JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 23: 223–242, 2011

Copyright

C Association for Applied Sport Psychology
ISSN: 1041-3200 print / 1533-1571 online
DOI: 10.1080/10413200.2011.559184

A Qualitative Study of Performance Leadership

and Management in Elite Sport

DAVID FLETCHER AND RACHEL ARNOLD

Loughborough University

This paper is an investigation of performance leadership and management in elite sport.

Thirteen national performance directors of Olympic sports were interviewed with regard to
best practice. Four main areas were identified: vision, operations, people, and culture. The
main vision issues were vision development, influences on the vision, and sharing the vision.
The main operations issues were financial management, strategic competition and training
planning, athlete selection for competition, and upholding rules and regulations. The main
people issues were staff management, lines of communication, and feedback mechanisms. The
main culture issues were establishing role awareness, and organizational and team atmosphere.

England won the World Cup . . . because we had an outstanding group of players . . . the most
intense preparation . . . [and] a powerful team spirit both on and off the pitch. Most importantly,
we had a strong, dynamic organizational culture that fully supported our new approach. Without
it, our systems would have been built on a foundation of sand and wouldn’t have weathered
the mildest of storms. (Woodward, 2004, p. 6)

This quote by Sir Clive Woodward, head coach of the England rugby union team that won
the 2003 World Cup, illustrates the importance of an organization’s shared beliefs, perceptions,
and expectations in achieving at the highest level in competitive sport. Sport psychologists
have recognized this for some time and Fletcher and Wagstaff (2009) recently emphasized that
it is essential for researchers and practitioners to better understand organizational influences on
athletic performance. In support of their premise, they reviewed six lines of inquiry pointing
to the salience of organizational issues in elite sport: factors affecting Olympic performance
(see, for a review, Gould & Maynard, 2009), organizational stress (see, for a review, Fletcher,
Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2006), perceptions of roles (see, e.g., Reid, Stewart, & Thorne, 2004),
organizational success factors (see, e.g., Weinberg & McDermott, 2002), performance environ-
ments in elite sport (see, e.g., Pain & Harwood, 2008), and organizational citizenship behavior
(see Aoyagi, Cox, & McGuire, 2008). After reviewing the findings of this research, Fletcher
and Wagstaff (2009) concluded that, “the way individuals are led and managed will become an
increasingly important factor in determining NSO’s [national sporting organizations] success
in Olympic competition” (p. 433).
Performance leadership at the managerial level of organizations has been somewhat
overlooked by sport psychology researchers who have tended to focus on coaching-related

Received 9 July 2010; accepted 27 January 2011.

Address correspondence to David Fletcher, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Loughborough
University, Epinal Way, Loughborough, LE11 3TU United Kingdom. E-mail: [email protected]

223
224 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

leadership (see, for a review, Chelladurai, 2007; Riemer, 2007). In contrast, organizational
psychologists have examined managerial-level leadership in detail and proposed a wide ar-
ray of theoretical approaches (see, for a review, Zaccaro & Klimoski, 2001). These include
trait (Carlyle, 1841), behavioral and style (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939), skills (Katz,
1955), social exchange (Homans, 1958; Zaccaro & Klimoski, 2001), contingency (Fiedler,
1964), organizational systems (Katz & Kahn, 1978), strategic management (Bourgeois, 1984;
Wortman, 1982), leader effectiveness (Kenny & Zaccaro, 1983), functional (Hackman &
Walton, 1986), and situational (Hersey, 1986) perspectives. Available space precludes a dis-
cussion of all these approaches; however, given the focus of this study, it is worth briefly
summarizing the behavioral style, leader effectiveness, functional, social exchange, and situ-
ational approaches to studying performance leadership.
Early researchers working in this line of inquiry conceptualized leadership as a set of
individuals’ behaviors and unearthed a number of leadership styles. These include dictatorial,
autocratic, participative and laissez faire (Lewin et al., 1939), charismatic (House, 1977;
Weber, 1947), directive, supportive, participative and achievement-oriented (House, 1971;
1996), transactional and transformational (Bass, 1985; Burns 1978), and people-oriented and
task-oriented (Tracy, 1987) styles. In extending this work, the leader effectiveness (Kenny
& Zaccaro, 1983) and functional approaches (Hackman & Walton, 1986) linked a variety
of attributes and competencies to organizational and leadership effectiveness. These include
honesty, self-insight, flexibility, emotional intelligence, an ability to generate enthusiasm,
collective thinking, cooperation, trust, and an ability to create a vision (Ringer, 2007; Stein,
Papadogiannis, Yip, & Sitarenios, 2009; Yukl, 2008). From a social perspective, the emergence
of the social exchange approach (Homans, 1958; see, for a recent review, Zaccaro & Klimoski,
2001) enhanced understanding of leadership by paying greater attention to the relationship
between leaders and their subordinates. More recently, the situational approach (Hersey, 1986)
provided a prescriptive view of leadership together with accompanying suggestions on how
leaders can become effective in different types of organizational settings and tasks. Although
there has been a wide array of theoretical approaches to performance leadership, the conceptual
underpinning of leadership is relatively well-established, with Northouse (2010) recently
defining it as, “a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a
common goal” (p. 3).
Turning to the area of performance management, this line of inquiry has also tended to
be overlooked by sport psychology researchers. In contrast, other academic disciplines have
explored this concept in detail (see, for a review, Holloway, 2009). These include human
resources management (see, e.g., Armstrong & Baron, 1998), occupational psychology and
organizational behavior (see, e.g., Fletcher, 2001), management accounting and finance (see,
e.g., Kloot & Martin, 2001), operations management (see, e.g., Radnor & Barnes, 2007),
and team performance management (see, e.g., Ratten, 2009). As a result of these multiple
perspectives on performance management, it is not surprising that the literature in the area
is crowded and confused. Consequently, a precise definition of performance management
has proved to be elusive (Thorpe & Holloway, 2008), although it is possible to elucidate an
overarching purpose:

The basic aims of performance management are to share understanding about what is to be
achieved, to develop the capacity of people and the organization to achieve it, and to provide
the support and guidance individuals and teams need to improve their performance. (Thorpe
& Holloway, 2008, p. 88)
 PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 225

