Experiment no 1A.

Networking Commands

Name: Siddhesh Hemade

Div: A
Batch: A4
Roll No: 76
Date of Performance:
Date of Submission:
Sign:
Grade:

Aim : To Use Basic Networking Commands in Linux.

1. ifconfig
ifconfig is used to configure the system's kernel-resident network interfaces. It is used
at boot time to set up interfaces as necessary. After that, it is usually only needed
when debugging or when system tuning is needed. If no arguments are given, ifconfig
displays the status of the system's active interfaces. If a single interface argument is
given, it displays the status of the given interface only.
Eg: ifconfig
Running ifconfig with no options will display the configuration of all active
interfaces.

2. ping

ping is a simple way to send network data to, and receive network data from, another
computer on a network. It is frequently used to test, at the most basic level, whether
another system is reachable over a network, and if so, how much time it takes for that
data to be exchanged.
Eg: ping google.com
Ping the host google.com to see if it is alive.
 3. traceroute

traceroute prints the route that packets take to a network host. It is used to find
network path from machine to server.
 The server name above is destination name or IP address.
Syntax: traceroute <server name>

4. nslookup

Nslookup is a program to query Internet domain name servers. Nslookup has

two modes: interactive and non-interactive. Interactive mode allows the user

to query name servers for information about various hosts and domains or to

print a list of hosts in a domain. Non-interactive mode is used to print just the

name and requested information for a host or domain. It helps to find domain

name for given server network address and vise a versa.

5. netstat

The netstat
command is used to print network connections, routing tables, interfacestatistics,
masquerade connections, and multicast memberships. It is used for finding
problems in the network and to determine the amount of traffic on the network as a
performance measurement.
Eg: netstat –an
Shows information about all active connections to the server, including the source
and destination IP addresses and ports, if you have proper permissions.
Conclusion: Thus we have successfully performed the above commands and
obtained the output.

Aim: To Study Basic Networking Devices

THEORY:
Computer network is a group of two or more computers that connect with each other
to share a resource. One can share printers, fax machines, scanners, network
connection, local drives, copiers and other resources. In computer network
technology, there are several types of networks that range from simple to complex
level. However, in any case in order to connect computers with each other or to the
existing network or planning to install from scratch, the required devices and rules
(protocols) are mostly the same.

Computer network components include the major parts that are needed to install a
network both at the office and home level. Before delving into the installation
process, you should be familiar with each part so that you could choose and buy the
right component that fits with your network system.
Major computer network components

Computer network requires the following devices (some of them are optional):-

 Network Interface Card (NIC)

 Hub

 Switches

 Cables and connectors

 Router

 Modem

 Gateway

 Modem

 Repeater

 CrossOver Cable

1. Network Interface Card

Network adapter is a device that enables a computer to talk with other
computer/network. Using unique hardware addresses (MAC address) encoded on the
card chip, the data-link protocol employs these addresses to discover other systems
on the network so that it can transfer data to the right destination. There are two types
of network cards: wired and wireless. The wired NIC uses cables and connectors as a
medium to transfer data, whereas in the wireless card, the connection is made using
antenna that employs radio wave technology. All modern laptop computers
incorporated wireless NIC in addition to the wired adapter.

Network Card Speed:

Network Interface card, one of the main computer network components, comes with
different speeds, 10Mbps, 100Mbps, and 1000Mbps, so on. Recent standard network
cards built with Gigabit (1000Mbps) connection speed. It also supports to connect
slower speeds such as 10Mbps and 100Mbps. However, the speed of the card depends
on your LAN speed.

For example, if you have a switch that supports up to 100Mbps, your NIC will also
transfer a data with this same speed even though your computer NIC has still the
capability to transfer data at 1000Mbps (1Gbps). In modern computers, network
adapter is integrated with a computer motherboard. However if you want advanced
and fast Ethernet card, you may buy and install on your computer using the PCI slot
found on the motherboard (desktop) and ExpressCard slots on laptop.

2. Hub
Hub is a device that splits a network connection into multiple computers. It is like a
distribution center. When a computer request information from a network or a
specific computer, it sends the request to the hub through a cable. The hub will
receive the request and transmit it to the entire network. Each computer in the
network should then figure out whether the broadcast data is for them or not.
Currently Hubs are becoming obsolete and replaced by more advanced
communication devices such as Switches and Routers.

3. Switch
Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network
components. Switch is like a Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses physical
device addresses in each incoming messages so that it can deliver the message to the
right destination or port. Like Hub, switch don’t broadcast the received message to
entire network, rather before sending it checks to which system or port should the
message be sent. In other words switch connects the source and destination directly
which increases the speed of the network. Both switch and hub have common
features: Multiple RJ-45 ports, power supply and connection lights.

4. Cables and connectors

Cable is one way of transmission media which can transmit communication signals.
The wired network topology uses special type of cable to connect computers on a
network. There are a number of solid transmission Media types, which are listed
below.

