3.

Cruise Control : Vehicle Speed Control : principles of operation and implementation

The block diagram below shows the main elements of a typical cruise control system (vehicle speed control syste
control uses a stand alone speed control amplifier and a servo that operates on the main throttle. With an electron
electronics reduces to the input switches and logic, the electronic control function becomes part of the Engine Co
the main throttle. From a functional point of view, the cruise control system remains the same with either a manu

A signal proportional to road speed is fed back and compared with a set speed reference to give a speed error sig
position, and hence engine power, so as to change the speed to reduce the speed error signal to zero. In some ana
voltage is held in a sample and hold amplifier that uses a low loss capacitor. [ Note 1]. In other systems, the spe
binary number in a digital counter.

Cruise control systems are well described in "Understanding Automotive Electronics" Edition 5 by William B. R
7008-8. Further references are given in Section 9. Analog, mixed analog/digital implementations and fully digit
systems are functionally similar, although designs may may look very different.

The main variations in cruise control system can be dealt with under three headings relating to: the method of thr
control; the interlocks and safety switches used : -

Method of throttle actuation:

 Electropneumatic servo valve actuation (vacuum, derived from the engine inlet manifold or an electric va
force via bellows);

 Electronically controlled DC motor with a worm gear or other reduction gear drive;

 Stepper motor with electronic control. These stepper motors are often of the very simple switched relucta

Type of Electronic Control

 Analogue + hard wired logic;

  Digital, using a discrete cruise controller;

 Digital cruise control function incorporated in the engine control module.

 Digital cruise control function incorporated in the Electronic Throttle Control (ECT) and engine ECU, wi
together via typically one or more CAN-Bus systems. [Note 2]

Interlocks and safety switches

 Various safety switch interlocks are included to prevent the cruise control system from operating when it

 The frequency of the road speed sensor is measured continuously and is compared with a reference in ord
the cruise control below a predetermined road speed, typically between 20 and 30 mph. [Note 3]

 Circuitry is designed to disable the cruise control when, for example, slight pressure is applied to the brak

 In some cases, a measure of protection against cruise actuator malfunction is given either by :

o reducing the supply voltage to the actuator, except when the cruise control is "on" or

o mechanically decoupling the actuator, except when the cruise control is "on", by means of an elec

However, although these safety measures will tend to reduce the incidence of sudden accelerations, they cannot
essential to take the possibility of a sudden acceleration into account during the design stage and include measure
come into play when the protective measures within the system fail. As matters currently stand, if a sudden acce
expected to act as the ultimate fail-safe by applying the brakes against full engine power. We will discuss later w
the driver as the fail-safe for an electronic system.

Don't forget to bookmark Section 9 Links and References before leaving this site.

0:Cruise 1:Introduction 2:What 3:Principles 4:Functional 5:What is 6:Incidence 7:Internal 8:D

Control isCruise aspects Sudden & Examples of F
Home Control? Acceleration? failure Me
mechanisms

Please view/sign my Visitors Book

See also: Visitors Book Archive 2000-2007

Privacy statement
ction 3

ple and hold circuit for speed reference purposes

elow shows a representation of a typical sample and hold circuit feeding the speed error amplifier, as used in an analog cruise co
ing capability depends upon the storage capacitor not losing or gaining charge via a leakage path. This may be difficult to guara
nces in an automobile environment. In order to keep down the leakage current from the capacitor, Rs must be kept very high.

gust 2005] Multiplexed systems. Increasingly, automobile electronic systems are multiplexed and typically use one or more CA
terconnect the electronic control elements. Multiplexing does not functionally change systems such as cruise control. However,
to be designed very carefully if they are to avoid introducing additional failure modes caused by transiently overloading the bu
alled the "babbling idiot syndrome".

y 2009] Measurement of road speed. There are two kinds of speed measuring systems used. One is analog and produces a sign
d amplitude is proportional to road speed. The other is digital and produces a train of pulses of constant amplitude at a frequency
to speed. At low speeds, either type of speed measuring system is sensitive to EMI - especially mechanically induced EMI cause
electrical contact in the sensor circuit - which can result in the generation of a false speed signal that is of much higher frequency
gnal. See Reference for significance

Cruise Home
Centralized vs. Distributed: Is Bigger Better?
Advances in technology are strengthening the advantages of field-based control, but are they
enough to convince you?
Apr 16, 2003
Print Email

inShare

- A A A A +

To distribute or not to distribute, that is the question. Is it nobler to use one, large,
centralized control system for the entire plant or process? Or is it better to use a number
of small, field-based distributed controllers, each dedicated to a particular machine,
process, or control loop? Those are the questions, and the answers are changing rapidly
due to advances in communications, ruggedness, and software standards.