In accordance with these aims, a number of researchers have discussed best practice per-
formance management systems (Armstrong & Baron, 1998; Holloway, 2009; Walters, 1995).
Characteristics of these systems include having aims, identifying risk factors, communicating
a vision, measuring performance, regularly reporting results, and encouraging a culture of
openness, empowerment, and sensitivity. Furthermore, a performance management system
must be compatible with the organization’s culture (Armstrong & Baron, 1998; Holloway,
2009) and should be carefully matched to the organization’s circumstances, any problems
requiring attention, and the preferred management style (Walters, 1995).
Although performance leadership and management can be conceived as distinct constructs,
it is generally accepted that, at an operational level, considerable overlap exists. From a
conceptual perspective, Kotter (1990) argued that leadership is about seeking adaptive and
constructive change and movement, whereas management is about seeking order, consistency,
and stability in organizations. Bennis and Nanus (1985) attempted to capture the distinction in
their frequently quoted remark: “Leaders are people who do the right thing and managers are
people who do things right” (p. 221). Despite these differences, Northouse (2010) recognized
the many similarities between leadership and management noting that both involve influence,
working with people, and are concerned with effective goal accomplishment. He also pointed
out that when leaders are involved in planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling, they are
involved in management; whereas, when managers are involved in influencing a group to meet
its goals, they are involved in leadership. In view of these observations, Northouse (2010)
concluded by encouraging researchers to “treat the role of managers and leaders similarly and
do not emphasize the differences between them” (p. 11).
Despite the significant amount of research examining performance leadership and man-
agement spanning various academic disciplines, sport psychology appears to have overlooked
these potentially fruitful lines of inquiry. Indeed, Fletcher and Wagstaff (2009) concluded
their review paper by stating that, “there is currently no rigorous research that specifically
addresses performance management . . . in elite sport” (p. 433). The purpose of this study is,
therefore, to investigate performance leadership and management in elite sport. Specifically,
the intention here is to explore perceptions of best practice for leading and managing teams in
preparation for Olympic competition. It is hoped that evidence-based information in this area
will help inform practitioners who provide support to the management staff of international
sports teams (cf. Males, 2006; Timson, 2006). Indeed, when reflecting on his work with the
2004 British Olympic Team, Simon Timson (2006) observed that:

Increasingly, sport psychologists are being asked to provide support to management and coach-
ing teams with issues such as leadership and communication. These were some key themes
of my work with the HQ [headquaters] team at the camp. Further training and professional
development in these areas may help sport psychologists to provide an enhanced service during
the planning and at future Olympic holding camps. (p. 24)

METHOD
Design
In view of the rather scant knowledge of performance leadership and management in elite
sport, this study was deemed best suited to qualitative methods. Such methods are typically
characterized by the adoption of an explorative approach to inquiry and the collection of
rich, descriptive data that portrays complex human experiences (Silverman, 2006). Qualitative
research emphasizes the exploration of multiple realities gained from different interpretations
226 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

of the social world. Therefore, collecting rich data from various perspectives will help promote
a greater profundity of performance leadership and management in elite sport. Furthermore,
the specific method of interviews encourages individuals to provide in-depth information that
resonates at a personal level and captures the subjective meaning in contextual situations
(Kvale & Brinkmann, 2008). Hence, interviews were selected to explore the topic area via the
experiences of those who have firsthand practice of performance leadership and management
in elite sport.

Participants
To address the aim of this study a purposive sampling technique was used to solicit
participants that were national performance directors (NPDs) of an Olympic sport. This
approach to sampling is often utilized in qualitative research when there are a limited number
of people that have experience or expertise in the research area. The sample consisted of 13
current NPDs (11 male, 2 female) who ranged in age from 42 to 54 years (M = 48.88, SD =
4.52). The participants had worked in elite sport for between four to 35 years (M = 20.21,
SD = 11.02) and as a NPD for between .5 to 13 years (M = 6.01, SD = 3.76). The represented
Olympic sports accumulated a total of 24 medals at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and accounted
for £138 million of public investment (approximately equivalent to US $264 million). In terms
of the sample size, 13 NPDs was considered an appropriate number because the participants
began to recall analogous vignettes as the data collection phase progressed. Consequently,
new themes failed to emerge from the analysis and it was deemed that both theoretical and
data saturation had occurred (Biddle, Markland, Gilbourne, Chatzisarantis, & Sparkes, 2001;
Bowen, 2008).

Procedure
After completing the American Psychological Association’s (2010) Ethical Compliance
Checklist and obtaining institutional ethical approval for the study, current NPDs working in
Olympic sports were contacted by email. This communication informed them of the purpose
of the study, described what it would entail for participants, and invited them to participate.
As a result of one of the emails, the researchers were invited to present information about the
study at a NPD forum. NPDs who expressed an interest in participating were contacted to
arrange a convenient time and location for the interview, and were provided with a copy of an
interview guide specifically designed for this study. The interviews were digitally recorded in
their entirety.

Interview Guide
An interview guide1 was developed to help investigate the research question and it was
divided into five sections. Section 1 provided participants with information about the study,
its purpose, and their right to withdraw at any time. In particular, it was emphasized that
confidential, personally identifiable information concerning their participation would not be
disclosed at any stage of the research process (cf. American Psychological Association, 2010).
Section 2 provided an opportunity to confirm participant understanding and, subsequently,
invited the participants to voluntarily proceed with the interview. Section 3 consisted of
introductory questions (e.g., How did you first get involved in [sport]?) These questions
allowed the interviewer to develop rapport with the participant and gain an insight into his
or her background. Section 4 explored various aspects of the NPD role and responsibilities
(e.g., “What are the important considerations related to your work in elite sport?”) and the
 PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 227

participant’s perceptions of best practice for leading and managing teams in preparation for
Olympic competition (e.g., “What are the important considerations related to your work in elite
sport?”; “What qualities do you think NPDs should possess to be effective?”; “What do you
believe represents best practice in your role?”) The conception and phrasing of the questions
in this section were, in part, informed by the extant literature on performance leadership and
management. Section 5 encouraged the participants to voice any further pertinent issues and
also evaluated the efficacy of the interview. Although the participants were guided through an
identical set of questions in Sections 3, 4, and 5 the order of questioning varied according to the
flow of the conversation. This flexibility allowed the participants to pursue the interview in the
direction that they deemed appropriate. A pilot interview was conducted on a recently retired
NPD to help ensure that the guide addressed the relevant areas of performance leadership
and management in elite sport. The pilot interview also enabled the interviewer to refine her
interview skills and techniques. Based on this interview it was decided that several further
clarification and elaboration probes were required to attain a deeper understanding of the
participants’ subjective experiences (cf. Biddle et al., 2001).

Data Analysis
The interviews ranged in duration from 32 to 103 min (M = 54, SD = 20.40), were
transcribed verbatim, and yielded 329 pages of 1.5 spaced text. Because knowledge of perfor-
mance leadership and management in elite sport is scarce, a thematic interpretational content
analysis was deemed the most appropriate approach for analyzing the data (Aronson, 1994;
Côté, Salmela, & Baria, 1993; Gibbs, 2007). This is because content analysis has the potential
to generate knowledge via the emergence and interpretation of themes from the interview
transcripts. Furthermore, incorporating inductive reasoning within these procedures can help
to foster innovation (Neuendorf, 2002). The first stage of the content analysis involved the
interviewer immersing herself in the transcripts and extracting raw-data quotes pertaining
to performance leadership and management in elite sport. Quotes that represented common
themes were then paraphrased as lower-order themes, before they were combined and cat-
alogued as higher-order themes (Aronson, 1994). Higher-order themes were subsequently
pieced together into appropriate general dimensions, forming a comprehensive picture of the
participants’ collective experiences. Although inductive procedures dominated the study’s data
analysis, deductive reasoning also played a partial role in the later stages of the process. More
specifically, the performance leadership and management literature from academic disciplines
outside sport psychology influenced the appellation of the themes and dimensions. This ap-
proach is common in the analysis of qualitative data, as Gibbs (2007) noted: “It is very hard
for analysts to eliminate completely all prior frameworks . . . inevitably qualitative analysis is
guided and framed by pre-existing ideas and concepts” (p. 45). In terms of the data handling,
manual analysis was considered more appropriate than computer-assisted analysis because the
latter can distance the researcher from the data (Davis & Meyer, 2009; Mangabeira, Lee, &
Fielding, 2004). Finally, a frequency analysis was conducted to illustrate how often each theme
was mentioned by the participants (Neuendorf, 2002).