Twisted pair wire: It is classified as Category 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5E, 6 and 7. Category

5E, 6 and 7 are high-speed cables that can transmit 1Gbps or more. -

Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable more resembles like TV installation cable. It is more
expensive than twisted-pair cable but provide high data transmission speed.

Fiber-optic cable: It is a high-speed cable which transmits data using light beams
through a glass bound fibers. Fiber-optic cable is high data transmission cable
comparing to the other cable types. But the cost of fiber optics is very expensive
which can only be purchased and installed on governmental level.

5. Router: When we talk about computer network components, the other device that
used to connect a LAN with an internet connection is called Router. When you have
two distinct networks (LANs) or want to share a single internet connection to
multiple computers, we use a Router. In most cases, recent routers also include a
switch which in other words can be used as a switch. You don’t need to buy both
switch and router, particularly if you are installing small business and home
networks. There are two types of Router: wired and wireless. The choice depends on
your physical office/home setting, speed and cost.

6. Gateway

Gateway is a router or a proxy server that routes between networks.

Gateway Rule - Gateway should belong to same subnet to which your PC belongs. In
a communications network, a network node equipped for interfacing with another
network that uses different protocols. A gateway may contain devices such as
protocol translators, impedance matching devices, rate converters, fault isolators, or
signal translators as necessary to provide system interoperability. It also requires the
establishment of mutually acceptable administrative procedures between both
networks. A protocol translation/mapping gateway interconnects networks with
different network protocol technologies by performing the required protocol
conversions. Loosely, a computer or computer program configured to perform the
tasks of a gateway. For a specific case, see default gateway.
Gateways, also called protocol converters, can operate at any network layer. The
activities of a gateway are more complex than that of the router or switch as it
communicates using more than one protocol.It works on OSI layers 4 to 7.

7. Repeater

The term "repeater" originated with telegraphy in the 19th century, and referred to an
electromechanical device used to regenerate telegraph signals. Use of the term has
continued in telephony and data communications.It works on OSI layer. In
telecommunication, the term repeater has the following standardized meanings:

1. An analog device that amplifies an input signal regardless of its

nature (analog or digital).
2. A digital device that amplifies, reshapes, retimes, or performs a
combination of any of these functions on a digital input signal for
retransmission. A repeater that includes the retiming function is also
known as a regenerator.

Repeaters are used to increase the range of a transmitted signal by re-transmission.

For a conducted signal, an amplifier is used. Optical systems don't amplify but all
these devices give the appearance of doing so. Some of the energy traveling as direct
current through a conductor is converted to heat energy. This causes a drop in
potential energy (a voltage) across the ends of the conductor proportional to the
current times the inverse of the conductor's conductance. Energy passing as
alternating current is also lost as it travels but, since it changes direction, there is an
additional loss proportional to the capacitive reactance times the current. Since
alternating voltage and its current are out of phase, total losses equal the vector sum
(rather than linear sum) of the two losses. Similarly, light, which consists of photons
rather than electrons, suffer attenuation due to scattering and absorption.

Advantages:
 Makes it easy to expand a network over a large distance.
  Connection between various types of media [e.g. fiber optic, UTF,
coaxial cable] is possible.
Disadvantages:
 Traffic cannot be filtered to ease congestion.

 A repeater cannot work across multiple network architectures.

8. Crossover Cable: A crossover cable is a cable that is used to interconnect two

computers by "crossing over" (reversing) their respective pin contacts. Either an RS-
232C or a telephone jack connection is possible. A crossover cable is sometimes
known as a null modem. Possible reasons to connect two computers directly to each
other include:
 Playing a game competitively with fast response time
 Testing one computer by examining its behaviour at the other
computer
 Saving the cost of a hub when you want to interconnect two
devices in the same home or office.

9. RJ-45 Connector:

It is a common data networking interface that employs a cable of twisted wire

pairs and an 8-pin modular jack. A registered jack (RJ) is a standardized[1][2][3]
physical network interface—both jack construction and wiring pattern—for
connecting telecommunications or data equipment to a service provided by a local
exchange carrieror long distance carrier. The standard designs for these connectors
and their wiring are named RJ11, RJ14,RJ21,RJ35, RJ45, RJ48, etc. Many of these
interface standards are commonly used in North America, though some interfaces are
used world-wide. It is common to find a dash (hyphen) between the RJ and the
number, but the actual standard has no dash or hyphen.

The connectors used for registered jack installations are primarily the modular
connector and the 50-pinminiature ribbon connector types. For example, RJ11 uses a
six-position two-conductor connector (6P2C), RJ14 uses a six-position four-
conductor (6P4C) modular plug and jack, while RJ21 uses a 25-pair (50-pin)
miniature ribbon connector.

10. Modem
A modem is a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data
over, for example, telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally,
whereas information transmitted over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of
analog waves. A modem converts between these two forms. The most common use
for modems is for both sending and receiving of the digital information between
personal computers. This information used to be transmitted over telephone lines, the
last dial-up standard, to an analog modem that would convert the signal back to a
digital format for a computer to read.

Router Switch
 Hub Switch

Conclusion: Thus we have successfully learned Network Components.