DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL AND

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

MANIPAL

V SEMESTER

AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

LABORATORY RECORD

NAME :
BATCH :
ROLL NUMBER :
REGISTER NUMBER :
 VI SEMESTER AERONAUTICAL

AERODYNAMICS AND PROPULSION LAB

Index page

SI NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT DATE MANUAL OBSERVATION SIGNATURE

NO MARKS BOOK MARKS OF THE
FACULTY
1 DEFLECTION OF A SIMPLY
SUPPORTED BEAM
2 VERIFICATION OF MAXWELL’S
RECIPROCAL THEOREM
3 DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S
MODULUS USING STRAIN
GAUGE
4 POISSON’S RATIO
DETERMINATION
5 VERIFICATION OF
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
6 BUCKLING LOAD OF SLENDER
ECCENTRIC COLUMNS AND
CONSTRUCTION OF
SOUTHWELL PLOT
7 SHEAR FAILURE OF BOLTED
AND RIVETED JOINTS
8 WAGNER BEAM

10

11

TOTAL MARKS

TOTAL ATTENDENCE

1. DEFLECTION OF A SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

AIM:

To determine the deflection of a simply supported beam

EQUIPMENT:

Beam test set-up with load cells

Steel scale caliper
Flat beam
THEORY:
A beam shown in FIG-1 shows the section which is simply supported at the
ends and is subjected to bending about its major axis with a concentrated load
anywhere in the beam. The beam is provided with strain gauge, the deflection of the
beam can be determined whenever the load is applied on the beam. Strain gauge
values may be noted for several further works.

Deflections are given by following expressions; students may derive the expressions
using unit load method or castigliano’s theorem.

yx = wb(L2-b2)x-x3/ 6EIL for 0<x<a

yx= Wb[x3-L/b(x-a)3-(L2-b2)x]/6EIL for a<x<L

Where W is the load applied at a distance ‘a’ from the left support in Newton.

Ixx= bd3/12= (25*63)/12= 450mm4

yx = wb(L2-b2)x-x3/ 6EIL
= 9.81*250[(6502-2502)200-2003]/6*2*105*450*650
= 0.44

L = Span of the beam in mm

Yx = deflection at any point x from left end
Ixx = Moment of Inertia of the beam in mm4
E = Young’s Modulus in N/mm2

PROCEDURE:
 Find the moment of inertia of beam from the following expression.

(1/12)bd3, where ‘b’ is width of beam and ‘d’ is depth

Place the beam supporting from wedge supports. The load position can be varied.
Set the load cell to read zero in the absence of load. Set the deflection gauge to read
zero in the absence of load.
Load the beam with kg. Note the deflections before and after the load point
through deflection gauge. Increase the load up to max 5kg in case of MS steel and
up to max 3 kg in case of Aluminium and repeat the experiment.

RESULT:

The deflections of a simply supported beam at x mm from various loads are as

follows:

2. VERIFICATION OF MAXWELL’S RECIPROCAL THEOREM

AIM:
To Verify the maxwell’s theorem for the structures system.

EQUIPMENT:
Beam Test Setup with Load Cells
Steel Rule
Caliper
Flat Beam
THEORY:

The displacement at point i, in a linear elastic structure, due to concentrated load at

point j is equal to the displacement at point j due to concentrated load of same
magnitude at point i.

The displacement at each point will be measured in the direction of the concentrated
load at that point. The only other restrictions on this statement, in addition to the
structure being linear elastic and stable, is that the displacement at either point
is/must be consistent with the type of load at that point. If the load at a point is a
concentrated force, then the displacement at that point will be a translation, while if
the load is moment, then the displacement will be rotation. The displacement at any
point will be in the same direction as the load.

This theorem often referred to as Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem.

This can be proved through unit load method i.e, the deflection at A due to unit load
at B is equal to deflection at B due to unit load at A.

Where,
M = Bending Moment at any point x due to external load
m = Bending moment at any point x due to unit load applied at the point where
deflection is required.

Let mXA = Bending Moment at any point x due to unit load at A

mXB = Bending Moment at any point x due to unit load at B when unit load
(external load) is applied at A,

M = mXA
When unit load (external load) is applied at A, apply unit load at B. Then m=m XA
To find deflection at B due to unit load at A, apply unit load at B. Then m=m XB
Hence,

Similarly, when unit load (external load) is applied at B, M=m XB

To find deflection at A, then m=mXA

Hence,

Comparing equation 1 and 2,

The external load (w) can be taken as a multiple with unit load, therefore , the load w
will appear as multiple with mXA in equation 1 and as multiple with mXB in equation 2

Thereby resulting in

A beam shown in figure below which is simply supported at the ends and is
subjected to bending about its major axis with a concentrated load anywhere in the
beam.