Trustworthiness and Validity

While acknowledging that various criteria exist for evaluating the quality of qualitative
research (Krefting, 1991; Sparkes & Smith, 2009; Weed, 2009), this study sought to employ
the criteria most appropriate for the research question and emergent data. One such criterion
was authenticity, which was enhanced by acknowledging any researcher biases (Biddle et al.,
2001; Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Patton, 2002; Watt, 2007). As part of this process a critical
228 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

friend questioned any interpretations made at each stage of the data analysis (Faulkner &
Sparkes, 1999; Holt & Sparkes, 2001; Sparkes & Partington, 2003), particularly following
any deductive reasoning that occurred. This was supplemented by member checking which
involved sending three participants the themes and dimensions to check for both clarity
and accuracy. Other chosen criteria included credibility and rigor and were addressed by
interviewing knowledgeable participants from a wide range of sports and, as a result, provided
more in-depth raw data to drive the generation of the results (Patton, 2002; Paulus, Woodside, &
Ziegler, 2008). Finally, although the above techniques were utilized to contribute to qualitative
validity criteria, Biddle et al. (2001) noted that readers should be provided with the opportunity
to evaluate and interpret the data in a way that is most meaningful to them. Consequently, the
findings of this study are presented using both hierarchical content trees and direct quotations.
This combination enables the reader to appreciate the wide array of emergent themes together
with their complexity and, ultimately, to gain a better understanding of performance leadership
and management in elite sport.

RESULTS
The results derived from the data analysis procedures represent the participants’ collated
responses. The interview data yielded 251 distinct raw-data quotes2 which were abstracted
into 43 lower-order themes, and 12 higher-order themes. The higher-order themes formed
four general dimensions of performance leadership and management in elite sport: vision,
operations, people, and culture (see Figures 1–4). Vision was defined as the team’s ultimate
aspiration. The term operations was defined as the management of logistics that enable per-
formance. The term people was defined as the leadership of individuals that contribute to the
team’s functioning. Culture was defined as the shared beliefs and expectations within the team.

Vision
Vision consisted of three higher-order themes: vision development, influences on the vision,
and sharing the vision (see Figure 1). In terms of the development of the vision, the NPDs agreed
that it is important to seek collective input into its design, ensure that it is appropriately focused
and flexible for adaptation, and stimulate shared ownership within the team. In addition, some
of the NPDs suggested that the vision should evolve over time. The most frequently cited
themes in this higher-order theme were ensuring that the vision was appropriately focused and
had shared ownership:

The vision for the organization needs to be clear, and specific to what you want to achieve,
where you want to go . . . it’s got to be stretched, though at the same time remain realistic and
achievable . . . and, I think, ultimately targets and goals need to be owned by everyone who
is working towards that vision . . . that way, people will buy into what you are trying to do.
(Participant 10).

Alongside the development of the vision, the NPDs spoke about the influences on the team’s
vision. These included current political agendas, the team’s recent performances, feedback
from the staff, the expectations of the team’s stakeholder(s), and the team’s current focus.
Collectively, these factors impact on the nature of the vision and its relevance to the team. This
quote indicates how a political agenda influenced the vision:
 PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 229

Frequency Lower-order Theme Frequency Higher-order Theme

3 Collective input

6 Appropriately focused

1 Flexible for adaptation 17 Vision development

4 Shared ownership

3 Evolves over time

3 Political agendas

7 Recent performances

1 Staff feedback 18 Influences on the vision

2 Stakeholder(s) expectations

5 Current focus

6 Clarifying the message

2 Dissemination of the message 15 Sharing the vision

7 Managing expectations

Figure 1. Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport: Vision.

The reason it’s complicated is because in order to get [externally sourced funding] you have
to produce Olympic medals. When we first wrote our plan . . . (I think I wrote it in 1997,
for the 2000 Olympics), we said we would get fourth place. . . . Then six to nine months out
from the 2000 Olympics, [the nation’s high performance sports agency] decided they’d change
the goalposts. They said, “we are not going to give you any money unless you can get a medal,”
and I said, “so what you’re saying is you have given us the money already, but you are not
going to continue it for a fourth place” . . . They said, “yes.” So I went back and changed the
fourth to a third place. (Participant 9)

To share the vision, the NPDs discussed how they initially clarify the message to the
team, emphasizing that it is authentic, appropriate, and realistic. Once clarified, the vision is
disseminated throughout the sport organization and performance team. The most frequently
cited theme in this higher-order theme was “managing expectations.” Several NPDs described
that when sharing a vision with an organization and team it is important to manage people’s
expectations that arise as a result. This is described in the following quote:

Managing expectation is vital across far more than just performance—it relates to what we’re
trying to achieve and where we’re aiming to be . . . I think it will be a big issue in the build up
to [the] 2012 [Olympic Games] because, well . . . expectation of [nation] results . . . will need
managing . . . get it wrong and you are in trouble. . . . So you can’t just publicize the vision—you
need to manage people’s interpretation of it and their expectations too. (Participant 13)
230 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

Frequency Lower-order Theme Frequency Higher-order Theme

13 External budget allocation

10 Prioritized funding
Nation’s high performance sports agency
7 41 Financial management
rules
3 Self-sufficient and sustainable finances

8 Innovative investment

8 Collaborative involvement
Strategic competition and training
3 Managing the quality 24
planning
13 Evaluation and reporting

9 Objectivity throughout the process

6 Athlete/sport relevant criteria

4 Support staff involvement 25 Athlete selection for competition

2 External consultation

4 Appeals process

3 Awareness and education

1 Clarification of the laws of the sport 6 Upholding rules and regulations

2 Reinforcement of externally imposed rules

Figure 2. Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport: Operations.

Frequency Lower-order Theme Frequency Higher-order Theme

5 Recruitment of personnel

15 Supporting the workforce 27 Staff management

7 Staff development pathways

5 Multidirectional interaction

7 Multiple implementation methods 13 Lines of communication

1 Optimal frequency of exchange

8 Athlete reviews
Formal and informal staff
7 27 Feedback mechanisms
evaluation
12 External assessments

Figure 3. Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport: People.

 PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 231

Frequency Lower-order Theme Frequency Higher-order Theme

12 National performance director awareness

20 Establishing role awareness
8 Developing colleague role knowledge

7 Creating an identity
Improving the quality and quantity of
5 18 Organizational and team atmosphere
contact time
6 Promoting compatibility behaviors

Figure 4. Performance Leadership and Management in Elite Sport: Culture.