Process control systems used to be highly distributed because large, centralized,

computer-based control systems were simply not available. Local processes were
controlled by a combination of relays, timers, and pneumatic or electronic loop
controllers. These hard-wired systems were interconnected by contacts and 4-20 mA
signals. Operators and technicians roamed the plant in droves to monitor operations and
maintain system components.

Ironically, the misnamed distributed control system (DCS) was perhaps the leading agent
for control centralization and the chief cause of the demise of distributed controllers.
These systems were installed in central control rooms and connected to field devices
through miles of dedicated wiring. They served the industry well for decades and did
much to improve the operation of large process plants.

In the past few years, a new class of field-based controllers has emerged and is making
distributed control a more viable option. These controllers are small, inexpensive, rugged,
and equipped with high-end communication capabilities. Cost-effective control of local
processes is now possible, and fast, reliable networking of these islands of control is
easily accomplished.
Figure 1: Hard Case

Some distributed controllers are housed in enclosures that can be field-mounted without
control cabinets. (Source: Phoenix Contact)

Controllers that can be field-based in a distributed control system include micro-PLCs,

smart I/O, smart motor starters, smart pushbuttons, smart valve controllers, field-mounted
solid-state controllers (Figure 1), and single and multi-loop controllers. Smart products
can perform local logic or process control functions and can communicate with central
controllers over digital communication networks.

As recently as five years ago, field-based distributed control was impractical. In 1998, a
100 I/O PLC with an open communications protocol such as Ethernet cost about $5,000.
At those prices it just didnt make sense to distribute control to the field. Today, a 100 I/O
PLC with Ethernet can be purchased for less than $500.

Comparable performance increases can be found in field-mounted solid-state controllers

and in single and multi-loop controllers. Smart components with open communications
protocols such as I/O, motor starters, pushbuttons, and valve controllers are recent
additions to the field-based distributed control team. These products add local logic and
process control along with digital communications into footprints not much larger than
those required for similar "dumb" components.

These incredible leaps in performance make distributed control a much more attractive
option for many processes.
The Case for Field-Based

Technology has made distributed control viable, but process needs are driving its
adoption. "Field-based controllers are faster and can be dedicated to a specific control
application," says Matt Bothe, senior automation engineer, CRB Consulting Engineers,
Plymouth Meeting, Pa. "Distribution of control functions can reduce wiring, facilitate
maintenance, and increase the speed of logic and process control."

Field-based controllers also offer other advantages over centralized control systems
(Table I). North Fork Electric, Crumpler, N.C., is a systems integrator for
AutomationDirect and other vendors. President Andy Feimster says, "In critical control
applications, distributed controllers may offer a level of safety and dependability that
centralized control systems (whether they be PLC, PC, or DCS) cannot."
Field-based controllers reduce wiring, but so do centralized control systems with remote
I/O. The problem is these remote I/O systems can cause heavy traffic on communications
networks. Moving intelligence to field devices and to smart I/O allows control to be
accomplished locally, thus reducing network traffic.

Status information concerning the local process is still transmitted to other controllers,
but time-critical data used for real-time control does not need to be sent over the network.
"Less information needs to be handled by the communication path, and I can choose
exactly what information to send to the main control system," observes Paul Parker,
cogeneration plant engineer with KSL at Los Alamos National Labs, Los Alamos, N.M.

Some processes are just too fast-acting for a centralized controller. "A single controller
running a lengthy program can be slow on event-triggered interrupts," says Jeff Birch,
president, Industrial Control Services, Centralia, Mo. "We use several dedicated
controllers to isolate critical programming and maintain reaction times."

But there are still good reasons to use centralized control (Table II). In many cases, the
hardware is still less costly. If a process has 500 I/O, one large PLC will be much cheaper
than 10 small PLCs each controlling 50 I/O. These same cost calculations hold if the
field-based controllers are devices other than PLCs.