Deflections δx at any distance ‘X’ from left support are given by following
expressions; reference may be made to experiment No.1

Where
W is the load palced at a distance ‘a’ from the left support in newton.
b= distance of load from right side support
L= span of the beam in mm
Yx= deflection at any point distance x from the left end
I= moment of inertia of the beam in mm 4 (Ixx)
E= young’s modulus in N/mm2
The Maxwell’s reciprocal displacement theorem is very useful in the analysis of
statistically indeterminate structures for evaluating the flexibility co-efficient.
 The displacement relationship can be expressed at point i and j

δi,B = fi,j w ......................................................................................(5)

δj,A= fj,i w ......................................................................................(6)

where fij is the displacement at point i due to a unit load at point j and f j,i is the
displacement at point j due to a unit load at point i. If we now substitute these
expressions in Betti’s law and cancel out the term w on each side, we obtain

fij = fji
The theorem can be restated as the displacement at point i, an elastic structure, due to
a unit load at point j is equal to the displacement at point j due to unit load at point i.

PROCEDURE:

Find the moment of inertia of beam from the following expression.

MOI = 1/12 b1d13

Where b1 is width of beam and d1 is depth. Place the beam supporting from two
wedge supports. The load position can be varied. Set the load cell to read zero in the
absence of load. Set the deflection gauge to read zero in the absence of load. Load
in beam with 2.5 Kg. Note deflections at any point through deflection gauge.
Interchange the load location with the point of deflection measurement and repeat
the readings, increase the load to 5 Kg and repeat the experiment. Find deflections
from the formula and verify.

RESULT:
Hence Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem is verified.

Since, δAB = δBA

3 DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS USING STRAIN

GAUGE

AIM:
To determine the young’s modulus of a simply supported beam or a cantilever beam.
THEORY:
A beam shown in fig-1 shows the section which is simply supported at the ends and
is subjected to bending about its major axis with a concentrated load anywhere in the
beam. The beam is provided with strain gauge, the deflection of the beam can be
determined wherever the load is applied on to the beam. An available cantilever
beam can be also utilized for this experiment.

The strain gauge is at a fixed position in the beam and load position can be varied. A
strain gauge is mounted on a free surface, which in general is in a state of plane
stress where the state of stress is with regards to a specific xy rectangular rosette.
Consider the three element rectangular rosette shown in fig which provides normal
strain components in three directions spaced at angles of 45°. If an xy coordinates
system is assumed to coincide with the gauge A and C then ε x = εA and εy = εc.
Gauge B provides information necessary to determine γ xy. Once εx,εy and γxy are
known, then Hooke’s law can be used to determine σ x,σy,ζxy. However in this case
the requirement is to determine young’s modulus (E), which can be determined from
equation (1) below

M/I = σ/y
Also
Shear Modulus G = ζ xy/ γxy ........................................................(2)

Young’s Modulus E = 2G/ 1+γ

PROCEDURE:
Mount the cantilever beam at the left support of beam test setup.
Connect the strain gauges wire with the strain measuring equipment. Use the
following colour codes.

εA = red and white wire -- Linear guage

εB = black and blue wire -- Lateral guage
εC = green and yellow wire -- 45o

Set the load cell to read Zero value in the absence of load. Set the three strains to
read zero in the absence of load. Now load the beam with 2.5kg at some time and
record the strains in three directions. Record the load value at the load cell.

Repeat the experiment with load value of 5kg. Compute the values of Poisson’s ratio
from

γ= εy/εx

RESULT:
 The young’s modulus is

4. Poisson’s ratio Determination

AIM:
To determine the Poisson’s ratio of cantilever beam.

EQUIPMENT:
 Beam test set-up with load cells, cantilever beam with calibrated rosette strain
gauge, strain measuring equipment.

THEORY:
A cantilever beam is subjected to bending about its major axis with a concentrated
load anywhere in the beam. The beam is subjected with rosette strain gauge.
A calibrated strain gauge rosette is fixed at a location within the span of the beam,
and load position can be varied. Calibration has been done to read strain in microns
(μ). Consider the three elements rectangular rosette shown in fig. which provides
normal strain components in three directions spaced at angle of 45 deg. If an xy
coordinate system is assured to coincide with the gauge A & C then ε x = εA & εy = εc
Gauge B provides information necessary to determine the shear strain (γxy). Once
εx, εy, & γxy are shown, then Hooke’s law can be used to determine σ x, σy & ζxy.
Subsequently principal stresses can be determined.

