Programmable logic controller

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Not to be confused with machine control.

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A programmable logic controller (PLC)

or programmable controller is an industrial digital
computer which has been ruggedizedand adapted for the
control of manufacturing processes, such as assembly
lines, or robotic devices, or any activity that requires high
reliability control and ease of programming and process
fault diagnosis.

They were first developed in the automobile manufacturing

industry to provide flexible, ruggedized and easily
programmable controllers to replace hard-wired relays,
timers and sequencers. Since then they have been widely
adopted as high-reliability automation controllers suitable
for harsh environments. A PLC is an example of a
"hard" real-time system since output results must be
produced in response to input conditions within a limited
time, otherwise unintended operation will result.

Contents

• 1Overview
• 2Invention and early development
• 3Programming
• 4Functionality
o 4.1Basic functions
o 4.2Timers and counters
o 4.3Programmable logic relay (PLR)
• 5PLC topics
o 5.1Features
o 5.2Scan time
o 5.3Process of a scan cycle
o 5.4System scale
o 5.5User interface
o 5.6Communications
o 5.7Programming
▪ 5.7.1Control example shown in ladder diagram
o 5.8Security
o 5.9Simulation
o 5.10Redundancy
• 6PLC compared with other control systems
• 7Discrete (digital) and analog signals
• 8See also
• 9References
• 10Further reading
• 11External links

Overview[edit]

PLC system in a rack, left-to-right: power supply unit

(PSU), CPU, interface module (IM) and
communication processor (CP).

PLCs can range from small "building brick" devices

with tens of inputs and outputs (I/O), in a housing
integral with the processor, to large rack-mounted
modular devices with a count of thousands of I/O,
and which are often networked to other PLC
and SCADA systems.

They can be designed for multiple arrangements of

digital and analog I/O, extended temperature ranges,
immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to
vibration and impact. Programs to control machine
operation are typically stored in battery-backed-up
or non-volatile memory.

It was from the automotive industry in the USA that

the PLC was born. Before the PLC, control,
sequencing, and safety interlock logic for
manufacturing automobiles was mainly composed
of relays, cam timers, drum sequencers, and dedicated
closed-loop controllers. Since these could number in the hundreds
or even thousands, the process for updating such facilities for the
yearly model change-over was very time consuming and expensive,
as electricians needed to individually rewire the relays to change
their operational characteristics.

When digital computers became available, being

general-purpose programmable devices, they were
soon applied to control sequential and combinatorial
logic in industrial processes. However these early
computers required specialist programmers and
stringent operating environmental control for temperature,
cleanliness, and power quality. To meet these challenges the PLC
was developed with several key attributes. It would tolerate the
shop-floor environment, it would support discrete (bit-form) input and
output in an easily extensible manner, it would not require years of
training to use, and it would permit its operation to be monitored.
Since many industrial processes have timescales easily addressed
by millisecond response times, modern (fast, small, reliable)
electronics greatly facilitate building reliable controllers, and
performance could be traded off for reliability.[1]

Invention and early development[edit]

In 1968 GM Hydra-Matic (the automatic transmission division

of General Motors) issued a request for proposals for an electronic
replacement for hard-wired relay systems based on a white paper
written by engineer Edward R. Clark. The winning proposal came
from Bedford Associates of Bedford, Massachusetts. The first PLC,
designated the 084 because it was Bedford Associates' eighty-fourth
project, was the result.[2] Bedford Associates started a new company
dedicated to developing, manufacturing, selling, and servicing this
new product: Modicon, which stood for modular digital controller.
One of the people who worked on that project was Dick Morley, who
is considered to be the "father" of the PLC.[3] The Modicon brand
was sold in 1977 to Gould Electronics, later acquired by German
Company AEG, and then by French Schneider Electric, the current
owner.
One of the very first 084 models built is now on display at Schneider
Electric's facility in North Andover, Massachusetts. It was presented
to Modicon by GM, when the unit was retired after nearly twenty
years of uninterrupted service. Modicon used the 84 moniker at the
end of its product range until the 984 made its appearance.