Rugged controllers suitable for field mounting can reduce field installation costs, but not
all processes are suited to control by these types of devices. In many cases, not only will
a centralized controller be cheaper, it will also be less expensive to house. "An air-
conditioned control room serves to remove the heat from a centralized controller, but if
you distribute controllers out to the field then mounting issues must be considered," notes
Jim Loar, engineering group leader at Ciba Specialty Chemicals, Newport, Del.

Most field-based control systems use different types of hardware from a number of
vendors. This can make training, maintenance, and support a real headache. "As a
company we try to discourage the use of these new field-based devices because they do
not fit our overall strategy of moving to centralized control and maintenance," reports
Dale Evely, PE, I&C consulting engineer with The Southern Co., Birmingham, Ala.

There are general pros and cons for using centralized vs. field-based distributed
controllers, but in most cases either solution can be made to work,the decision is driven
by the details. Application examples can help users make the best choice for their
processes.
Easier to Expand

A control system must be expanded when new equipment and processes are added.
Building onto a centralized control system can be problematic because some downtime is
usually required to add hardware. The software program must be modified--this also
requires downtime and can have inadvertent effects on the existing control scheme.
These problems can be alleviated if instead the new process is installed with its own
control system. The control system can be tested and verified prior to connection to the
main system, and downtime and risk can be minimized.

Engineering firm Wink Inc., New Orleans, decided to use Modicon distributed controllers
and an Emerson DeltaV central controller on a recent project. "Facilities are in constant
upgrade due to the expansion of the system, and distributed controllers have allowed us
to upgrade and expand the control system without upsetting the main controller," reports
Pedro Egui, Wink senior instrument engineer.

Many process plant expansions are implemented with packaged systems, and these are a
natural fit for distributed controllers. "Plants can purchase a self-contained skid package
such as a separator, a chemical injection system, or a filtration system," says Ian
Verhappen, director of systems integrator ICE-Pros (
www.ice-pros.com). "All controls are configured by the supplier to take advantage of
their expertise and familiarity with the process and equipment."

Installation is simplified by digital bus technologies. In most cases, a single cable can
provide all necessary two-way communication with a central control system. Add power
to the packaged system and perhaps a hard-wired contact or two for backup alarming, and
the installation is complete.

Many field-based controllers have a built-in human-machine interface (HMI), so they can
be used to provide full control and operator interface for a small system. Expansions can
be made without forfeiting any previous expenditure. "Foxboro makes distributed
controllers with built-in trending, alarming, batching, and even printing capabilities,"
observes Stephen Arnold, systems manager at Neal Systems, Newtown, Pa. "These
controllers allow a user to put a small system in place, often without the need for a central
controller."
Simpler to Fix, Harder to Manage

Reliability can be enhanced with field-based distributed controllers because a single point
of failure (the central controller) will not cause the entire process to fail. "Distributed
controllers allow users to maintain limited production in case of controller failure," says
Egui. Reliability is also improved because local operation does not depend on a plant-
wide control network.

All things being equal, it is easier to troubleshoot a small system than a large one. This is
yet another reason for using field-based distributed control. "Distributed controller
software programs are easier to maintain because there is no need for multiple
subroutines. Modularization of our control systems have allowed us to add focused
diagnostics, thus expediting troubleshooting sessions," says Birch.

It is also easier to separate and partition small as opposed to larger systems. This can be
important for safety systems. "Safety is enhanced with distributed controllers because
critical and non-critical interlocks and alarms can be zoned according to the controllers
physical distribution," reports Egui. Safety can also be improved by using the local
operator interface provided with many field-based controllers.

Field-based distributed controllers have many advantages as compared to centralized

controls, but perhaps their biggest drawback is maintenance of multiple controllers from
different vendors. This causes headaches in maintenance, training, and software change
management. In many cases, these problems will be significant enough to preclude the
use of field-based controllers.

The proliferation of PCs has been a nightmare for many IT system administrators. Some
firms are moving back to a central computer system with thin clients to regain control of
their corporate computing systems. In a similar vein, many users see value in central
computing systems.

"Control software management is much easier with centralized controllers. It is also

easier to tie one controller (rather than many) into our overall strategy of enterprise wide
information collection and analysis," says Evely.

It may be easier to troubleshoot a small system than a large central controller, but this
advantage is often negated when plants are populated with different types of field-based
controllers. "With a central controller, we do not have to train personnel on multiple
control devices. We do not have to maintain multiple spares, and we can use a single
programming tool for all of our troubleshooting/development needs," says Andrew
Rowe, the technical manager-process controls and MIS with the United States Gypsum
Co. in Chicago.