PROCEDURE:
Mount the cantilever beam at the left support of beam test setup. Connect the strain
gauges wires with the strain measuring equipment. Use the following colour codes

εA = red and white wire -- Linear guage

εB = black and blue wire -- Lateral guage
εC = green and yellow wire -- 45o

set the load cell to read zero value in the absence of load. Set the three strains to
read zero in the absence of load. Now load the beam with 2.5kg at some point and
record the strains in three directions. Record the experiment with load value of 5kg.
Compute the values of Poisson’s ratio from

γ = εy/εx

RESULT:
The Poisson ratio is

5. VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

AIM: To verify the theorem of super position.

EQUIPMENT: Beam test setup with multiple loading capability ( at least 2 loading
points are required) 2 load cells, cantilever strain gauged beam. Strain measurement
equipment.

THEORY: Many times, a structural member is subjected to a number of forces acting

not only at the ends, but also at the intermediate points along its length. Such a
member can be analyzed by the application of the principle of the superposition. The
resulting strain will be equal to the algebraic sum of the strain caused by individual
forces acting along the length of the member.

The strain gauge is at a fixed position in the beam and load position can be
varied. A strain gauge is mounted on a free stream surface, which in general is in a
state of plane stress where the state of stress with regard to a specific XY
rectangular rosette. Consider the three element rectangular rosette shown in the
figure, which provides normal strain component in three direction spaced at angles of
45 degree. If an XY co-ordinates system is assumed to coincide with the gauge A
and C then єX=єA and єY=єC

Gauge B provides information necessary to determine ζ XY.

PROCEDURE:

Mount the cantilever beam at the left support of beam test setup.
Connect the strain gauges wires with the strain measuring equipment. Use the
following color codes.

εA = red and white wire -- Linear guage

εB = black and blue wire -- Lateral guage
εC = green and yellow wire -- 45o

Set the load cell to read zero value in the absence id load. Set the three strain
gauge to read zero in the absence of load. Now load the beam with 3.0 kg at some
point from vertical and record the strain in three direction. Record the load value at
the load cell. Record the point of loading.
 Remove the load. Set the load cell to read zero value in the absence of the
load. Set the three strains to read zero in the absence of the load. Now load the
beam with load from horizontal direction. Apply, load from right side end with load
value of 2.0kg and record the strains in three directions. Record the load value.

Remove this load. Set the load cell to read zero value in the absence of the
load. Set the three strains to read zero in the absence of the load. Now load the
beam with3.0kg at same point from vertical as done earlier.

In addition load the beam with load from horizontal direction. Apply load from
right side end with load value of 2.0kg

Record the strain in three directions. Record the load values in the two load
cells.

record the vertical load position.

Compute the values of ζXY from the formula.

ζXY = 2 єB-єA -єC

RESULT: The values of δAB=δBA. Hence superposition theorem is verified.

6. BUCKLING LOAD OF SLENDER ECCENTRIC

COLUMNS AND CONSTRUCTION OF SOUTH WELL PLOT
AIM: Practical columns have some imperfections in the form of initial curvature and
the buckling of loads of such struts is of real practical values. This experiment aims
at measuring the buckling load and construction of south well plot. The imperfection
amounts to initial curvature, which shows up in this plot.

EQUIPEMENT: WAGNER Beam setup, hinged supports, load cells, long column,
with initial curvature, mounted dial for deflection measurements.

THEORY: Consider a pin strut AB of length L, whose centroidal longitudinal axis is

initially curved under the application of the end load P, the strut will have some
additional lateral displacement y at any section.

The value of Pe represents the buckling load for perfectly straight strut. In
the relation for deflection (y), the additional lateral displacement of the strut, that the
effect of end load P is to increase(y) by a factor 1/(Pe/P)-1; shown by eqn(6) when P
approaches Pe, the addition displacement at mid length of the strut is expressed by
eqn(7).

The load deflection relationship of eqn(5) is the basic of south well plot
technique for extrapolating for the elastic critical load from experimental
measurement.

The linear relationship between δp & δ shown in figure below can be

experimentally determined. Thus if a straight line is drawn which best fits the points
determined from the experimental measurement of P and δ, the reciprocal of the
slope of this line gives an estimate that can be determined from the intercept on the
horizontal axis.

PROCEDURE:

 Setup the 2 hinge supports on the Wagner beam at the top and bottom
supports. Fix the column in the support.
 Set the load reading to zero in the load cell
 Determine the centre of column. Setup the deflection dialguage for reading
the column deflection at the centre column
  Set the deflection dial guage reading to zero.
 Apply the vertical load in steps of 5 kgs. Each in four steps (5,10,15,20kgs)
and record the deflection at each step of load.

Result:

7. SHEAR FAILURE OF BOLTED AND RIVITED JOINTS

AIM: To determine the ultimate shear stress on the bolt.

EQUIPMENT: Wagner beam setup, bolt for failure analysis, vernier caliper.

THEORY: Riveted & bolted connections are common in structural assemblies.

Following are the modes of failure in riveted joint.

 Tension Failure
 Shearing failure across one or more planes of rivet
 Bearing failure between plates and the rivet.
 Plate shear or shear out failure in the plate

In a riveted joint, the rivets may themselves fail in shear. The tendency is to cut
through the rivet across the section lying is said to be in shear lying in the plane
between plates it connected.

If the load is transmitted through the bearing between the plates and the shank
of the rivet producing shear in the rivet is said to be in shear.

When the load is transmitted by shear in only one section of the rivet, the rivet is
said to be in single shear. When the loading of the rivet is such as to have the load
transmitted in two shear planes, the rivet is said to be in double shear. When the
load is transmitted in more than 2 planes the rivet is said the be in multiple shear.

Rivets and bolts subjected to both shear and axial tension shall be so
proportional that the calculated shear and axial tension do not exceed the allowable
stress ζvf & σtf

and the following expression does not exceed the specific value.

SHEARING FAILURE OF THE RIVET: In riveted joint, the rivets may themselves
fail in shear. The tendency is to cut through the rivet across the section lying in the
plane between the plates it connect.
 In analysis this possible manner of failure one must always note whether a rivet
acts in single shear or double shear. The latter case, the two cross-sectional areas of
the same rivet resist the applied force. The shearing stress is assumed to be
uniformaly distributed over the cross section of the rivet.

Let Pus = Pull required, per pitch length, for shear failure.

Fs = Ultimate shear strength of the rivet material.

d = gross diameter of the bolt.

PROCUDURE:

1. Setup the WAGNER beam test setup.

2. Note the diameter of the bolt.
3. Place the bolt in the slot.
4. Set the load cell to read zero.
5. Apply the load gradually.
6. Note the load reading at the point of shear failure of mild steel bolt.

RESULT:

Shear stress for single shear = N/mm 2

Shear stress for double shear = N/mm 2

8. WAGNER BEAM (TENSION FIELD).

AIM: The objective of this experiment is to determine the constant K of the wagner
beam.

INTRODUCTION:

In the analysis of wing beams of airplanes, the designer is

faced with several problems which, in general are not present in civil engineering
structural design. The civil engineer endeavors to make the web sheet of all beams
thick enough so that the web not buckle before the design load is reached on the
structure.

Buckling is a case of failure and the shearing stress causing buckling

determines the allowable maximum shear stress is given by equation (1).

If the sheet is very thin, buckling stress is given by equation (1) is extremely
low and, in the interest of making efficient use of all available material. The aircraft
engineer raises the question as to how much additional shear can be carried by such
a buckled plate before.

 Some portion of the sheet has a total stress equal to the yield point of
the material, thus giving rise to permanent deformations: or
 The ultimate strength is reached.

If now, we assume that the web plate in the beam is very thin the above
discussion of principle stresses. We see that one of them is compressive stress
against which thin plates have a very low resistance. The tendency will then be for
the plate to buckles in a direction perpendicular to the compressive stress at a value
of the applied shear which becomes less as the web becomes thinner and thinner,
the limiting case being for a sheet of zero thickness.

In this case, the sheet buckles upon the application of a shear load and can
only resist shear by means of the tensile stresses will tend to pull the two beam
flanges together, thus necessitating vertical members to counteract this tendency.
 Wagner assumes that the web buckles immediately upon the application of
shear load and that the only stresses resisting the shear forces are the tensile
stresses which act approximately 45 degree.

Considering infinitely rigid parallel span flanges and vertical stiffners the
following equation for this limiting case is shown in equation 2,3,4and 5.

The limiting case of a web having no compressive strength has been treated
by wagner and beams approximating this are known as wagner beam. The basic
assumption of this theory is that total shear force in the web can be divided into a
shear force in the sheet and the shear forced carried by diagonal tension;

K= (1- ζcr / ζ)n

A strain gauge is mounted in a free surface, which in general, is in a state of

plane stress where the state if stress with regards to a specific xy rectangular rosette
since each gauge element provides only one piece of information, the indicated
normal strain at the point in direction of the gauge. Consider the three elements
rectangular rosette shown in the figure which provides normal strain components in
three directions spaced at angles of 45 degrees.

In an XY coordinate system is assumes to coincide with the gauge A and C then

єX=єA and єY=єC are known, then Hooke’s law can be used to determine σ X, σY, ζXY