Operations
Operations consisted of four higher-order themes: financial management, strategic com-
petition and training planning, athlete selection for competition, and upholding rules and
regulations (see Figure 2). Financial management involved the allocation of external budgets,
prioritizing funding, adhering to the nation’s high performance sports agency rules, generating
self-sufficient and sustainable finances, and investing in innovative projects. The most fre-
quently cited themes in this higher-order theme were prioritized funding and external budget
allocation. These themes were closely linked since prioritizing funding was dependant on the
budget that each sport had been allocated for the current Olympiad. Other common themes re-
lating to financial management were the importance of self-sufficient and sustainable finances
and innovative investment, as the below quote indicates:

I think ultimately we need to get ourselves into a self-sufficient, sustainable position for post
[the] 2012 [Olympic Games] . . . because after that there will be a lot of changes to elite sport
funding. . . . At the same time we need to ensure that any technological advancements we invest
in are value-for-money developments . . . so, you know, the people who are doing the research,
they have to come in and demonstrate to me and the coaches how it’s going to make a medal
winning difference. (Participant 3)

At the start of each year most of the NPDs planned strategically with other staff the compe-
tition and training operations of the team. More specifically, coaches typically contributed to
the strategic element (e.g., by selecting competitions to attend), administrative staff organized
the training and competition arrangements (e.g., travel and accommodation), and the NPDs
typically made the final decisions on operational issues. After each competition the importance
of “evaluation and reporting” on the strategic plans was highlighted, and the following quote
provides an insight into this process:

So this morning we went through our [nation] competition evaluation, that’s coaches, athletes,
physio, sport science manager, administrator, everyone. . . . I picked up some key points. I will
then make sure that there is a file kept on [nation], so the next time we go there, there is a
footprint. (Participant 8)

The most frequently cited themes within athlete selection for competition were athlete/sport-
relevant criteria and objectivity throughout the process. In terms of ensuring that the criteria
remained relevant, the NPDs emphasized the importance of conducting regular reviews of
the selection policies to monitor their appropriateness to current circumstances and goals.
232 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

Maintaining objectivity throughout the competition selection process is illustrated by the

following quote:

We used probably the most objective system that was possible . . . we had a very, very forensic
four day camp where they [the athletes] got marked out of 100 for a variety of attributes and
also had an interview . . . I mean we even brought external coaches in from [nation] who didn’t
know the athletes . . . We had [nation’s high performance sports agency] involved at every level
[of the selection process]; they were there at the camp so they knew we had done everything
we could do for it to be fair. I don’t think any sport could have a more objective start to their
program. (Participant 5)

The NPDs also took on the responsibility for upholding rules and regulations within the
team. For instance, they commonly provided awareness and education on the rules of the
sport, dispute processes, and doping procedures. The following quote illustrates how one NPD
managed this area:

The rules do change; they evolve. So we do a lot of CPD [continuing professional development]
work with the coaches, and bring top judges and umpires into that CPD process . . . Also, in
our sport, there is a rules dispute process so we train the athletes in that. Our racing manager
also makes sure that all the judges and umpires are up to speed on the regulations . . . as they
need to become more professional like the athletes. (Participant 7)

People
People consisted of three higher-order themes: staff management, lines of communication,
and feedback mechanisms (see Figure 3). The most frequently cited theme within staff man-
agement was supporting the workforce. The following NPD account provides an insight into
the complexities of how to best support staff:

I think it’s crucial that you inspire and encourage them [staff] in their jobs, you have also got to
empower them to do it. That shouldn’t be mistaken for not communicating with them regularly;
I just try not to be constantly looking over their shoulder . . . We also try where possible with
administrative staff to make sure that they travel once with the team, so that they get a feel for
what it’s like on the receiving end of what they do, and at the same time it’s recognition for the
work they have done. (Participant 6)

A critical factor to emerge in terms of managing lines of communication was multiple

implementation methods. Due to the often disparate location of the team members, the NPDs
advocated a wide range of methods to communicate, including emails, telephones, electronic
messaging, short message service alerts, websites, newsletters, and meetings. However, despite
this diversity, all of the NPDs agreed that the importance of face-to-face communication should
not be underestimated:

Nothing can beat one-on-one, informal communication for getting a feel of what is going on
. . . When you are dealing with players that are worth millions they expect you to be there
and talking to them . . . hopefully our most expensive player has just signed a contract for $71
million with his club, and those kind of guys expect you to be there face-to-face when they
have got a problem or issue, and their agents do too. (Participant 1)

The frequency of feedback varied between sports, although athletes generally were sub-
jected to performance reviews, and coaches received informal verbal and/or formal written
 PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 233

feedback. A couple of NPDs were provided with formal feedback from their chairman or
board, whereas others received informal feedback through regular interactions with their staff.
The most frequently cited theme within feedback mechanisms concerned managing external
assessments. To elaborate briefly, the sports represented in our sample participated in an ex-
ternal assessment program that was delivered by the nation’s high performance sports agency.
Although many of the NPDs highlighted the limitations of this program, some found that it
was helpful, as the following quote illustrates:

We have immersed [name of external assessment program] into our own reporting structures
so we don’t have a separate recording structure . . . we have been able to tailor it to our needs
and it is part of our process now. That is important to me since the last thing I want is another
reporting structure . . . Though I can see why some NPDs might find it a pain in the a∗∗ , but
we don’t because we are already doing it; it’s engaged and integrated into our procedures.
(Participant 2)

Culture
Culture consisted of two higher-order themes: establishing role awareness and organiza-
tional and team atmosphere (see Figure 4). The process of establishing role awareness is
important for building and maintaining a culture because it ensures that everyone is aware
of what they are required to do, thus minimizing ambiguity and negativity. The NPDs all
seemed aware of what their own role entailed, and several common themes emerged across
sports. For example, the leadership and management of their Olympic programs involved
developing targets, structures and procedures, creating an environment to support elite ath-
letes, co-ordinating disciplines, and making decisions. Although one NPD believed that his
performance team members should intuitively understand their role, the majority suggested
that they played an active role in developing colleague role knowledge, as the following quote
exemplifies:

We have annual ‘world class days’ where we bring everyone on the program together. . . .
When they [the staff] join us their role is made clear through extensive induction sessions,
job descriptions, and contracts. However, one way I particularly like to make people aware of
their role is through team circulars and, whether you are a team leader, assistant team leader,
doctor or whatever you are, your role is summarized in that circular . . . [including] who you
are managed by, to whom you are accountable, and where the buck stops. (Participant 3)

Many of the NPDs described creating an organizational and team atmosphere as a chal-
lenging task, especially if their sport consisted of different disciplines, or the athletes were
located worldwide. Improving the quality and quantity of contact time was highlighted as an
important way to create a team atmosphere, as the following quote illustrates:

We have two major camps each year which everyone goes to, and everyone coming together
then kind of builds up a team atmosphere . . . We have tended to also have a reception before we
have gone away, and when we go to major events we will start off with a meeting for everyone
. . . where we establish certain rules, like (unless they are competing the next day) we require
them to come to the venue, in their tracksuits, to support the other athletes . . . We go as a team,
come back as a team. (Participant 5)
234 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