With field-based distributed controls, maintenance personnel must be familiar with

multiple software programming packages and they must also know how to program field-
based controllers at the faceplate. This is no trivial matter because many of these local
controllers can be very difficult to program, especially if they are only revisited on a
sporadic basis as problems occur.
Do You Really Want to Distribute?

Some end users think they want and need field-based distributed controllers, but they
change their minds after implementation. CH2M Hill, Herndon, Va., recently completed
an expansion of a waste treatment facility. Operators insisted on field-based distributed
controllers because they didnt trust the DCS and because they wanted local control of the
process.
According to Scott Farrell, CH2M Hill designer, the operators have now become
comfortable with, dependent on, and confident in the DCS. "If we were to design this
process now it would be without the distributed controllers," says Farrell. "One of the
most difficult parts of the startup was programming the distributed controllers and
establishing communications with the DCS."

Farrell has long-term (17 years) experience with a wastewater treatment plant that uses a
DCS for its central control system and a variety of PLCs and distributed controllers as
subsystems. The system was originally designed to use distributed controllers to provide
redundant backup for key systems and to placate operators familiar with local control.
"The reliability of the DCS and the addition of remote I/O has eliminated the need for
this type architecture," he says. "The distributed controllers are being eliminated by
attrition."

A good rule of thumb is to use field-based controllers only when a central computer
cannot effectively control the process. "There is nothing inherently wrong with
distributed controllers; they often offer more sophisticated control algorithms. They also
offer independent control that could possibly be maintained during a central control
failure," says Rowe. "But without a need for the sophistication and small-scale mission
critical control, the central control approach best fits our needs."

But there are already increasingly good reasons to use field-based control, and industry
evolution might yield other compelling advantages. "Distributed control will lead to an
array of self-contained controllers with highly specialized control algorithms such as
fuzzy logic, neural networks, multivariable predictive, specialized model-based, and
iterative convergence control technologies," says CRBs Bothe. "For most processes, it is
a mistake not to evaluate distributed control as an alternative or a supplement to
conventional topologies."
Sidebar:
Special Functions Are Fulfilled
Specialized control applications can be a good fit for distributed control. Systems
integrator Synergy Systems, Naperville, Ill., uses distributed controllers for furnace
combustion control.

"A Foxboro T640 controller can provide combustion master (steam header pressure or
furnace temperature) loop control by sending demand to a fully metered cross-limited
combustion control of air and fuel loops with load-compensated O2 trim controller," says
Mark Urda, Synergy president. "Not bad for a single controller that costs about $2,500."

It would take dozens of rungs of code to provide the necessary control scheme with PLC
ladder logic, according to Urda. It also would be far more difficult to troubleshoot ladder
logic as compared to the simple function block approach of a distributed controller
system. He says a DCS could easily duplicate the distributed controller logic, but at a
much higher price.

Another specialized application is field-based controllers in hazardous areas. Weatherford

Intl., a Houston-based oilfield services firm, uses Beckhoff Automation controllers on oil
drilling rigs in Class I, Div. 1 environments. Jorge Pinal, a rig system installation
supervisor for Weatherford, says it is much easier to field-mount these relatively small
controllers than a large central controller.

"Some field-based controllers can be used in intrinsically safe installations," Pinal says.
"Even if the installation cannot be made intrinsically safe, these small controllers can be
easily installed in NEMA 7/9 boxes without venting or cooling systems."

Sidebar:
Valves Do It in the Field
Smart valves are becoming more intelligent, to the point where some of them are as
capable as single-loop controllers and even small PLCs. For example, CRB Consulting
Engineers, Plymouth Meeting, Pa., installed a Valtek smart control valve with StarPac
electronics for lube oil temperature control. The system is for a 2,500 hp ethylene
motor/compressor assembly at a bulk chemicals production facility.

Temperature readings are transmitted from the mixing assembly (after the convergence
point for the hot and cool oil streams) to the valve, from the cooling water output, and
internally through sensors on the valve body. Pressure sensors located at an upstream
point and near the vena-contracta of the valve plug provide pressure information (see
figure).

According to Matt Bothe, CRB senior automation engineer, these four analog signals
coupled with the analog output to the valves I/P result in a highly versatile control
strategy with unprecedented performance. All the above information is available to an
existing central controller via RS-485 Modbus.

