to be a
problem. Use weather-resistant boots on electrode connectors, and all elec-
trical wiring and control boxes should be selected or situated to exclude
moisture. Combustion air blowers should be located where they won’t draw
in excessively humid air.
Operating Sequence: This will be dictated in part by safety requirements, but all systems should
have a prepurge to remove the water from the combustor tube and distri-
bution manifold. Regardless of burner capacity, low fire lightoff is strongly
recommended.
Safety: Depending on the tank volume and the area over which the combustion
gases are bubbled, the liquid surface will be agitated anywhere from a gentle
rolling motion to a violent boil. Splashing and spilling over the sides of the
tank can occur, and precaution should be taken to avoid exposing workers
and equipment to hot and/or corrosive liquid.
114
References: Thermal Manual of Submerged Combustion, Thermal Research & Engineer-
ing Corp., Conshohocken, PA 1961.
“Tank & Solution Heaters for the Chemical Industry” AGA Information let-
ter No. 115, N.E. Keith, A.G.A., New York, 1960.
115
Sheet L-3
Immersion Tubes–What Will The Stack Temperature Be?

Customers laying out immersion tube systems frequently ask what stack
temperatures they should expect. You can make a good approximation from
the available heat chart below. The heat transferred through an immersion
tube is the available heat in that system; everything else is flue gas loss, so
it’s easy to calculate flue gas temperature by working backward on the
available heat chart. All you need to know is the tube efficiency and the
amount of excess air at high fire.
For example, let’s say you had an immersion system operating at 70%
thermal efficiency and 25% excess air at high fire. Starting at 70% avail-
able heat (with available heat equal to efficiency), read across until you hit
the 25% excess air curve and then drop straight down to get the flue gas
exit temperature, which, in this case, is 950°F.
Based On Birmingham Natural Gas (1002 Btu/Cu. ft., 0.6 Sp. Gr.)
100
Figure 1:
Available Heat vs. Flue 90
Gas Exit Temperature, °F
80
70
350% % Excess Air
% Available Heat
400%
60
500%
50 600%
40 800%
30
1000% 0%
10
25
20 %
20
0%
50 25
0%
15
1200% % %
10
0%
0%
10
30
0%
0
0 200 600 1000 1400 1800 2200 2600 3000
Flue Gas Exit Temperature, °F
116
Sheet O-1
Determining % O2 in a Recirculating System
Fuel
Combustion QF
Air
QA Exhaust, Q X at Temperature, TX
Burner
Fresh
Makeup
Air
QM
Oven
Data Needed: To determine O2 content in a recirculating system, you need to know:

QX =oven exhaust volume, acfm
TX =oven exhaust temperature
QF =maximum fuel flow to burner, scfm
R =stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (e.g., 10:1 for natural gas, 25:1 for pro-
pane, or whatever)
117
Procedure: 1. Determine scfm of exhaust.
QE in scfm = QX in acfm x 520

TX + 460
520
The temperature correction factor, T + 460 , equals the specific grav-
X
ity of the exhaust at temperature TX.
For simplicity’s sake, assume the exhaust has properties nearly equal
to air. Then you can use the specific gravity figures on page 21 of the
Eclipse Combustion Engineering Guide.
2. For the oven to be balanced, the sum of fuel to the burner (QF), air to
the burner (QA), and fresh makeup air (QM) must equal the exhaust
volume:
QE = QF + QA + QM
3. Determine the portion of makeup and combustion air which is con-

sumed in burning the fuel. This equals:
R x QF
The remaining unconsumed fresh air determines the oxygen level in
the oven. It equals:
QE – QF – R x QF
4. Calculate oxygen content in oven, assuming 20.8% oxygen in the fresh

air stream.
QE – QF – R x QF
% O2 = 20.8 x
QE
or in its simplest form:
QE – 1 + R QF
% O2 = 20.8 x
QE
Example
For example, we have an oven exhausting 2000 acfm at 600° F. The
burner is rated at 1.8 million Btu/hr on 1000 Btu/cu.ft. natural gas
(10:1 stoichiometric ratio).
At 600° F, the specific gravity of air is .500, so QE = (2000) (.500) = 1000
scfm
QF, the maximum fuel input, is 1,800,000 Btu/hr divided by 1000 Btu/
cu.ft. = 1800 scfh. 1800 cfh divided by 60 minutes = 30 scfm
R, the stoichiometric air-gas ratio, is given as 10:1, so:
1000 – 1 +10 30 = 20.8 x 670

% O2 = 20.8 x = 13.94%O2
1000 1000
118

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Engineering Guide

Copyright 1986 by Eclipse, Inc.

EFE 825, 8/04

1. Orifices & Flows

2. Fan Laws & Blower Application Engineering

5. Steam & Water

10. Abbreviations & Symbols

11. Conversion Factors

Orifices and Nozzles Discharging from Plenum

Coefficient of Discharge (Cd)

Sharp Edge Round Edge Short Pipe 0.91

ORIFICE FLOW FORMULAS

CAPACITY, SCFH @ 10 PSI PRESSURE DROP, DISCHARGING TO ATMOSPHERE,

EQUIVALENT LENGTHS OF STANDARD PIPE FITTINGS & VALVES

VALVES FULLY OPEN

Pv, "wc Velocity Pipe Size

QUICK METHOD FOR SIZING AIR PIPING

Size of Number of Branch Connections

Flow, SCH @ 1" W.C. ∆P @ 14.7 PSIA & 60˚ F

where Pv = velocity pressure in inches of water

For blower wheel with eight segments, Theoretical Flow = 8 x V x R

hp = scfm x "w.c. hp = scfm x osi V = suction or vacuum, " w.c.

THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON AIR THE EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON AIR

500 514.7 2.62602 35.014 0.38

Absolute Specific Absolute Specific

20 .9057 .08281 1.104 12.08 580 1.962 .03822 .510 26.16

70 1.000 .07500 1.000 13.33 610 2.019 .03715 .495 26.92

COMBUSTION PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL FUEL GASES

COMBUSTION PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL FUEL GASES

PROPANE/AIR MIXTURE BUTANE/AIR MIXTURE

Grade of Viscosity, Specific Gravity Gross Heating

FUEL OIL VISCOSITY CONVERSIONS

Kinematic Viscosity, Centistokes (CS)

Gr0ss Heating Value, Btu/Gallon x 1000

OIL PIPING PRESSURE LOSSES

ties. To find the pressure drop for an oil not on either of

Pressure Drop, psi per

1000 SSU Heavy Oil

10,000 SSU Heavy Oil

OIL TEMPERATURE DROP IN °F PER FOOT OF PIPE

Temperature losses from uninsulated pipe will vary with the

PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM

Input Required to Generate

SIZING WATER PIPING

These flows were calculated from Babcock’s Equation,

Pd D5 where W = steam flow, lb/minute

Ohm’s Law Motor Formulas D.C. Circuit Power Formulas

ELECTRICAL WIRE – NEMA SIZE STARTERS FOR MOTORS

For more complete details on application and construction specifi-

Flue Gas Loss

General heat balance in a fuel-fired heat processing device.

Furnace turndown = Gross heat input, maximum load conditions = _________

Acetone – – -138 33.5 0.530 128-134 225.5

Cyanite 225 0.227 3290 – – – –

Olive Oil 57.4 – 40 – 0.471 572 –

Alloy 903 Die Cast Zinc

500 Aluminum Die Cast Alloy 380.0

400 0.3% Carbon

65-35 Yellow Brass

85-15 Red Brass