DISCUSSION
Recent literature in sport psychology suggests that, to maximize the likelihood of success,
organizations should pay more attention to the performance leadership and management of
their Olympic programs (cf. Fletcher & Wagstaff, 2009). The data reported here supports
this assertion by elucidating best practice for leading and managing teams in preparation
for Olympic competition. More specifically, the findings highlight the multifaceted nature
of orchestrating elite performance involving the development of a vision, the management
of operations, the leadership of people, and the creation of a culture. There are, perhaps,
two overarching messages to emerge from this study and its findings. The first message
is that research sport psychologists likely have much to learn and draw from other academic
disciplines such as human resources management, occupational psychology and organizational
behavior, management accounting and finance, operations management, and team performance
management. The transfer of knowledge from these areas to the elite sport domain will help
to contribute to a more complete understanding of the psychosocial preparation of Olympic
athletes. The second, related message is that, as a consequence of developments in the evidence
base, applied sport psychologists will likely need to broaden their competencies to provide
more effectual support to the management staff of international sports teams. For example, in
contrast to the psychological skills training commonly employed with athletes, the techniques
used in executive coaching appear more appropriate for enhancing the performance of leaders
and managers in elite sport.
A main finding to emerge from the data was that NPDs invest a notable amount of time
in identifying and articulating a vision. Furthermore, it is important that leaders operating in
elite sport not only establish and express a team’s ultimate aspiration, but also disseminate the
vision, role model its message, and inspire individuals to invest in it. This is an important aspect
of performance leadership and management because devotion to a shared aspiration will likely
enhance team unity and the realization of the vision. In contrast to the preponderance of sport
psychology literature, which has tended to focus on the specific mechanisms underpinning
goal-setting for individual athletes (cf. Weinberg & Butt, 2005), the findings reported here
draw attention to the importance of a vision at a more global level in elite sport teams (cf. Vallée
& Bloom, 2005). Notwithstanding this observation, the participants in this study emphasized
that a clear vision should be underpinned by performance and process goals at organizational,
team and individual levels that are harmoniously aligned. The complex, dynamic nature of
this area is illustrated by the observation that continual assessment and response to changing
internal and external demands is critical to maintaining effective functioning and realizing
the vision. This is supported by the findings of Bayle and Robinson’s (2007) case study of
11 French national governing bodies of sport which indicated that those who failed to take
advantage of opportunities open to them, or avoided threats facing them, compromised their
management and performance.
Following on from the development of a vision, one of the main roles of a NPD was
the management of operations within the team, involving financial management, strategic
competition and training planning, athlete selection for competition, and upholding rules
and regulations. The sport management literature has established that strategic investment in
elite sport is a critical factor in achieving success at the highest level (De Bosscher, Bingham,
Shibli, van Bottenburg, & De Knop, 2008; Green & Houlihan, 2005; Houlihan & Green, 2008).
Indeed, studies have repeatedly identified the ingredients of successful elite sport development,
including elite facility development (see, e.g., Oakley & Green, 2001; Stotlar & Wonders,
2006), support for full-time athletes (see, e.g., De Bosscher, De Knop, van Bottenburg, Shibli,
& Bingham, 2009; Madella, Bayle, & Tome, 2005), the provision of coaching, and sports
 PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 235

science and medicine support services (see, e.g., Digel, 2002; Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2009),
and a hierarchy of competition opportunities centered on preparation for international events
(see, e.g., De Bosscher, De Knop, van Bottenburg, & Shibli, 2006; Tan & Green, 2008).
The results reported here highlight the instrumental role that NPDs have in managing these
aspects of elite sport development and optimizing resources and processes. Interestingly, the
managerial skills required to execute these operations effectively contrast with the typical
technical instruction provided by sports coaches. More specifically, coaches tend to focus on
improving athlete or team performance, whereas NPDs are tasked with managing logistics that
enable performance development to occur. Psychologists, in an attempt to better support sports
coaches, have to date tended to focus their research efforts on aspects of the coach-athlete
relationship (cf. Jowett & Poczwardowski, 2007) and coach leadership (cf. Riemer, 2007),
rather than the managerial competencies required to operate effectively in elite sport.
Turning to the leadership of people, the NPDs managed their staff through communication
and feedback mechanisms. A universal theme apparent throughout the data was that effective
performance leadership and management involves developing, inspiring, and challenging oth-
ers to look beyond their own personal goals to the delivery of the team’s vision. Influencing
people’s attitudes in terms of their trust in or loyalty to the leader, commitment to the team,
and role satisfaction were all important aspects of this process. The findings suggest that staff
management involves recruiting, supporting, and developing people who are able to contribute
in a meaningful way to the team’s functioning. In terms of staff development pathways, the data
suggests that although sport organizations should provide continuing education for coaches
through the medium of clinics, publications, and national conferences (see also Stotlar &
Wonders, 2006), they should also invest in the provision of international work placements
and bespoke task-specific support for their staff. In order to enhance lines of communication,
the findings emphasize the importance not only of multidirectional interaction between ath-
letes and coaches, but also the inclusion of external organizations, the executive board, and
the administrative and support staff. For elite sport programs that are non-centralized, it is
important to employ a wide range of communication methods, particularly those that exploit
emerging technology such as mobile phones and the Internet. Feedback is typically provided
via performance reviews, verbal and written feedback, informal interaction with staff, and
external assessments. This range of mechanisms is important because it enables performance
leaders and managers to select the most appropriate feedback methods based on individual
and situational characteristics. Indeed, Armstrong and Baron (1998) emphasized that perfor-
mance management systems should be closely aligned to the prevailing organizational culture;
therefore, the feedback mechanisms used in elite sport should be compatible with the team’s
culture.
The creation of the team’s culture was viewed as central to effective performance leader-
ship and management, and therefore merited its own general dimension during the analysis
procedure. The findings revealed that creating a culture involves generating shared beliefs and
expectations within the team via the development of role awareness and a team atmosphere. If
team members understand their own role and are aware of others’ roles, the prevailing culture
is likely to be more conducive to realizing the team’s vision and goals. It is also important
in contemporary elite sport that the director, manager, and/or coach recognize the boundaries
between their roles, and value the contribution that each person makes to the team’s culture
and functioning. Turning to the organizational and team atmosphere, although the sport psy-
chology literature has addressed the issue of team building in some detail (see, e.g., Hardy
& Crace, 1997; Yukelson, 1997), most of this work has focused on athletes’ perceptions and,
to a lesser extent, coaches’ views (Bloom, Stevens, & Wickwire, 2003). In extending this ob-
servation, the findings reported here emphasize the pivotal role that performance leaders and
236 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