"From a maintenance perspective, the valve provides as-installed performance

information (e.g., valve signature) so comparisons could be made to future similarly
derived signatures in an effort to assess degradation over time," says Bothe. "Key
components of degradation such as stiction, hysteresis, sluggishness, and overall response
were then strategically applied for scheduling preventive maintenance activity."

Valves with pneumatic controllers can be effectively retrofitted with field-based smart
valve controllers. "We would like to upgrade our old Fisher Wizard pneumatic valve
controllers with Foundation fieldbus hardware," says Southern Co.s Evely. "I dont know
if this product exists, but we would like to install a local manual/automatic station that
 could sit on a Foundation H1 segment. The station would provide basic manual/automatic
functions to a PID controller function running in either a transmitter or a control valve
positioner on that same H1 segment."

Valve control is sometimes best accomplished with a locally mounted controller instead
of with a smart valve. Viewpoint Systems, Watertown, Mass., recently installed an air
control system for a semiconductor plant. Very precise and high-speed PID control was
needed to maintain temperature within 0.05* F of setpoint. Viewpoint used a National
Instruments FieldPoint controller to provide precise control of valve position.

The central controller communicates setup and control parameters while the local
controller provides feedback alarm information, all via TCP/IP. "A unique aspect of this
project was the requirement to fit these new control loops into an existing system," says
Erik Goethert, Viewpoint branch manager. "The flexibility of the FieldPoint controller
allowed us to customize the communication and control paths between the old and new
systems

Advantages of Distributed Control Systems

08/19/2016

A distributed control system (DCS) centralizes plant operations to provide flexibility and
simplicity by allowing central control, monitoring and reporting of individual components and
processes. A DCS is designed to control complex processes that can be geographically
disseminated using networked control elements that are distributed throughout the system. These
features, along with redundancy that is designed into the overall structure to facilitate high
system availability and reliability, drive operators of large, complex facilities and processes, such
as those used in nuclear power plants, to choose DCS.
Unlike programmable logic controllers, DCS use a suite of configuration tools to set up the
database, control logic, graphics and system security. Control applications are distributed to
system controllers that are dedicated to specific plant processes utilizing field devices. Control
logic can be created and dispersed across the system controllers. This allows changes that must
be made to meet new requirements and/or the addition of new controllers or field devices, to be
made efficiently and accurately, easing and simplifying updates and new equipment integration.
The controllers and associated inputs/outputs are connected through a redundant communications
network to operating and engineering stations. The stations have graphical, easy-to-use displays
for data monitoring, data logging, alarming and control. Field devices, such as actuators and
sensors, are directly connected to input/output modules that communicate with assigned
controllers while reading and reporting real world information, such as pressure and temperature.
DCS are scalable. A DCS can be deployed in an initial installation as a large, integrated system,
or as a standalone system that can be added to as planned or needed. New controllers and
inputs/outputs can be added throughout a plant. When new systems are added, they become part
of the integrated DCS and are automatically updated by the controlling database.
The Westinghouse DCS of choice is the Ovation® DCS platform. The Ovation DCS has the
ability to integrate system security models and cybersecurity, advanced alarm capabilities,
system-wide diagnostics and multiple simulation solutions that are extended to every new system
added. There is redundancy at all levels, from the inputs/outputs to the controllers, at the network
level and to the user interface workstations. Operating experience from more than 3,000 power
generation installations worldwide has demonstrated system reliabilities in excess of 99.9
percent. The system is also favored for its forward design. It uses many commercially available,
off-the-shelf technologies. This facilitates a secure, powerful architecture that avoids
obsolescence by enabling system progression to adjust to rapidly advancing computer
technologies. Deployment to operating and new nuclear units solidifies a 25 year working
forward compatibility.

Less perceived risk with public projects10.Application of depreciationDepreciation is

the reduction in the value of an asset due to usage, passageof time, wear and tear,
technological outdating or obsolescence, depletion or other such factors. Depreciation
is applicable to most types of tangible property (except, land),such as buildings,
machinery, vehicles, furniture, and equipment are depreciable.Likewise, certain intangible
property, such as patents, copyrights, and computer software is depreciable.
Reference: http://www.irs.treas.gov/businesses/small/article/0,,id=137026,00.html
11.Among the 3 economic environments, what is the most ideal to you?Personally, among the
three economic environments, the most ideal to me
ist h e p r o d u c e r s s i n c e p r o d u c e r s a r e h y p o t h e s i z e d t o b e p r o f i t -
m a x i m i z e r s , meaning that they attempt to produce the amount of goods that will
bring
themt h e h i g h e s t p r o f i t . S u p p l y i s t yp i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d a s a d i r e c t l y p r o p o r
t i o n a l relation between price and quantity supplied (other things unchanged). In
other w o r d s , t h e h i g h e r t h e p r i c e a t w h i c h t h e g o o d c a n b e s o l d , t h e
m o r e o f i t producers will supply. The higher price makes it profitable to increase
production.At a price below equilibrium, there is a shortage of quantity supplied compared
toquantity demanded. This pulls the price up. At a price above equilibrium, there isa surplus of
quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. This pushes theprice down. The
model of supply and demand predicts that for given supply anddemand curves, price
and quantity will stabilize at the price that makes quantitysupplied equal to quantity
demanded. This is at the intersection of the two curvesin the graph above, market equilibrium.

References: http://www.enviroliteracy.org/subcategory.php/12.html en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics

12.Explain the elasticity of demand.E l a s t i c i t y o f d e m a n d i s a n i m p o r t a n t v a r i a t i o n
o n t h e c o n c e p t o f d e m a n d . Demand can be classified as elastic, inelastic or
unitary. An elastic demand isone in which the change in quantity demanded due to
a change in price is large.An inelastic demand is one in which the change in
quantity demanded due to achange in price is small.Elasticity of demand is illustrated
above. Note that a change in price resultsin a large change in quantity demanded. An
example of products with an elasticdemand is consumer durables. These are items that are
purchased infrequently,like a washing machine or an automobile, and can be postponed
if price
rises.F o r e x a m p l e , a u t o m o b i l e r e b a t e s h a v e b e e n v e r y s u c c e s s f u l i n
i n c r e a s i n g automobile sales by reducing price.C l o s e s u b s t i t u t e s f o r a p r o d u c t
a f f e c t t h e e l a s t i c i t y o f d e m a n d . I t a n o t h e r product can easily be substituted for your
product, consumers will quickly switcht o t h e o t h e r p r o d u c t i f t h e p r i c e o f yo u r
product rises or the price of the other product declines. For
example, beef, pork and poultry are all meat products.The declining price
o f p o u l t r y i n r e c e n t ye a r s h a s c a u s e d t h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f p o u l t r y t o
i n c r e a s e , a t t h e e x p e n s e o f b e e f a n d p o r k . S o p r o d u c t s w i t h c l o s e substitutes
tend to have elastic demand.
Reference: www.agmrc.org/agmrc/business/gettingstarted/elasticityofdemand.htm

The Role of Engineering Economy in the Fiscal Crisis of the CountryA c o u n t r y f a c e s

f i s c a l c r i s i s w h e n t h e g o v e r n m e n t i s t o o m u c h i n d e b t . Basically, the solution is
for the government to increase revenue by raising taxesor to reduce spending. How would
engineering economy help then regarding thefiscal crisis of the country as to helping the
government increase revenues or reduce spending?Engineering practitioners, as
thoroughly trained by engineering economyc u r r i c u l u m , c a n b e a l s o c o n s i d e r e d
a s p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t i v e b u s i n e s s m e n i n t h e future or they skills may be utilized
to make a certain business effectively workand sustain. By then, it contributes to the
government in one way or another.Engineers seek solutions to problems. Thus, engineering
economy can bea tool to solve problems on the financial aspect of the country. How? That
wouldh a p p e n w h e n a p e r s o n w h o h a s t h e s u f f i c i e n t k n o w l e d g e o f e n
g i n e e r i n g economy is employed in the government and is tasked to do decision-
makingswhich are related to
finance.I n d i v i d u a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y e n g i n e e r s a n d t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r
s , w h o a r e acquainted of engineering economy, are effective in selecting most
appropriateand feasible among alternatives given since they are trained to think critically
andrationally. Through it then, future problems in all aspects are certainly
avoidedbecause they have been anticipated already by these individuals.Truly, learning the
essentials of engineering economy is of a great help tothe economy of the country, though
the particular contribution of engineers andp r a c t i t i o n e r s i s o f t e n u n n o t i c e d . I
am certain enough, that if our
governmentagencies, specifically the Department of Finance, will be run b
y engineers,

problems on debts and other financial matters, will be minimized and

s o o n , eliminated.
Breakeven point is when your profits = 0, or when your variable profits equal your fixed costs.

504,000 = (328-166)x
where x is units sold at breakeven point
504,000 = 162x
x = 3111 units

Reduce fixed costs by 18%, so it goes from 504,000 to 413,280

Variable costs goes from 166 to 156.04
413,280 = (328-156.04)x
413,280 = 171.96x
x = 2403.349616 pumps

(1 unit off due to rounding)

Revenues = R(x) = 328x

Costs = C(x) = 166x + 504000
Breakeven occurs when revenues equal costs (i.e., no profit, no loss):

328x = 166x + 504000

162x = 504000
x ≈ 3111 pumps (which is within the plant's capacity, so all is good).

With an 18% reduction, fixed costs will be $504000*(82%) = $413280

With a 6% reduction, unit variable costs will be $166*(94%) = $156.04
The new cost function after those reductions is C(x) = 156.04x + 413280
New breakeven is 328x = 156.04x + 413280 → x ≈ 2403

From 3111 pumps to 2403 pumps represents a reduction of (3111-2403)/3111 = 22.76%

ENZYMES Proteins Elmhurst College

Lock and Key Theory Coenzyme - NAD+ Enzyme Regulation Chemistry Department

Carboxypeptidase Enzyme Inhibitors Virtual ChemBook

 Mechanism of Enzyme
Action
Introduction - Enzyme
Characteristics:

The basic mechanism by which enzymes

catalyze chemical reactions begins with
the binding of the substrate (or
substrates) to the active site on the
enzyme. The active site is the specific
region of the enzyme which combines
with the substrate. The binding of the
substrate to the enzyme causes changes
in the distribution of electrons in the
chemical bonds of the substrate and
ultimately causes the reactions that lead
to the formation of products. The
products are released from the enzyme
surface to regenerate the enzyme for
another reaction cycle.

The active site has a unique geometric

shape that is complementary to the
geometric shape of a substrate molecule,
similar to the fit of puzzle pieces. This
means that enzymes specifically react
with only one or a very few similar
compounds.

Lock and Key Theory:

The specific action of an enzyme with a

single substrate can be explained using
a Lock and Key analogy first postulated
in 1894 by Emil Fischer. In this analogy,
the lock is the enzyme and the key is the
substrate. Only the correctly sized key
(substrate) fits into the key hole (active
site) of the lock (enzyme).

Smaller keys, larger keys, or incorrectly

positioned teeth on keys (incorrectly
shaped or sized substrate molecules) do
not fit into the lock (enzyme). Only the
correctly shaped key opens a particular
lock. This is illustrated in graphic on the
left.

QUES: Using a diagram and in your own

words, describe the various lock and key
theory of enzyme action in relation to a
correct and incorrect substrate.

Induced Fit Theory:

Not all experimental evidence can be

adequately explained by using the so-
called rigid enzyme model assumed by
the lock and key theory. For this reason, a
modification called the induced-fit theory
has been proposed.

The induced-fit theory assumes that the

substrate plays a role in determining the
final shape of the enzyme and that the
enzyme is partially flexible. This explains
why certain compounds can bind to the
enzyme but do not react because the
enzyme has been distorted too much.
Other molecules may be too small to
induce the proper alignment and therefore
cannot react. Only the proper substrate is
capable of inducing the proper alignment
of the active site.

In the graphic on the left, the substrate is

represented by the magenta molecule, the
enzyme protein is represented by the
green and cyan colors. The cyan colored
protein is used to more sharply define the
active site. The protein chains are flexible
and fit around the substrate.

Carboxypeptidase - Chime in new

window

Nature of Active Site and Substrate

Interaction:

Enzymes have varying degrees of

specificity. Some enzymes have absolute
specificity for one substrate and no
others, while other enzymes react with
substrates with similar functional groups,
side chains, or positions on a chain. The
least specific enzymes catalyze a reaction
at a particular chemical bond regardless
of other structural features.

Much experimental work is devoted to

gaining an understanding of the nature of
the active site in an enzyme. Since
enzymes are proteins, the nature of amino
acid side chains in the vicinity of the
active site is important. The specific
amino acid side chains have been
determined for many enzymes. The
active site for carboxypeptidase A will be
used to illustrate the principles involved
as shown in the graphic on the left.
 The substrate (space filling gray,blue red)
can interact with the active site through
opposite charges, hydrogen bonding
(shown in yellow), hydrophobic non-
polar interaction, and coordinate covalent
bonding to the metal ion activator as
shown in magenta. The numbers behind
the amino acids indicate the sequence
position of the amino acid in the protein.
The white lines represent the wire frames
of the other amino acids in the enzyme.

The carbonyl bond is activated by

interaction with the Zn ions. This leads to
the addition of -OH from water to the
carbonyl to produce an acid and the
ultimate rupture of the C-N bond.

Antibody Structure
 Introduction
Antibodies are immune system-related proteins called
immunoglobulins. Each antibody consists of four
polypeptides– two heavy chains and two light chains joined
to form a "Y" shaped molecule.

The amino acid sequence in the tips of the "Y" varies greatly
among different antibodies. This variable region, composed
of 110-130 amino acids, give the antibody its specificity for
binding antigen. The variable region includes the ends of the
light and heavy chains. Treating the antibody with a protease
can cleave this region, producing Fab or fragment antigen
binding that include the variable ends of an antibody.
Material used for the studies shown below originated from
Fab.

The constant region determines the mechanism used to

destroy antigen. Antibodies are divided into five major
classes, IgM, IgG, Iga, IgD, and IgE, based on their constant
region structure and immune function.
The variable region is further subdivided into hypervariable
(HV) and framework (FR) regions. Hypervariable regions
have a high ratio of different amino acids in a given position,
relative to the most common amino acid in that position.
Within light and heavy chains, three hypervariable regions
exist – HV 1, 2 and 3. Four FR regions which have more
stable amino acids sequences separate the HV regions.

The HV regions directly contact a portion of the antigen's

surface. For this reason, HV regions are also sometimes
referred to as complementarity determining regions, or
CDRs. The FR regions form a beta-sheet structure which
serves as a scaffold to hold the HV regions in position to
contact antigen.

Antibody/Antigen Interaction

Click on images to see enlarged view

This image represents The HV regions of a In this view, the HV This ribbon structure
the structure of an Fab, representing both regions of the Fab shows the antibody's
antibody's variable light and heavy chains, have been deleted. HV (purple) and FR
region (Fab) are highlighted in The FR regions of (yellow) regions of
complexed with an purple. The antigen is the antibody do not the Fab, and their
antigen, in this case green. The part of the contact the antigen. interaction with an
hen egg white antigen in direct epitope of the
lysozyme. The other contact with the antigen.
images in this section antibody is called the
are derived from this antigenic determinant, Animation: FR and
structure. or epitope. HV regions of
antibody

Animation: Antigen
interacts with HV
region

Antibody/Antigen Interaction – A Closer Look

An antigenic determinant, a site on the antigen that the immune system

responds to by making antibody, can frequently be one unique structure on
the antigen. In hen egg white lysozyme, a glutamine at position 121 (Gln
121) protrudes away from the antigen surface. In this view, Gln 121 is
circled. The antibody is not shown. The following images show how this
feature is important for the formation of a high affinity antibody-antigen
interactions.

The antibody's HV region forms an opening to surround the antigen's

protruding Gln 121 (green). Hydrogen bonds (yellow) stabilize the
antibody-antigen interaction. In addition to hydrogen bonds, other weak
interactions such as van der Waals forces, hydrophobic interactions and
electrostatic forces improve the binding specificity between antibody and
antigen. These interactions occur over large and sometimes discontinuous
regions of the molecules, improving binding affinity. The animation shows
amino acids of the antibody that interact with Gln 121.

Animation: Gln 121 of lysozyme surrounded by amino acid residues of

antibody

Close-up of a hydrogen bond – The Tyr 101 of the antibody forms a hydrogen
bond with the Gln 121 of the antigen.
 Water molecules (light blue) fill in spaces between the antigen and the antibody.
The water molecules contribute significantly to the binding energy by creating
additional hydrogen bonds.

Molecular structures represented in this tutorial were obtained by X-ray

crystallography. The coordinates for these structures are registered at the Protein Data
Bank (1FYA and 1FYB).

External link

Protein Data Bank - Research Collaboratory for Structural Bioinformatics

http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/

The PBD is the single international repository for the processing and distribution of 3-D macromolecular
structure data primarily determined experimentally by X-ray crystallography and NMR.