The automotive industry is still one of the largest users of PLCs.

In a parallel development Odo Josef Struger is sometimes known as

the "father of the programmable logic controller" as well.[4][5] He was
involved in the invention of the Allen-Bradley programmable logic
controller (PLC) during 1958 to 1960.[6][7][8] Struger is credited with
creating the PLC acronym.[4] Rockwell (Allen-Bradley) became a
major programmable logic controller device manufacturer in the
United States during the tenure of Struger.[9]

Early PLCs were designed to replace relay logic systems. These

PLCs were programmed in "ladder logic", which strongly resembles
a schematic diagram of relay logic. This program notation was
chosen to reduce training demands for the existing technicians.
Other early PLCs used a form of instruction list programming, based
on a stack-based logic solver.

Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of ways, from the

relay-derived ladder logic to programming languages such as
specially adapted dialects of BASIC and C. Another method is state
logic, a very high-level programming language designed to program
PLCs based on state transition diagrams. The majority of PLC
systems today adhere to the IEC 61131/3 control systems
programming standard that defines 5 languages: Ladder Diagram
(LD), Structured Text (ST), Function Block Diagram (FBD),
Instruction List (IL) and sequential function chart (SFC).
Many early PLCs did not have accompanying programming
terminals that were capable of graphical representation of the logic,
and so the logic was instead represented as a series of logic
expressions in some version of Boolean format, similar to Boolean
algebra. As programming terminals evolved, it became more
common for ladder logic to be used, for the aforementioned reasons
and because it was a familiar format used for electro-mechanical
control panels. Newer formats such as state logic and Function
Block (which is similar to the way logic is depicted when using digital
integrated logic circuits) exist, but they are still not as popular as
ladder logic. A primary reason for this is that PLCs solve the logic in
a predictable and repeating sequence, and ladder logic allows the
programmer (the person writing the logic) to see any issues with the
timing of the logic sequence more easily than would be possible in
other formats.

Programming[edit]

Early PLCs, up to the mid-1990s, were programmed using

proprietary programming panels or special-purpose
programming terminals, which often had dedicated function keys
representing the various logical elements of PLC programs.[2] Some
proprietary programming terminals displayed the elements of PLC
programs as graphic symbols, but plain ASCII character
representations of contacts, coils, and wires were common.
Programs were stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities for
printing and documentation were minimal due to lack of memory
capacity. The oldest PLCs used non-volatile magnetic core memory.
 More recently, PLCs are programmed using application software on

personal computers, which now represent the logic in graphic form

instead of character symbols. The computer is connected to the PLC

through USB, Ethernet, RS-232, RS-485, or RS-422 cabling. The

programming software allows entry and editing of the ladder-style

logic. In some software packages, it is also possible to view and edit

the program in function block diagrams, sequence flow charts and

structured text. Generally the software provides functions for

debugging and troubleshooting the PLC software, for example, by

highlighting portions of the logic to show current status during

operation or via simulation. The software will upload and download

the PLC program, for backup and restoration purposes. In some

models of programmable controller, the program is transferred from

a personal computer to the PLC through a programming board

which writes the program into a removable chip such as an EPROM.

Functionality[edit]

The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to

include sequential relay control, motion control, process

control, distributed control systems, and networking. The data

handling, storage, processing power, and communication

capabilities of some modern PLCs are approximately equivalent

to desktop computers. PLC-like programming combined with

remote I/O hardware, allow a general-purpose desktop computer

to overlap some PLCs in certain applications. Desktop computer

controllers have not been generally accepted in heavy industry

because the desktop computers run on less stable operating

systems than do PLCs, and because the desktop computer

hardware is typically not designed to the same levels of tolerance

to temperature, humidity, vibration, and longevity as the

processors used in PLCs. Operating systems such as Windows do

not lend themselves to deterministic logic execution, with the result

that the controller may not always respond to changes of input

status with the consistency in timing expected from PLCs. Desktop

logic applications find use in less critical situations, such as

laboratory automation and use in small facilities where the

application is less demanding and critical, because they are

generally much less expensive than PLCs.[citation needed]

Basic functions[edit]

The most basic function of a programmable controller is to

emulate the functions of electro-mechanical relays. Discrete inputs

are given a unique address, and a PLC instruction can test if the

input state is on or off. Just as a series of relay contacts perform a

logical AND function, not allowing current to pass unless all the

contacts are closed, so a series of "examine if on" instructions will

energize its output storage bit if all the input bits are on. Similarly,

a parallel set of instructions will perform a logical OR. In an electro-

mechanical relay wiring diagram, a group of contacts controlling

one coil is called a "rung" of a "ladder diagram ", and this concept

is also used to describe PLC logic. Some models of PLC limit the

number of series and parallel instructions in one "rung" of logic.

The output of each rung sets or clears a storage bit, which may be

associated with a physical output address or which may be an

"internal coil" with no physical connection. Such internal coils can

be used, for example, as a common element in multiple separate

rungs. Unlike physical relays, there is usually no limit to the

number of times an input, output or internal coil can be referenced

in a PLC program.

Some PLCs enforce a strict left-to-right, top-to-bottom execution

order for evaluating the rung logic. This is different from electro-
mechanical relay contacts, which in a sufficiently complex circuit

may either pass current left-to-right or right-to-left, depending on

the configuration of surrounding contacts. The elimination of these

"sneak paths" is either a bug or a feature, depending on

programming style.

More advanced instructions of the PLC may be implemented as

functional blocks, which carry out some operation when enabled

by a logical input and which produce outputs to signal, for example,

completion or errors, while manipulating variable internally that

may not correspond to discrete logic.

Timers and counters[edit]

The main function of a timer is to keep an output on for a

specific length of time. A good example of this is a garage

light, where you want power to be cut off after 2 minutes so

as to give someone time to go into the house. The three

different types of timers that are commonly used are a

Delay-OFF, a Delay-ON, and a Delay-ON-Retentive. A

Delay-OFF timer activates immediately when turned on,

counts down from a programmed time before cutting off,

and is cleared when the enabling input is off. A Delay-ON

timer is activated by input and starts accumulating time,

counts up to a programmed time before cutting off, and is

cleared when the enabling input is turned off. A Delay-ON-

Retentive timer is activated by input and starts

accumulating time, retains the accumulated value even if

the (ladder-logic) rung goes false, and can be reset only by

a RESET contact.

Counters are primarily used for counting items such as cans

going into a box on an assembly line. This is important

because once something is filled to its max the item needs

to be moved on so something else can be filled. Many

companies use counters in PLC's to count boxes, count

how many feet of something is covered, or to count how

many pallets are on a truck. There are three types of

counters, Up counters, Down counters, and Up/Down

counters. Up counters count up to the preset value, turn on

the CTU (CounT Up output) when the preset value is

reached, and are cleared upon receiving a reset. Down

counters count down from a preset value, turns on the CTD

(CounT Down output) when 0 is reached, and are cleared

upon reset. Up/Down counters count up on CU, count down

on CD, turn on CTUD (CounT Up/Down output) when the

preset value is reached, and cleared on reset.[10]

Programmable logic relay (PLR)[edit]

In more recent years, small products called PLRs

(programmable logic relays), and also by similar names,

have become more common and accepted. These are

much like PLCs, and are used in light industry where only a

few points of I/O (i.e. a few signals coming in from the real

world and a few going out) are needed, and low cost is

desired. These small devices are typically made in a

common physical size and shape by several manufacturers,

and branded by the makers of larger PLCs to fill out their

low end product range. Popular names include PICO

Controller, NANO PLC, and other names implying very

small controllers. Most of these have 8 to 12 discrete inputs,

4 to 8 discrete outputs, and up to 2 analog inputs. Size is

usually about 4" wide, 3" high, and 3" deep. Most such

devices include a tiny postage-stamp-sized LCD screen for

viewing simplified ladder logic (only a very small portion of

the program being visible at a given time) and status of I/O

points, and typically these screens are accompanied by a 4-

way rocker push-button plus four more separate push-

buttons, similar to the key buttons on a VCR remote control,

and used to navigate and edit the logic. Most have a small

plug for connecting via RS-232 or RS-485 to a personal

computer so that programmers can use simple Windows

applications for programming instead of being forced to use

the tiny LCD and push-button set for this purpose. Unlike

regular PLCs that are usually modular and greatly

expandable, the PLRs are usually not modular or

expandable, but their price can be two orders of

magnitude less than a PLC, and they still offer robust

design and deterministic execution of the logics.

PLC topics[edit]

Features[edit]
Control panel with PLC (grey elements in the center). The

unit consists of separate elements, from left to right; power

supply, controller, relayunits for in- and output

Control panel with a PLC user interface for thermal

oxidizerregulation.
The main difference from most other computing

devices is that PLCs are intended-for and therefore

tolerant-of more severe conditions (such as dust,

moisture, heat, cold), while offering

extensive input/output (I/O) to connect the PLC

to sensors and actuators. PLC input can include

simple digital elements such as limit switches, analog

variables from process sensors (such as temperature and

pressure), and more complex data such as that from

positioning or machine vision systems.[11] PLC output can

include elements such as indicator lamps, sirens, electric

motors, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders,

magnetic relays, solenoids, or analog outputs. The

input/output arrangements may be built into a simple PLC,

or the PLC may have external I/O modules attached to a

fieldbus or computer network that plugs into the PLC.

Scan time[edit]
A PLC program generally loops i.e. executes
repeatedly, as long as the controlled system is
running. At the start of each execution loop, the
status of all physical inputs are copied to an area of
memory, sometimes called the "I/O Image Table",
which is accessible to the processor. The program
then runs from its first instruction rung down to the
last rung. It takes some time for the processor of the
PLC to evaluate all the rungs and update the I/O
image table with the status of outputs.[12] Scan times
of a few milliseconds may be encountered for small
programs and fast processors, but for older
processors and very large programs much longer
scan times (on the order of 100 ms) may be
encountered. Excessively long scan times may mean
the response of the PLC to changing inputs or
process conditions is too slow to be useful.

As PLCs became more advanced, methods were

developed to change the sequence of ladder
execution, and subroutines were
implemented.[13] This simplified programming could
be used to save scan time for high-speed processes;
for example, parts of the program used only for
setting up the machine could be segregated from
those parts required to operate at higher speed.
Newer PLCs now have the option to run the logic
program synchronously with the IO scanning. This
means that IO is updated in the background and the
logic reads and writes values as it's required during
the logic scanning.

Special-purpose I/O modules may be used where the

scan time of the PLC is too long to allow predictable
performance. Precision timing modules, or counter
modules for use with shaft encoders, are used where
the scan time would be too long to reliably count
pulses or detect the sense of rotation of an encoder.
This allows even a relatively slow PLC to still
interpret the counted values to control a machine, as
the accumulation of pulses is done by a dedicated
module that is unaffected by the speed of program
execution on the PLC.

Process of a scan cycle[edit]

There are 5 main steps in a scan cycle:

 1.Reading inputs
2.Executing the program
3.Processing communication requests
4.Executing CPU diagnostics
5.Writing outputs
System scale[edit]

A small PLC will have a fixed number of connections

built in for inputs and outputs. Typically, expansions
are available if the base model has insufficient I/O.

Modular PLCs have a chassis (also called a rack)

into which are placed modules with different
functions. The processor and selection of I/O
modules are customized for the particular
application. Several racks can be administered by a
single processor, and may have thousands of inputs
and outputs. Either a special high speed serial I/O
link or comparable communication method is used so
that racks can be distributed away from the
processor, reducing the wiring costs for large plants.
Options are also available to mount I/O points
directly to the machine and utilize quick
disconnecting cables to sensors and valves, saving
time for wiring and replacing components.

User interface[edit]
See also: User interface and List of human-computer
interaction topics

PLCs may need to interact with people for the

purpose of configuration, alarm reporting, or
everyday control. A human-machine interface (HMI)
is employed for this purpose. HMIs are also referred
to as man-machine interfaces (MMIs) and graphical
user interfaces (GUIs). A simple system may use
buttons and lights to interact with the user. Text
displays are available as well as graphical touch
screens. More complex systems use programming
and monitoring software installed on a computer,
with the PLC connected via a communication
interface.

Communications[edit]
Many models of PLCs have built-in communications ports,
using RS-232, RS-422, RS-485, or Ethernet. Various
protocols are usually included. Many of these protocols are
vendor specific.
Most modern PLCs can communicate over a network to
some other system, such as a computer running
a SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition)
system or web browser.

PLCs used in larger I/O systems may have peer-to-

peer (P2P) communication between processors. This allows
separate parts of a complex process to have individual
control while allowing the subsystems to co-ordinate over
the communication link. These communication links are
also often used for HMI devices such as keypads or PC-
type workstations.

Formerly, some manufacturers offered dedicated

communication modules as an add-on function where the
processor had no network connection built-in.

Programming[edit]

PLC programs are typically written in a special

application on a personal computer, then
downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a
network to the PLC. The program is stored in the
PLC either in battery-backed-up RAM or some other
non- volatile flash memory. Often, a single PLC can
be programmed to replace thousands of relays.[14]
Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be
programmed using standards-based programming
languages. The most commonly used programming
language is Ladder diagram (LD) also known as
Ladder logic. It uses Contact-Coil logic to make
programs like an electrical control diagram. A
graphical programming notation called Sequential
Function Charts is available on certain
programmable controllers. A model which emulated
electromechanical control panel devices (such as the
contact and coils of relays) which PLCs replaced.
This model remains common today.

IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming

languages for programmable control
systems: function block diagram (FBD), ladder
diagram (LD), structured text (ST; similar to
the Pascal programming language), instruction
list (IL; similar to assembly language), and sequential
function chart (SFC).[15] These techniques emphasize
logical organization of operations.[14]

While the fundamental concepts of PLC

programming are common to all manufacturers,
differences in I/O addressing, memory organization,
and instruction sets mean that PLC programs are
never perfectly interchangeable between different
makers. Even within the same product line of a
single manufacturer, different models may not be
directly compatible.

Control example shown in ladder diagram[edit]

This is a programming example in ladder

diagram which shows the control system. A ladder
diagram is a method of drawing control circuits which
pre-dates PLCs. The ladder diagram resembles the
schematic diagram of a system built with
electromechanical relays.

As an example, say a facility needs to store water in

a tank. The water is drawn from the tank by another
system, as needed, and our example system must
manage the water level in the tank by controlling the
valve that refills the tank. . Shown are:

• Two inputs (from the low and high level switches)

represented by contacts of the float switches
• An output to the fill valve, labelled as the fill valve
which it controls
• An "internal" contact, representing the output
signal to the fill valve which is created in the
program.
• A logical control scheme created by the
interconnection of these items in software

In ladder diagram, the contact symbols represent the

state of bits in processor memory, which corresponds
to the state of physical inputs to the system. If a
discrete input is energized, the memory bit is a 1,
and a "normally open" contact controlled by that bit
will pass a logic "true" signal on to the next element
of the ladder. Therefore, the contacts in the PLC
program that "read" or look at the physical switch
contacts in this case must be "opposite" or open in
order to return a TRUE for the closed physical
switches. Internal status bits, corresponding to the
state of discrete outputs, are also available to the
program.

In the example, the physical state of the float switch

contacts must be considered when choosing
"normally open" or "normally closed" symbols in the
ladder diagram. The PLC has two discrete inputs
from float switches (Low Level and High Level). Both
float switches (normally closed) open their contacts
when the water level in the tank is above the physical
location of the switch.

When the water level is below both switches, the

float switch physical contacts are both closed, and a
true (logic 1) value is passed to the Fill Valve output.
Water begins to fill the tank. The internal "Fill Valve"
contact latches the circuit so that even when the
"Low Level" contact opens (as the water passes the
lower switch), the fill valve remains on. Since the
High Level is also normally closed, water continues
to flow as the water level remains between the two
switch levels. Once the water level rises enough so
that the "High Level" switch is off (opened), the PLC
will shut the inlet to stop the water from overflowing;
this is an example of seal-in (latching) logic. The
output is sealed in until a high level condition breaks
the circuit. After that the fill valve remains off until the
level drops so low that the Low Level switch is
activated, and the process repeats again.

| (N.C. physical (N.C. physical |

| Switch) Switch) |
| Low Level High Level Fill Valve |
|------[ ]------|------[ ]----------------------(OUT)---------|
| | |
| | |
| | |
| Fill Valve | |
|------[ ]------| |
| |
| |

A complete program may contain thousands of

rungs, evaluated in sequence. Typically the PLC
processor will alternately scan all its inputs and
update outputs, then evaluate the ladder logic; input
changes during a program scan will not be effective
until the next I/O update. A complete program scan
may take only a few milliseconds, much faster than
changes in the controlled process.
Programmable controllers vary in their capabilities for
a "rung" of a ladder diagram. Some only allow a
single output bit. There are typically limits to the
number of series contacts in line, and the number of
branches that can be used. Each element of the rung
is evaluated sequentially. If elements change their
state during evaluation of a rung, hard-to-diagnose
faults can be generated, although sometimes (as
above) the technique is useful. Some
implementations forced evaluation from left-to-right
as displayed and did not allow reverse flow of a logic
signal (in multi-branched rungs) to affect the output.

Security[edit]

Prior to the discovery of the Stuxnet computer

worm in June 2010, security of PLCs received little
attention. Modern PLCs generally contain a real-time
operating system such as OS-9 or VxWorks, and
exploits for these systems exist much as they do for
desktop computer operating systems such
as Microsoft Windows. PLCs can also be attacked by
gaining control of a computer they communicate
with.[16]
Simulation[edit]

In order to properly understand the operation of a

PLC, it is necessary to spend considerable
time programming, testing, and debugging PLC
programs. PLC systems are inherently expensive,
and down-time is often very costly. In addition, if a
PLC is programmed incorrectly it can result in lost
productivity and dangerous conditions. PLC
simulation software such as PLCLogix can save time
in the design of automated control applications and
can also increase the level of safety associated with
equipment since many"what if" scenarios can be
tried and tested before the system is activated. [17]

Redundancy[edit]

Some special processes need to work permanently

with minimum unwanted down time. Therefore, it is
necessary to design a system which is fault-tolerant
and capable of handling the process with faulty
modules. In such cases to increase the system
availability in the event of hardware component
failure, redundant CPU or I/O modules with the same
functionality can be added to hardware configuration
for preventing total or partial process shutdown due
to hardware failure.

PLC compared with other control systems[edit]

PLC installed in a control panel

Control center with a PLC for a RTO.

PLCs are well adapted to a range

of automation tasks. These are typically industrial
processes in manufacturing where the cost of
developing and maintaining the automation system is
high relative to the total cost of the automation, and
where changes to the system would be expected
during its operational life. PLCs contain input and
output devices compatible with industrial pilot
devices and controls; little electrical design is
required, and the design problem centers on
expressing the desired sequence of operations. PLC
applications are typically highly customized systems,
so the cost of a packaged PLC is low compared to
the cost of a specific custom-built controller design.
On the other hand, in the case of mass-produced
goods, customized control systems are economical.
This is due to the lower cost of the components,
which can be optimally chosen instead of a "generic"
solution, and where the non-recurring engineering
charges are spread over thousands or millions of
units.

For high volume or very simple fixed automation

tasks, different techniques are used. For example, a
cheap consumer dishwasher would be controlled by
an electromechanical cam timer costing only a few
dollars in production quantities.

A microcontroller-based design would be appropriate

where hundreds or thousands of units will be
produced and so the development cost (design of
power supplies, input/output hardware, and
necessary testing and certification) can be spread
over many sales, and where the end-user would not
need to alter the control. Automotive applications are
an example; millions of units are built each year, and
very few end-users alter the programming of these
controllers. However, some specialty vehicles such
as transit buses economically use PLCs instead of
custom-designed controls, because the volumes are
low and the development cost would be
uneconomical.[18]

Very complex process control, such as used in the

chemical industry, may require algorithms and
performance beyond the capability of even high-
performance PLCs. Very high-speed or precision
controls may also require customized solutions; for
example, aircraft flight controls. Single-board
computers using semi-customized or fully proprietary
hardware may be chosen for very demanding control
applications where the high development and
maintenance cost can be supported. "Soft PLCs"
running on desktop-type computers can interface
with industrial I/O hardware while executing
programs within a version of commercial operating
systems adapted for process control needs.[18]
Programmable controllers are widely used in motion,
positioning, or torque control. Some manufacturers
produce motion control units to be integrated with
PLC so that G-code(involving a CNC machine) can
be used to instruct machine movements. [19][citation
needed]

PLCs may include logic for single-variable feedback

analog control loop, a proportional, integral,
derivative (PID) controller. A PID loop could be used
to control the temperature of a manufacturing
process, for example. Historically PLCs were usually
configured with only a few analog control loops;
where processes required hundreds or thousands of
loops, a distributed control system (DCS) would
instead be used. As PLCs have become more
powerful, the boundary between DCS and PLC
applications has been blurred.

PLCs have similar functionality as remote terminal

units. An RTU, however, usually does not support
control algorithms or control loops. As hardware
rapidly becomes more powerful and cheaper, RTUs,
PLCs, and DCSs are increasingly beginning to
overlap in responsibilities, and many vendors sell
RTUs with PLC-like features, and vice versa. The
industry has standardized on the IEC 61131-
3 functional block language for creating programs to
run on RTUs and PLCs, although nearly all vendors
also offer proprietary alternatives and associated
development environments.

In recent years "safety" PLCs have started to

become popular, either as standalone models or as
functionality and safety-rated hardware added to
existing controller architectures (Allen-
Bradley Guardlogix, Siemens F-series etc.). These
differ from conventional PLC types as being suitable
for use in safety-critical applications for which PLCs
have traditionally been supplemented with hard-
wired safety relays. For example, a safety PLC might
be used to control access to a robot cell
with trapped-key access, or perhaps to manage the
shutdown response to an emergency stop on a
conveyor production line. Such PLCs typically have a
restricted regular instruction set augmented with
safety-specific instructions designed to interface with
emergency stops, light screens, and so forth. The
flexibility that such systems offer has resulted in rapid
growth of demand for these controllers.

Discrete (digital) and analog signals[edit]

Discrete (digital) signals behave as binary switches,

yielding simply an On or Off signal (1 or 0, True or
False, respectively). Push buttons, limit switches,
and photoelectric sensors are examples of devices
providing a discrete signal. Discrete signals are sent
using either voltage or current, where a specific
range is designated as On and another as Off. For
example, a PLC might use 24 V DC I/O, with values
above 22 V DC representing On, values below 2VDC
representing Off, and intermediate values undefined.
Initially, PLCs had only digital I/O.

Analog signals are like volume controls, with a range

of values between zero and full-scale. These are
typically interpreted as integer values (counts) by the
PLC, with various ranges of accuracy depending on
the device and the number of bits available to store
the data. As PLCs typically use 16-bit signed binary
processors, the integer values are limited between -
32,768 and +32,767. Pressure, temperature, flow,
and weight are often represented by analog signals.
Analog signals can use voltage or current with a
magnitude proportional to the value of the process
signal. For example, an analog 0 to 10 V or 4-20
mA input would be converted into an integer value of
0 to 32767.

Current inputs are less sensitive to electrical noise

(e.g. from welders or electric motor starts) than
voltage inputs.

PLCs are at the forefront of manufacturing

automation. An engineer working in a manufacturing
environment will at least encounter some PLCs, if not
use them on a regular basis. Electrical engineering
students should have basic knowledge of PLCs
because of their widespread use in industrial
applications.[20][21][22]

See also