managers have at an organizational level in this area. More specifically, this involves creating an
identity for the entire performance team, improving the quality and quantity of contact time
not only between athletes and coaches but also the wider support and administrative staff, and
promoting compatibility behaviors which involve the appreciation and respect of others’ roles
within the team. Indeed, Bayle and Robinson (2007) argued that as the sport environment has
become more varied and uncertain, organizations have become more differentiated, leading to
an increased need for integration. Performance leaders and managers play an important role in
facilitating this integration via the transformation of individual attitudes and group cohesion.
From a practical perspective, the findings of this study go beyond merely identifying the
characteristics of effective leaders to exploring how they create, optimize, and maintain a high
performance environment. More specifically, best practice for leading and managing Olympic
teams involves the development of a vision, the management of operations, the leadership
of people, and the creation of a culture. The data presents more systematic information for
sport psychologists who provide support to the management staff of international sports teams
(cf. Males, 2006; Timson, 2006). The increased requests for managerial-level support in elite
sport (Timson, 2006) are, in our opinion, a positive development for applied sport psychology
because the potential to affect change is far greater working through performance leaders and
managers, rather than by solely counseling athletes. For example, consultants can advise those
in positions of influence on creating an environment where high performance becomes sustain-
able across the team. This shift in emphasis would likely necessitate practitioners broadening
their service delivery beyond psychological skills training and performance enhancement
techniques, to developing competencies more in line with those employed by occupational
psychologists and human resource managers. Indeed, the techniques used in executive coach-
ing (Feldman & Lankau, 2005; Kampa-Kokesch & Anderson, 2001; Passmore & Gibbes,
2007) will likely transfer well to performance leadership and management consultancy in elite
sport. Berman and Bradt (2006) identified five components of executive coaching with leaders
in business: (a) defining the imperative, (b) developing the milestones, (c) creating early wins,
(d) define and allocate roles, and (e) evolving the culture. Although there are clear parallels
between these aspects and the general dimensions reported in this study, the findings reported
here suggest that, in contrast to Berman and Bradt, this approach should not be viewed as a
series of discrete steps but rather as an iterative process that involves overlap and interaction
between the domains. Building upon Timson’s (2006) observations, we suggest that sport
psychologists should strive to be in a position whereby they can competently provide support
across all four of the dimensions reported here, particularly to those performance leaders
and managers who lack experience in the role, including individuals with a predominantly
participation or coaching background. However, we acknowledge that the recommendations
of this study raise further important issues relating to the training and development of sport
psychologists. Specifically, questions that need to be addressed include the following: What
training should applied sport psychologists undertake alongside their traditional education?
When should they complete this training—during their academic studies, supervised experi-
ence, and/or continued professional development? Under what circumstances is it appropriate
or ethical for a sport psychologist to refer a client(s) to an occupational psychologist? Although
the issues surrounding these questions are complex, it is likely that the ever-changing needs
of contemporary elite sport will need to be continually balanced with a degree of pragmatism
in terms of what the profession is able to offer and deliver.
When employing qualitative methods, it is important to consider some of the strengths
and limitations of the approach adopted. A notable strength of this study is the characteristics
of the sample. Specifically, the NPDs who participated in the interviews were some of the
most powerful and influential figures in the nation’s elite sport program and constituted not
 PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 237

only an underrepresented population in sport psychology research, but also a minority group
in comparison to athletes, coaches, and officials in sport. Notwithstanding this strength, it
is worth noting that the nature and high visibility of the sample may threaten the disclo-
sure of sensitive information that is relevant to the study because doing so may potentially
compromise the position and role of the participant. In an attempt to minimize this issue, we
informed the participants that we would adhere to American Psychological Association (2010)
guidelines by withholding personally identifiable information concerning the participants, in-
cluding both the nation and sports they represent. Utilizing semi-structured interviews to
collect the data from these individuals ensured that insightful vignettes and rich information
relating to performance leadership and management in elite sport could emerge. In terms of
the analysis and presentation of data, augmenting the findings of the content analysis with
those of the frequency analysis, together with using direct quotes alongside hierarchical trees,
helped portray the scope and complexity of the issues investigated. However, although the
frequency analysis indicated how often each theme was mentioned by participants, it did not
portray how many participants mentioned each theme. It is acknowledged that interviewing
participants from a single nation limits the generalizability of the findings to other nations.
However, logistical and financial constraints precluded more extensive sampling and, in an
attempt to enhance applicability, participants from a range of sports, and of varying age and
experience, were included in the sample. Finally, from an operational perspective, it is impor-
tant to note that although this exploratory study has adopted Northouse’s (2010) approach that
emphasizes the similarities between leaders and managers, we acknowledge that at a concep-
tual level differences do exist (cf. Kotter, 1990). Indeed, as the knowledge base in this area
develops, and perhaps the role of performance leaders and managers in elite sport diverges,
researchers may need to differentiate the activities of these personnel at a more fine-grained
level.
The findings reported in this study suggest that the behavioral and style (Lewin et al., 1939),
leader effectiveness (Kenny & Zaccaro, 1983), functional (Hackman & Walton, 1986), social
exchange (Homans, 1958; Zaccaro & Klimoski, 2001), and situational (Hersey, 1986) ap-
proaches represent promising theoretical inroads into understanding performance leadership.
Indeed, from a leadership behavior and style perspective, researchers have begun examining
transformational leadership in sport and have presented insights into its relationship with team
cohesion and performance level (see Callow, Smith, Hardy, Arthur, & Hardy, 2009; Charbon-
neau, Barling, & Kelloway, 2001; Rowold, 2006). Future researchers should go beyond global
models of leadership and the identification of the perceived roles of leaders, and examine
(a) differentiated models of leadership in elite sport, and (b) what leaders do in terms of
their behaviors and communication in specific contexts and situations. In seeking to identify
best practice for leading and managing teams in elite sport, the findings of this study have
tended to focus on what have been termed in the general psychology literature as “bright” (i.e.,
socially desirable) traits (e.g., conscientiousness, openness, intelligence, and charisma) asso-
ciated with leader and manager effectiveness. However, this may paint a somewhat simplistic
picture, because some of the participants interviewed in this study alluded to aspects of “dark”
(i.e., socially undesirable) traits (e.g., Narcissism, hubris, dominance, and Machiavellianism)
which they perceived as beneficial attributes for performance leadership and management in
elite sport. Further inquiry in this area should address the positive and negative effects of
both bright and dark sides of leader traits (cf. Conger, 1990; Hogan & Hogan, 2001; Judge
& LePine, 2007; Judge, Piccolo, & Kosalka, 2009) and their role in the management of elite
sport teams. Future researchers should also develop interventions that focus on how leaders
and managers create, optimize and maintain a high performance environment. Little is known
about the effectiveness of applied sport psychologists’ work in this area and if progress is to be
238 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

made then more lucid, evidence-based recommendations will need to emerge from the empiri-
cal literature. Finally, what was also clear from interviewing the participants is that they valued
opportunities to learn from one another, share knowledge, and provide feedback to other stake-
holders. Future researchers may wish to elicit recommendations, advice and suggestions from
leaders and managers in order to identify implications for other NPDs and organizations in elite
sport.
In conclusion, this paper has investigated performance leadership and management with
the intention of exploring perceptions of best practice for preparing Olympic teams. Perhaps
the most significant conclusion to be drawn is that leading and managing elite sport teams
is a multifaceted phenomenon involving the development of a vision, the management of
operations, the leadership of people, and the creation of a culture. More specifically, in order
to sustain the highest levels of performance in their teams, leaders and managers must identify
and disseminate their vision, optimize their resources and processes, challenge and support
their people, and transform individuals’ attitudes and group cohesion. For this reason, NPDs
and sport psychologists should attempt to develop their knowledge and competencies across
all of these domains of practice. The interface between management and psychology, together
with the transference of knowledge from organizational psychology (cf. Fletcher & Wagstaff,
2009), heralds an exciting era in elite sport research with important implications for developing
service delivery.

FOOTNOTES
1. Due to space restrictions, the interview guide is not reproduced in full here. For a copy of
the guide please contact the corresponding author.
2. Due to space restrictions, only a selection of the distinct raw data quotes are presented in
this paper. For a complete copy of this data please contact the corresponding author.

REFERENCES
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Asso-
ciation (6th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Aoyagi, M. W., Cox, R. H., & McGuire, R. T. (2008). Organizational citizenship behavior insport:
Relationships with leadership, team cohesion, and athlete satisfaction. Journal of Applied Sport
Psychology, 20(1), 25–41.
Armstrong, M., & Baron, A. (1998). Performance management: The new realities. London: The Institute
of Personnel and Development.
Aronson, J. (1994). A pragmatic view of thematic analysis. The Qualitative Report, 2(1), 1–4.
Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.
Bayle, E., & Robinson, L. (2007). A framework for understanding the performance of national governing
bodies of sport. European Sport Management Quarterly, 7(3), 249–268.
Bennis, W. G., & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: The strategies for taking charge. New York: Harper & Row.
Berman, W. H., & Bradt, G. (2006). Executive coaching and consulting: “Different strokes for different
folks”. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 37(3), 244–253.
Biddle, S. J., Markland, D., Gilbourne, D., Chatzisarantis, N. L., & Sparkes, A. C. (2001). Research
methods in sport and exercise psychology: Quantitative and qualitative issues. Journal of Sports
Sciences, 19(10), 777–809.
Bloom, G. A., Stevens, D. E., & Wickwire, T. A. (2003). Expert coaches’ perceptions of team building.
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15(2), 129–143.
Bourgeois, L. J. (1984). Strategic management and determinism. Academy of ManagementReview, 9(4),
586–596.
 PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 239

Bowen, G. A. (2008). Naturalistic inquiry and the saturation concept: A research note. Qualitative
Research, 8(1), 137–152.
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.
Callow, N., Smith, M. J., Hardy, L., Arthur, C. A., & Hardy, J. (2009). Measurement of transformational
leadership and its relationship with team cohesion and performance level. Journal of Applied Sport
Psychology, 21(4), 395–412.
Carlyle, T. (1841). On heroes, hero-worship, and the heroic history. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Charbonneau, D., Barling, J., & Kelloway, E. K. (2001). Transformational leadership and sports per-
formance: The mediating role of intrinsic motivation. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 31(7),
1521–1534.
Chelladurai, P. (2007). Leadership in sports. In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport
psychology (pp. 113–135). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Conger, J. A. (1990). The dark side of leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 19(2), 44–55.
Côté, J., Salmela, J. H., & Baria, A. (1993). Organizing and interpreting unstructured qualitative data.
The Sport Psychologist, 7(2), 127–137.
Davis, N. W., & Meyer, B. B. (2009). Qualitative data analysis: A procedural comparison. Journal of
Applied Sport Psychology, 21(1), 116–124.
De Bosscher, V., Bingham, J., Shibli, S., van Bottenburg, M., & De Knop, P. (2008). The global sporting
arms race: An international comparative study on sports policy factors leading to international
sporting success. Aachen, Germany: Meyer & Meyer.
De Bosscher, V., De Knop, P., van Bottenburg, M., & Shibli, S. (2006). A conceptual framework for ana-
lyzing sports policy factors leading to international sporting success. European Sport Management
Quarterly, 6(2), 185–215.
De Bosscher, V., De Knop, P., van Bottenburg, M., Shibli, S., & Bingham, J. (2009). Explaining inter-
national sporting success: An international comparison of elite sport systems and policies in six
countries. Sport Management Review, 12(3), 113–136.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). The sage handbook of qualitative research (3rded.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Digel, H. (2002). A comparison of competitive sports systems. New Studies in Athletics, 17(1), 37–
49.
Faulkner, G., & Sparkes, A. (1999). Exercise as therapy for schizophrenia: An ethnographic study.
Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 21(1), 52–69.
Feldman, D. C., & Lankau, M. J. (2005). Executive coaching: A review and agenda for future research.
Journal of Management, 31(6), 829–848.
Fiedler, F. E. (1964). A contingency model of leadership effectiveness. Advances inExperimental Social
Psychology, 1, 149–190.
Fletcher, C. (2001). Performance appraisal and management: The developing research agenda. Journal
of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74(4), 473–487.
Fletcher, D., Hanton, S., & Mellalieu, S. D. (2006). An organizational stress review: Conceptual and
theoretical issues in competitive sport. In S. Hanton & S. D. Mellalieu (Eds.), Literature reviews in
sport psychology (pp. 321–374). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science.
Fletcher, D., & Wagstaff, C. R. (2009). Organizational psychology in elite sport: Its emergence, applica-
tion and future. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(4), 427–434.
Gibbs, G. (2007). Analyzing qualitative data. London: Sage.
Gould, D., & Maynard, I. (2009). Psychological preparation for the Olympic Games. Journalof Sports
Sciences, 27(13), 1393–1408.
Green, M., & Houlihan, B. (2005). Elite sport development: Policy learning and political priorities. New
York: Routledge.
Hackman, J. R., & Walton, R. E. (1986). Leading groups in organizations. In P. S. Goodman (Ed.),
Designing effective work groups (pp. 72–119). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hardy, C. J., & Crace, R. K. (1997). Foundations of team building: Introduction to the teambuilding
primer. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9(1), 1–10.
Hersey, P. (1986). The situational leader (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
240 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

Hogan, R., & Hogan, J. (2001). Assessing leadership: A view from the dark side. International Journal
of Selection and Assessment, 9(1), 40–51.
Holloway, J. (2009). Performance management from multiple perspectives: Taking stock. International
Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 58(4), 391–399.
Holt, N. L., & Sparkes, A. C. (2001). An ethnographic study of cohesiveness in a college soccer team
over a season. The Sport Psychologist, 15(3), 237–259.
Homans, G. C. (1958). Social behaviour as exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 63(6), 597–
606.
Houlihan, B., & Green, M. (2008). Comparative elite sport development: Systems, structures and public
policy. Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
House, R. J. (1971). A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16(3),
321–339.
House, R. J. (1977). A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.),
Leadership: The cutting edge (pp. 64–81). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
House, R. J. (1996). Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulatedtheory. Leader-
ship Quarterly, 7(3), 323–352.
Jowett, S., & Poczwardowski, A. (2007). Understanding the coach-athlete relationship. In S. Jowett &
D. Lavallee (Eds.), Social psychology in sport (pp. 3–15). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Judge, T. A., & LePine, J. A. (2007). The bright and dark sides of personality: Implications for per-
sonnel selection in individual and team contexts. In J. Langan-Fox, C. Cooper, & R. Klimoski
(Eds.), Research companion to the dysfunctional workplace: Management challenges and symp-
toms (pp. 332–355). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Judge, T. A., Piccolo, R. F., & Kosalka, T. (2009). The bright and dark sides of leader traits: A review
and theoretical extension of the leader trait paradigm. The Leadership Quarterly, 20(6), 855–
875.
Kampa-Kokesch, S., & Anderson, M. Z. (2001). Executive coaching: A comprehensive review of the
literature. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 53(4), 205–228.
Katz, R. L. (1955). Skills of an effective administrator. Harvard Business Review, 33(1), 33–42.
Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1978). The social psychology of organizations (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Kenny, D. A., & Zaccaro, S. J. (1983). An estimate of variance due to traits in leadership. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 68(4), 678–685.
Kloot, L., & Martin, J. (2001). Strategic performance management: A balanced approach to performance
management issues in local government. Management Accounting Research, 11(2), 231–251.
Kotter, J. P. (1990). A force for change: How leadership differs from management. New York: Free Press.
Krefting, L. (1991). Rigor in qualitative research: The assessment of trustworthiness. American Journal
of Occupational Therapy, 45(3), 214–222.
Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2008). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative researchinterviewing
(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created
social climates. Journal of Social Psychology, 10(2), 271–301.
Madella, A., Bayle, E., & Tome, J. (2005). The organizational performance of national swimming fed-
erations in Mediterranean countries: A comparative approach. European Journal of Sport Science,
5(4), 207–220.
Males, J. (2006). Reflections on Athens: Delivering sport psychology provision at the BOA headquarters.
Sport and Exercise Psychology Review, 2(2), 12–16.
Mangabeira, W. C., Lee, R. M., & Fielding, N. G. (2004). Computers and qualitative research: Adoption,
use, and representation. Social Science Computer Review, 22(2), 167–178.
Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. London, UK: Sage.
Northouse, P. G. (2010). Leadership (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Oakley, B., & Green, M. (2001). The production of Olympic champions: International perspectives on
elite sport development systems. European Journal for Sport Management, 8(1), 83–105.
Pain, M. A., & Harwood, C. G. (2008). The performance environment of the England youth soccer
teams: A quantitative investigation. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26(11), 1157–1169.
 PERFORMANCE LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT 241

Passmore, J., & Gibbes, C. (2007). The state of executive coaching research: What does the current
literature tell us and what’s next for coaching research? International Coaching Psychology Review,
2(2), 116–128.
Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Paulus, T., Woodside, M., & Ziegler, M. (2008). Extending the conversation: Qualitative research as
dialogic collaborative process. The Qualitative Report, 13(2), 226–243.
Radnor, Z. J., & Barnes, D. (2007). Historical analysis of performance measurement and management
in operations management. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management,
56(5), 384–396.
Ratten, V. (2009). The impact of sports on team performance management. Team Performance Manage-
ment, 15(3), 97–99.
Reid, C., Stewart, E., & Thorne, G. (2004). Multidisciplinary sport science teams in elite sport: Com-
prehensive servicing or conflict and confusion? The Sport Psychologist, 18(2), 204–217.
Riemer, H. A. (2007). Multidimensional model of coach leadership. In S. Jowett & D. Lavallee (Eds.),
Social psychology in sport (pp. 57–73). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Ringer, M. (2007). Leadership for collective thinking in the workplace. Team Performance Management,
13(3), 130–144.
Rowold, J. (2006). Transformational and transactional leadership in martial arts. Journal of Applied Sport
Psychology, 18(4), 312–325.
Silverman, D. (2006). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analyzing talk, text, and interaction
(3rd ed.). London, UK: Sage.
Sotiriadou, K., & Shilbury, D. (2009). Australian elite athlete development: An organizational perspec-
tive. Sport Management Review, 12(3), 137–148.
Sparkes, A. C., & Partington, S. (2003). Narrative practice and its potential contribution to sport psy-
chology: The example of flow. The Sport Psychologist, 17(3), 292–317.
Sparkes, A. C., & Smith, B. (2009). Judging the quality of qualitative inquiry: Criteriology and relativism
in action. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(5), 491–497.
Stein, S. J., Papadogiannis, P., Yip, J. A., & Sitarenios, G. (2009). Emotional intelligence of leaders:
A profile of top executives. Leadership and Organizational Development Journal, 30(1), 87–
101.
Stotlar, D. K., & Wonders, A. (2006). Developing elite athletes: A content analysis of US na-
tional governing body systems. International Journal of Applied Sports Sciences, 18(2), 121–
144.
Tan, T., & Green, M. (2008). Analysing China’s drive for Olympic success in 2008. The International
Journal of the History of Sport, 25(3), 314–338.
Thorpe, R., & Holloway, J. (Eds.). (2008). Performance management: Multidisciplinary perspectives.
Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Timson, S. (2006). Reflections on Athens: Delivering sport psychology at the BOA Cyprus holding
camp. Sport and Exercise Psychology Review, 2(2), 20–24.
Tracy, L. (1987). Consideration and initiating structure: Are they basic dimensions of leaderbehavior?
Social Behavior and Personality, 15(1), 21–33.
Vallée, C. N., & Bloom, G. A. (2005). Building a successful university sport program: Key and common
elements of expert coaches. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17(3), 179–196.
Walters, M. (1995). The performance management handbook. London, UK: Institute of Personnel and
Development.
Watt, D. (2007). On becoming a qualitative researcher: The value of reflexivity. The Qualitative Report,
12(1), 82–102.
Weber, M. (1947). The theory of social and economic organization. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.
Weed, M. (2009). Research quality in sport and exercise psychology: Introduction to the collection.
Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(5), 489–490.
Weinberg, R. S., & Butt, J. (2005). Goal setting in sport and exercise domains: The theory and practice of
effective goal setting. In D. Hackfort, J. Duda, & R. Lidor (Eds.) Handbook of research in applied
242 D. FLETCHER AND R. ARNOLD

sport and exercise psychology: International perspectives (pp. 129–146). Morgantown, WV: Fitness
Information Technology Inc.
Weinberg, R., & McDermott, M. (2002). A comparative analysis of sport and business organizations:
Factors perceived critical for organizational success. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14(4),
282–298.
Woodward, C. (2004). Winning. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Wortman, M. S. (1982). Strategic management and changing leader-follower roles. Journalof Applied
Behavioral Science, 18(3), 371–383.
Yukelson, D. (1997). Principles of effective team building interventions in sport: A direct services
approach at Penn State University. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9(1), 73–96.
Yukl, G. (2008). How leaders influence organizational effectiveness. The Leadership Quarterly, 19(6),
708–722.
Zaccaro, S. J., & Klimoski, R. J. (Eds.). (2001). The nature of organizational leadership. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Copyright of Journal of Applied Sport Psychology is the property of Routledge and its content may not be
copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written
permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately.