Draft for Review

Pollution Prevention and Abatement Guidelines

for the Mining Industry

This document is one of the chapters prepared for a forthcoming set of pollution guidelines
jointly prepared by the World Bank, UNIDO and UNEP. The purpose is to give a succinct
overview of the main issues affecting the relevant industry sector, and of the best ways of
avoiding undue environmental impact through the systematic application of preventive
technologies, processes and procedures. The management and regulatory framework
within which investment decisions must be made is also briefly described. The intended
readership includes project personnel in investment institutions as well as national
personnel who wish to familiarize themselves with the key aspects of the industry
concerned. The information is not sufficient by itself for detailed project design or
preventive governmental action. For this more detailed advice can be obtained from the
references quoted or from other specialized sources of information.
It should be realized that this document deals with mining as a general issue. Specific
mineral sectors are covered in other chapters.

2nd. Draft
April 1993
Revised July 93

Prepared by
F. Balkau
UNEP IE/PAC
39 Quai Andre Citroen
75739 Paris Cedex 15
Fax 33 1 40 58 88 74
 Table of Contents

Page

1. Introduction 1

2. Overview of Mining Operations - Process Description 1

3. Environment and Wastes 2

- water
- air
- wastes
- workplace
- accidents

4. Prevention of Impact and Control of Pollution 5

- management
- location
- source reduction
- recycling
- treatment
- waste disposal
- ancillary
- accidents

5. Overview of Legislative Requirements 11

6. Target Guidelines 14

7. Summary 14

8. References 16
 1

Preface

This text is concerned with mining operations, and those processing operations that
commonly occur directly at mine sites such as beneficiation and simple ore treatment. It does
not deal with metal processing such as smelting.

1. Introduction

Mining is an essential activity that provides the raw materials for our industrialized society.
However unless adequate precautions are taken, mining can be accompanied by serious
negative impacts on the environment and on human health. With modern practices many of
these effects can be avoided, or at least greatly reduced. Much of the damaging impact can be
minimized through careful project planning, choice of appropriate mining technologies, and
careful ongoing operation.

Potential environmental impacts, including pollution effects, which may arise from poorly
planned and operated mines are summarized in Table 1.

2. Overview of mining operations

There are a number of phases in a mining operation which impact the environment in
different ways. Major phases are:

(i) Exploration - including surveys, field surveys, drilling and exploratory

excavations. Some pollution can already be produced at this stage from land
disturbance and from the wastes produced.

(ii) Project development - includes development of the site by construction of roads

and buildings, underground work on access tunnels, erection of treatment plants,
overburden stripping and placing, preparation of disposal areas, construction of
service infrastructure such as power lines or generating plants, railways, water
supplies and sewerage, laboratories and amenities.

(iii) Mine operation - operations can be extremely varied, including underground

mining, surface mining from open-pits or placer deposits, hydraulic mining in or
near river beds. Newer processes may also include heap-leaching of tailing
dumps, bio-leaching of surface heaps or deposits, and solution mining of buried
deposits. Leaching and solution mining present a somewhat different set of risks
to physical mining and will not be further discussed in this document. Small-scale
mining, although extremely common in some countries, is also outside the scope
of these guidelines.

(iv) Beneficiation - on-site processing may include comminution to reduce particle

size, flotation using selected chemicals, gravity separation or magnetic, electrical
or optical sorting, ore leaching with a variety of chemical solutions.

(v) Associated transport and storage of ore and concentrates may be a handling risk
and can result in localized site contamination.

(vi) Mine closure - this is an important if often neglected aspect of mine operation.
Rehabilitation is best done progressively rather than at the end of life of the mine,
and accordingly needs to be a part of ongoing operation. While the closure and
rehabilitation is intended to mitigate environmental impact, it is important that it
does not itself create secondary effects such as excessive fertilizer use, spread of
weeds, siltation and incompatible landscape features. Ongoing monitoring and
maintenance may be important in some situations.
 2

3. Environment and Wastes

Without adequate preventive measures mining can greatly alter the environment around the
site. There may be changes in landscapes, water tables, and animal habitats, as well as air and
water pollution, and permanent degradation of land. Toxic chemicals, dusts, heat and noise
can seriously affect the health of workers, and sometimes their families. Impacts may occur
from mining itself or from ancillary operations such as transport, laboratories, etc.

Serious indirect effects may occur in addition to the impact at the mining site itself. The
development of remote tracts of land may introduce pest species of plants and animals, and
can bring new diseases into an area. Access roads encourage settlers to open the adjacent land
to exploitation, often causing degradation from uncontrolled land-use practices.

Conversely, some impacts such as access roads, improved water supply, and provision of
local employment are regarded as positive developments by many governments.

The major potential environmental impacts to be controlled are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 - Potential Environmental Impacts of Mining

Environmental impacts

Destruction of natural habitat at the mining site and at waste disposal sites
Destruction of adjacent habitats as a result of emissions and discharges
Destruction of adjacent habitats arising from influx of settlers
Changes in river regime and ecology due to siltation and flow modification
Alteration in watertables
Change in landform
Land degradation due to inadequate rehabilitation after closure
Land instability
Danger from failure of structures and dams
Abandoned equipment, plant and buildings

Pollution impacts

Drainage from mining sites, incl. acid mine drainage and pumped mine water
Sediment runoff from mining sites
Pollution from mining operations in riverbeds
Effluent from minerals processing operations
Sewage effluent from the site
Oil and fuel spills
Soil contamination from treatment residues and spillage of chemicals
Leaching of pollutants from tailings and disposal areas and contaminated soils
Air emissions from minerals processing operations
Dust emissions from sites close to living areas or habitats
Release of methane from mines

Occupational health impacts

Handling of chemicals, residues and products

Dust inhalation
Fugitive emissions within the plant
Air emissions in confined spaces from transport, blasting, combustion
Exposure to asbestos, cyanide, mercury or other toxic materials used on-site
Exposure to heat, noise, vibration
Physical risks at the plant or at the site
Unsanitary living conditions
 3

The following is a summary of the major pollutants that can be expected from a variety of
point and diffuse sources that are often difficult to classify neatly.

3.1 Potential Water Contaminants may include:

- suspended solids and sediment from runoff and processing operations

- acids from various processes
- acid mine drainage during and after site operation (see below)
- heavy metals leached from wastes and concentrates around the site
- sulphate, thiosulphate, polythionates etc. from acid drainage
- arsenic and other salts from oxidized mine waters
- mercury, if used in the process, or from ores
- cyanide if used in leaching processes
- oil and fuels from ancillary operations
- other processing chemicals as may be used on the site
- groundwater constituents that may be pumped or discharged off-site
- sewage from the site

The problem of acid mine drainage is particularly serious at many sites, and frequently
persists after mine closure. Quantities and concentrations of such drainage depend on site-
specific characteristics, but are usually characterized by low pH and elevated content of heavy
metals and dissolved salts. The oxidation of any iron content adds decoloration and
deoxygenation of waters to the problems of metal toxicity (ref Table 2).

These pollutants can cause considerable damage to natural waterways, and in some cases to
groundwater. Excessive discharges will damage natural ecosystems and affect local fisheries,
and may deprive downstream populations of a clean water supply. In some cases sediment
may block river channels and affect boat transportation.

Pollution from contaminated sites and waste dumps may last considerably longer than the
economic life of the mine.

3.2 Potential Air Contaminants may include:

- dust from the site or from processing. Composition is locationÄspecific

- natural gas from underground mines
- CFC losses from refrigeration plant and air-conditioning
- other air contaminants important in workplace safety as shown below

Air pollution affects mainly workers on the site, although in dry climates neighbouring
populations and mine settlements may also suffer an effect.

3.3 Workplace Safety

In addition to risks from accidents, which are discussed under 3.5 below, general exposure to
dust and fumes may seriously damage the health of workers. Some chemical agents used in
prcessing present occupational risks if not correctly handled or controlled. Care in handling
explosives is of course a major preoccupation at mines.
 4

Of particular interest are:

- cyanide, mercury
- acids, especially in concentrated form, and as mists from processing
- flotation and extraction agents, Xanthate dust
- asbestos, solvents, herbicides and other pesticides used on the site
- toxic machine oils, including PCBs (if still used)
- heavy metal residues, especially, arsenic, mercury, lead
- gases in confined spaces from engines, blasting and ancillary operations.
- explosives

The quantities of the above will vary from site to site, and no general indication can be given
as to how much to expect.

Health impacts will usually be of a chronic nature, unless major exposure incidents occur.
Often such health impacts are permanent, and in the case of asbestos, mercury and other
heavy metals may even lead to eventual death. In some cases workers' families have been
affected by the same illness due to contaminants brought into the home by the workers on
their clothes, although the effects are usually less severe.

Exposure to excessive noise is a serious risk in many mines. Noise may be from machinery,
blasting and transport vehicles.

3.4 Wastes

There are many sources of waste within a mine. Some is generated in great quantity but is of
limited toxicity. Mines may also produce smaller quantities of hazardous wastes from
ancillary operations, and these require special care in handling and disposal. Common wastes
include:

- overburden from the mine

- gangue and waste rock from the mining
- solid or sludge processing residues
- ancillary sources such as workshops, laboratories, housing
- derelict equipment and building
- unused chemicals, fuel or oils

Leaching from dumpsites subject to acid mine drainage can lead to serious water pollution.

Disposal of the more minor wastes can also result in soil and groundwater contamination if
they are soluble or subject to eventual leaching. Direct loss of human life is uncommon, but
slow leaching can have serious ecological consequences for many years.

3.5 Environmental Emergencies

These may result form the failure of mining operations themselves (slope failure, rupture of
tailings dams, collapse of underground drives) or be associated with unsafe waste disposal
operations (see above). There have also been a number of dramatic accidents during the
transport of chemicals or fuels. The loss of a barge-load of cyanide chemicals for example
can have dramatic effects on river and offshore ecosystems.

Large scale waste disposal operations may present risk of catastrophic failure of tailings dams
or heaps, collapse of dump heaps and so on. Such failures have sometimes led to major loss
of life at the site or at nearby communities.
 5

Table 2 - Typical characteristics of drainage from lead/zinc mines

Parameter Mines with acidic Mines with no acidic

characteristics characteristics
Concentration mg/l Concentration mg/l
________ ________________ _________________

pH* 3.0 to 8.0* 7.4 to 8.1*

TSS
(Total suspended solids) < 2 to 58 2 to 138
COD 15.9 to 95.3 < 10 to 631
Oil and Grease 0 to 3 3 < 29
P 0.002 to 0.075 0.03 to 0.15
Ammonia < 0.05 to 4.0 < 0.05 to 1.0
Hg 0.0001 to 0.0013 < 0.0001 to 0.0001
Zn 1.38 to 38.0 0.03 to 0.69
Cu < 0.02 to 0.04 < 0.02
Cd 0.016 to 0.055 < 0.002 to 0.015
Cr 0.17 to 0.42 < 0.02
Mn < 0.02 to 57.2 < 0.02 to 0.06
Fe 0.12 to 2.5 < 0.02 to 0.90
Sulphate 48 to 775 37 to 63
Chloride < 0.01 to 220 3 to 57
Fluoride 0.06 to 0.80 0.3 to 1.2

Value in pH units

4. Prevention of Impact and Control of Pollution

4.1 Management Implications

For mining operations it is vital to plan for minimization of impact at the earliest stages, as
few changes in layout are possible once operations have commenced. Accordingly, it is
important that the company mange the EIA process professionally and impartially from the
outset, and carry out regular auditing after operations commence.

The company should set itself measurable environmental targets, and establish a clear line
responsibility for achieving these. There must be personnel with environmental expertise
who carry out regular monitoring and report to top management. Senior management should
require periodic audits of environmental performance. There should be adequate finance and
staff to carry out these activities.
 6

Monitoring is required to obtain baseline information about environmental quality before

operations begin, and to examine periodically the impact of the operation on water quality
(surface and groundwater), on native species, on chemical contamination of soils, and on
human health (both workplace, and outside if necessary).

Monitoring also serves to identify economic loss of raw or refined material, and general
operating inefficiencies.

A company environmental audit gives an overall view of the company's mechanisms and their
effectiveness in environmental control, as well as regulatory compliance.

4.2 Site Location

Little can be done in respect to the siting of the mining operation itself as the location of
orebodies is fixed. There may be some possibility to adjust the mine development plan to
avoid sensitive areas, however. There is often more flexibility to adjust ancillary operations
such as exploration, processing, services, transport links, and infrastructure, although an
additional cost may be involved.

If the environmental impact is still too high as identified through an EIA, and if technical
measures cannot overcome the basic problem, then the mine should not be developed. This
may be the case in sites of natural heritage, of exceptional habitat value, close to cultural sites
or habited areas, or where pollution will irrevocably impact other economic activity such as
fisheries, agriculture or tourism.

4.3 Minimization of Impact

Mine development and operation

A number of mining techniques are in widespread use depending on the site-specific

characteristics, and the environmental and other constraints that may be imposed. Among the
techniques that could be considered are:

* The choice of using open-cast or underground mining will depend largely on

economic grounds based on the depth and concentration of minerals, however
environmental impact may have an influence;
* Immediate progressive backfilling while mining is still under way is often not
favoured for practical reasons, but could be considered in special cases;
* In some cases solution mining may be used instead of excavation. Decisions about
which chemical agents to use, eg. cyanide, will depend partly on environmental
risks;
* In-situ heap leaching is often of lower impact than removal of ore for processing
elsewhere. Available processes include chemical and biological leaching;
* Extraction using mercury is not now recommended, but is still used by small-scale
miners who ignore the obvious risks;
* Hydraulic mining in open river systems is less and less acceptable due to the
immediate damage to river ecosystems. Similarly, dredging can cause significant
modification of land and river systems.
* Prevention of AMD is achieved by careful predevelopment planning, and
implementation of progressive reclamation of disturbed ares and waste dumps. In
the case of tailing dams, permanent subaqueous disposal reduces the rate of
oxidation of pyrites, and hence acid generation.

Beneficiation and processing.

The processes chosen will depend on the ore characteristics and location, and so it is difficult
to generalize. There has however been considerable research into cleaner, safer options. For
each project these options should be evaluated by someone familiar with the particular
 7

mineral sector to ensure that the final choice is environmentally as well as economically
sound. The combination of "low-waste process plus effluent treatment plant" needs to be
evaluated for best overall performance.

The use of safe, low-impact processing chemicals is one of the factors to be considered. A
number of national and international information sources now exist to advise on impact and
availability of suitable chemicals. A list of common chemicals used in flotation is shown
below. Typical consumption figure are given in the UNEP guide. (ref. 2)

Table 2 - Flotation Reagents used in Base Metal Concentrators

_____________________________________________________

Acids Collectors

Sulphuric acid Potassium amylxanthate

Potassium ethylxanthate
Potassium isopropylxanthate
Alkalis Aniline Dicresyl Dithiophosphate
Gas-Oil
Lime Amine
Sodium carbonate
Sodium hydroxide
Frothers

Modifiers Dowfroth 250

Hexylic Alcohol
Copper sulphate Pine Oil
Sodium cyanide HBTA frother
Zinc sulphate
Sodium sulphide
Sodium silicate
SO2
Starch

____________________________________________________

Dust control

Dust can be controlled on a mining site through careful design and selection of excavation,
transport and crushing equipment, and paying attention to dust hoods and shields around fixed
plant. Forced air ventilation systems should be fitted with dust extractors such as cyclones,
bag filters or wet scrubbers. Ore handling operations should be examined to minimize the
height of fall of ore, for example. Water sprays are more effective in preventing dust
generation than in removal of dust from air. Dust suppression on roads is also necessary,
however the use of waste oils and process effluents for this purpose may itself give rise to
secondary environmental problems, and such methods should be carefully assessed.

Storage dumps should be protected against wind, or otherwise treated to reduce dust
generation (also to reduce economic loss of material). Dust from dried out tailings dams may
also need to be addressed as many dried-out fines are readily dispersed by wind.
Revegetation is usually the cheapest option. The dam structure itself may need some dust
control measures such as covering or chemical stabilization.
 8

Noise reduction

Machinery should be inherently low-noise, or else fitted with noise shields. Noise should also
be one of the criteria for choice of mobile transport equipment. Traffic movement should be
planned to avoid as much as possible steep grades and noise sensitive areas (habitats as well
as human dwellings). Engines should be switched off when not in use for significant periods.
As a last resort only should personnel be required to wear hearing protection and be
constrained to sound-proof cabins.

4.4 Recycling and reuse

Mine spoil is usually too voluminous to be reused except for minor uses.

Drainage water from the mining site is not usually recovered, except in dry regions where
water recovery may be extensively practised.

Greater potential exists for reuse of wastewater and processing effluents. The segregation of
various waste flows may allow for a greater degree of flexibility in re-use. The characteristics
of composition, use and discharge will determine the options in each case.

Unused or spent processing chemicals frequently present additional opportunities for

recovery, particularly in view of their often considerable commercial value. Recovery and
reuse of processing by-products is another potentially important area, although again the
possibilities depend very much on the specifics of the process in use.

4.5 Effluent Treatment

Technologies

Mine drainage and effluents will often need treatment prior to discharge. Source segregation
may make it easier to treat special waste streams such as processing effluents. Some specific
methods in common use are:

* Neutralization and precipitation for free acid and heavy metals. These factors
usually occur together, and the treatment addresses both simultaneously. Choice
of neutralizing agent depends on the heavy metal content. Some cheap
neutralizing agents such as calcium carbonate do not achieve a sufficient increase
in pH to precipitate some metals. The use of lime results in the production of
gypsum, which may subsequently block pipes and machinery;

Oxidation may be necessary as pretreatment to achieve better removal of some

metals such as iron;

Separation of precipitated metal hydroxides requires some care as these may not
settle well by themselves. Settling agents and sludge thickening may be required.
The resulting sludge must itself be properly disposed of in a separately designed
impermeable site to avoid causing groundwater pollution;

* Cyanide is often treated in open ponds rather than specific treatment plants (this
"treatment" amounts to little more than simple evaporation of cyanide in most
cases). Care must be taken that levels of cyanide gas do not build up under static
air conditions to poison workers or wildlife. High levels of cyanide should be
treated by chemical oxidation in a separate plant;

* Thiosalt removal can present a problem as no cheap chemical oxidation methods

are available. Biological oxidation requires design of specific systems;
 9

* Arsenic is often a difficult metal to remove. Treatment methods include carefully

designed coprecipitation procedures using ferric hydroxide, or calcium salts. Pre-
oxidation may be required. Disposal of the sludge must be in specially designed
impermeable sites;

* Treatment of beneficiation effluents must be done according to the specific

composition of such liquors. Attention is required to ensure the adequate separate
treatment of periodic slugs of high concentration wastewater that arise when tanks
are cleaned or solutions are discarded. Treatment plants have in the past often not
been designed to cater for such slugs.

Disposal of Processing Effluents

Effluent from mines and processing operations is usually discharged, after suitable treatment,
to waterbodies near the site. The discharge conditions depend on the characteristics of the
local waterbodies.

In dry regions pumped water and effluents may be discharged to evaporation basins, however
precautions need to be taken to avoid contaminated seepage from such basins affecting the
groundwater. Disposal to tailings dams may be feasible for some effluents if the volumes are
within the capacity of the dam.

4.6 Waste Disposal

Solid Waste

More options often exist for managing waste disposal than for the mining operation itself.
Waste disposal options may even influence the design and development of the mine, and so
are an integral part of the choice of operation. The location and design of tailings dams and
water impoundments is determined by local conditions and engineering feasibility. It is true
however that severe geographical and climatic conditions have caused many supposedly
"safe" structures to fail (sometimes catastrophically), and a high degree of design safety needs
to be ensured.

As a rule mine waste has to be disposed of close to the point of excavation. There are
different possibilities depending on the amount of waste generated, its form and chemical
composition, and of course the characteristics of the site itself.

Immediate backfilling in the excavation is often not possible due to the human activity still
going on there, and to avoid covering as yet unmined orebodies.

Surface disposal is particularly difficult on hillsites and in confined valleys, but elsewhere
also consideration should be given to ecological values and safety aspects at the disposal site.

Waste and tailings heaps near buildings or other sensitive structures need particular care to
ensure that they are stable in the long as well as short term. Serious loss of life has occurred
in the past where some tailings deposits have collapsed into nearby buildings. The effect of
possible seismic events should be taken into account.

Ongoing control of seepage and surface water which affect the stability of waste deposits
needs close attention.

Tailings and solid waste disposal directly into waterbodies generally results in too much
environmental damage to be recommended.

Tailings dam construction is a well established technique, but close attention must be given to
stability and permeability of the dam, especially if predominantly local materials are used for
construction.
 10

Important features of tailing dam design include:

- careful design based on construction materials available

- adequate site preparation
- close attention to grading of construction materials
- control of seepage through and around the dam
- monitoring of the phreatic surface behind the dam
- control of surface runoff water on the dam face
- diversion or control of flooding events
- ready supply of construction material for maintenance and repair

Other Wastes

Other wastes may come from ancillary operations such as laboratories, power plants and
maintenance depots, living quarters, transport yards and so on. These waste include a range
of hazardous chemical residues such as paints, oils, lubricants, herbicides, solvents and
cleaners. A big mining operation can generate substantial quantities of such wastes. A clear
programme of minimization, reuse and proper disposal needs to be prepared, including the
designation and construction of a specially prepared disposal site.

Garbage from living quarters and office operations also needs proper disposal, generally in a
different way to the above. This does not exclude the same site being used, however separate
handling, and disposal in a different part of the site is recommended. Garbage and putrescible
waste should be regularly covered with inert material.

Some special waste must be taken away from the site and sent to specialized destruction
facilities elsewhere, eg. pesticide residues, PCBs, solvents. This may be able to be arranged
through the supplier of materials.

The reuse, burning or other disposal of waste oils should be carefully thought out before the
mine opens. Waste oil should not be disposed of to landfills or otherwise to ground. Its use
as a dust suppressant is no longer generally acceptable. The same is true of solvents.

Where heavy electrical equipment is used, this should be chosen to be free of PCBs. Where
PCBs are still found in existing equipment, this should be removed and sent to specialized
disposal facilities elsewhere (generally in developed countries) in consultation with the
supplier. The cost of such incineration is usually high.

The establishment of proper disposal procedures for specialized wastes does much to sensitize
the workforce to environmental issues, and has a useful outcome in terms of individual
commitment to pollution control.

4.7 Ancillary Operations

Roadways, borrow areas, stockpiles, parking areas and equipment depots can constitute a
significant proportion of the surface area that is developed in a mine. Runoff, erosion and
contamination from such areas can be very significant, and accordingly environmental control
should consider these as closely as the mine itself.

While environmental control at these points is not necessarily difficult, it must become an
important element of a site working plan, and effective design and preventive action needs to
be taken.

Where extensive use is made of air conditioning and cooling of deep mines, the refrigeration
plant needs to be chosen (or be retrofitted) to be free of CFCs. Such equipment is now
commercially available. Fire protection systems should avoid the use of halons.
 11

4.8 Accidents and Emergencies

All mines should make provision for dealing with unexpected incidents, whether natural
phenomena or due to equipment failures. Collapse of mines or tailings structures is an ever-
present risk, and worst-event scenarios can help the management plan for such eventualities.
The possibility of chemical accidents during transport or storage (or indeed use) also needs to
be given some attention. The same is of course true of hazards from fuels or explosives.
Where a neighbouring community is close by, liaison with community leaders and civil
defense authorities is essential (refer APELL process, Ref.21)

4.9 Capital and O&M costs

The actual costs of waste prevention measures depend so much on mine size, location and
characteristics that no guidance can be given here.

For some of the more sensitive issues described above such as chemical wastes, it is clearly
advisable to avoid producing these wastes at all, if possible. In other cases a waste
minimization programme can dramatically reduce the disposal costs over what would
otherwise be the case.

Cost of effluent treatment depends on the nature of the effluent and its volume. Again, a
programme of source reduction and re-use can reduce the cost of final treatment in direct
proportion to the volume reduction.

5. Overview of Legislative Requirements

Sometimes environment protection is included in mining legislation, for example:

* Safety of structures and operations, and limiting exposure to chemical hazards;

* Wastewater retention and treatment, and management of contaminated runoff;
* Soil erosion control and re-vegetation during the operation as well as afterwards;
* Solid waste disposal;
* Restoration of sites, and removal of all unused machinery.

Matters that may be covered by environmental legislation include:

* Environment impact assessment (EIA), or other environmental planning;

* Nature conservation, national parks, protection of flora and fauna;
* Protection of cultural heritage, indigenous cultures, landscape, and scientific sites;
* Water quality protection;
* "Clean air" laws to limit air emissions and human exposure;
* Land protection and control of soil contamination from wastes, weeds and pests;
* Other issues such as noise, waste disposal and chemicals control are also
sometimes regulated by environmental laws.

Effluent and air emission standards are among the most common requirements made through
regulations. National requirements vary widely. Some examples are shown in the tables on
the following pages, however they are very specific to certain mining operations, and their
application outside their country and sector of origin is not always straightforward.

Achieving compliance with such a diverse set of environmental standards can be a complex
task. Project planners should be closely involved, since if compliance is not built into a
project at the outset it may be difficult to make the changes later. Subsequently, good co-
ordination at the operational level is required to ensure even compliance across all operations.
 12

Table 3 - Effluent Standards in Canada and USA

Effluent limitations from metal mines in Canada are:

AUTHORIZED LEVELS OF SUBSTANCES
Maximum
Authorized Maximum Maximum FREQUENCY WITH WHICH UNDILUTED
Monthly Authorized Authorized EFFLUENTS ARE TO BE SAMPLED AND ANALYSED FOR
Arithmetic Concentration in Concentration PARTICULAR SUBSTANCES
Mean a Composite in a Grab
Substance Concentration Sample Sample
Arsenic 0.5 mg/l 0.75 mg/l 1.0 mg/l At Least Every At Least
Copper 0.3 mg/l 0.45 mg/l 0.6 mg/l At Least Weekly Two Weeks if Monthly if
Lead 0.2 mg/l 0.3 mg/l 0.4 mg/l if Concentration Concentration is Concentration
Nickel 0.5 mg/l 0.75 mg/l 1.0 mg/l is Equal to or Equal to or is Equal to or
Zinc 0.5 mg/l 0.75 mg/l 1.0 mg/l Substance Greater than Greater than Greater than
Total Arsenic 0.5 mg/l 0.2 mg/l 0.10 mg/l
Suspended Copper 0.3 mg/l 0.1 mg/l 0.0S mg/l
Matter 25.0 mg/l 37.5 mg/l 50 0 mg/l Lead 0.2 mg/l 0.1 mg/l 0.05 mg/l
Radium 226 10.0 pCi/l 20.0 pCi/l 30.0 pCi/l Nickel 0.5 mg/l 0.2 mg/l 0.10 mg/l
Zinc 0.5 mg/l 0.2 mg/l 0.10 mg/l
AUTHORIZED LEVELS OF pH Total
Minimum Suspended
Authorized Minimum Matter 25.0 mg/l 20.0 mg/l 15.0 mg/l
Monthly Authorized pH in Minimum Radium 226 10.0 pCi/l 5.0 pCi/l 2.5 pCi/l
Arithmetic Mean a Composite Authorized pH in
pH Sample a Grab Sample
6.0 5.5 5.0

For metal mines in the US:

a) The concentration of pollutants discharged in (b) The concentration of pollutants discharged

mine drainage from mines operated to obtain from mills which employ the froth flotation
copper bearing ores, lead bearing ores, zinc process alone or in conjunction with other
bearing ores, gold bearing ores, or any processes, for the beneficiation of copper ores,
,combination of these ores in open-pit or lead ores, zinc ores, gold ores, or silver ores, or
underground operations other than placer any combination of these ores shall not exceed:
deposits shall not exceed:

Effluent limitations Effluent limitations

Effluent characteristic Maximum for Average of Effluent characteristic Maximum for Average of
any 1 day daily values for any 1 day daily values for
30 consecutive 30 consecutive
days days
Milligrams per liter Milligrams per liter
TSS 30 20 TSS 30 20
Cu 30 15 Cu 30 15
Zn 15 75 Zn 10 5
Pb 6 3
Hg 002 001
Cd 10 05
pH (*) (*)
Effluent limitations * Within the range 6.0 to 9.0
Effluent characteristic Maximum for Average of
any 1 day daily values for
30 consecutive
days
Pb 6 3
Hg 002 001
pH (*) (*)
* Within the range 6.0 to 9.0
 13

Table 4 - Air Emission Standards (USA)

US air emission standards for mines include the following:

Stack emissions from any facility within a mine shall not:

(i) contain particulate matter in excess of 0.05 grams per dry standard cubic meter;
(ii) exhibit greater than 7% opacity unless the stack emissions are discharged from and
affected facility using a wet scrubbing emission control device.

No facility or process shall cause to be discharged fugitive emissions that exhibit greater than
10% opacity.

Table 5 - Workplace Air Quality and Noise Standards

Workplace standards for selected air pollutants in several countries are:

Contaminants France U.S.A. U.S.S.R.
3 3 3
mg/m mg/m mg/m
(1) (2) (3)
Dust containing free silica 10* 0.1 -
x+2
Lead 0.15 .15 .01 - .07
Cadmium (dust and salts) - .05 -
Nickel + Copper (ores) - - 4
Zinc (sulphide) - - 5
CO 55 55 20
NO2 6 6 2

Source: (66)
(1) Average exposure limits.
(2) Threshold Limit Values - AGGIH - 1984 - 1985.
(3) Thresholod Limit Values - GOST - 12.1.005 - 1976.

* Amount of respirable dust as a function of x = percentage of quartz in respirable dust.

For noise exposure:

Table 6 - Waste Leachability

For solid wastes, the following standards for leachability are in use:

USA JAPAN
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6. Target Guidelines

Quantitative targets are difficult to set for an industry operating under such varied conditions.
Some of the criteria for successful project design include:

* A comprehensive EIA is carried out by an independent consultant for large mines;

* The company has a well-established track record in environmental issues;
* An explicit environmental management structure is part of the proposal;
* Regular monitoring and auditing procedures are built into the project;
* Mine development has adopted to the maximum extent a preventive approach;
* Aspects of mine waste disposal are thoroughly addressed;
* Final treatment is installed;
* Rehabilitation is a progressive activity rather an end-of-mine action;
* Special wastes are identified, and provisions are made for disposal, as appropriate;
* The problem of acid mine drainage has been reduced to the maximum extent
possible. Possible drainage treatment after mine closure has been addressed.

The final discharge and emission requirements for any particular project will be site
dependent, based on the results of a prior environmental base-line monitoring programme.
The following general guidelines can be used as a starting point for design, to be subsequently
adapted to final site characteristics.

Average discharge quality (in mg/l, except for pH):

TSS - 300; Cu - 30; Zn - 15; Pb - 6; Hg - 0.002; Cd - 0.01; pH - 6-9.

Air emissions:

Maximum stack opacity - 7%: maximum fugitive emission opacity - 10%.

Occupational exposure to dust - 0.1 mg/m3 TLV.

Leachability criteria for solid wastes are appropriate in many cases where normal surface
disposal to land is carried out. US limits can be used as a first guide. Where special burial of
wastes in sealed sites is carried out, site specific standards need to be developed with the local
environmental authority.

7. Summary

Mining can have many serious negative impacts on the environment. Mining can change the
landscape, alter water tables, disrupt the local ecology, generate serious air and water
pollution, and permanently degrade large areas of land. Exposure to toxic chemicals, dusts,
heat and noise can seriously affect the health of workers, and sometimes their families.

A number of serious indirect effects may also occur, and in extreme cases may even diminish
national development potential through damage to the natural resource base.

Potential environmental impacts should be identified through a comprehensive EIA before the
project is approved. The EIA can be used to amend the project details if necessary.

Aspects which need to be addressed in mining projects are:

* Location of the mine, and of ancillary operations must be carefully assessed, and
appropriate mitigation measures taken in the planning stage;
* The mining technologies that are most suitable to the environmental as well as
economic situation should be selected;
 15

* Safe, low-waste processing and beneficiation methods should be selected for each
ore, with attention being paid to effluent recirculation and treatment;
* Technologies and operations should maximize the opportunities for recycling and
re-use of residues and effluents;
* Effective treatment should be given to effluents, drainage and runoff water to
ensure that all discharges comply with environmental requirements, even under
non-standard climatic events. Particular attention should be given to mine
drainage during operation and after closure;
* Dust control is important at most mines, and involves both equipment design and
operational procedures;
* Solid waste disposal activities must be appropriately located as well as
conservatively designed. Attention needs to be given to long-term stability of
disposal areas and tailings dams. Drainage and leachate from disposal sites must
be minimized by appropriate location, design and ongoing maintenance. Special
disposal sites may be established for chemical-type wastes, sludges and common
refuse;
* Control of impact from ancillary operations such a roads, parking areas, depots,
borrow areas etc. needs to be an important part of a site working plan;
* Safe handling of chemicals and wastes must be ensured. Some common
chemicals such a PCBs and CFCs should be phased out;
* Site rehabilitation should be progressive during the active life of a mine. Upon
closure all equipment should be removed and final site restoration effectuated.

While environmental assimilative capacity varies greatly from one location to another, some
broad emission and discharge target guidelines are given as a starting point for project design.

The use of specific project design criteria can help to confirm that all relevant actions have
been taken to minimize environmental impact.

Within the operating company environmental control must become a priority to be managed
rather than an unwelcome nuisance to be attended to when problems start to appear. Effective
control only occurs when corporate management adopts environmental performance goals and
a suitable management structure from the outset.

--------------------------------------------
Source document: Environmental Aspects of Selected Non-Ferrous Metals Ore Mining
(Technical Report Series No5), UNEP, 1991.
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8. References

1. Environmental Aspects of Selected Non-Ferrous Metals Ore Mining (Technical Report

Series Nø5) UNEP, ISBN 92 807 1295 X, 116p, 1991.

2. Environmental Effects of Surface Mineral Workings, HMSO, London, ISBN 0-11-

752637-1, 1992.

3. Environmental Management of Mining Operations, Dhar, B.B., 1990, New Delhi:

Ashishi Publishing House.

4. Assessment of Environmental Impact of the Mineral Mining Industry, Environmental

Protection Agency (US EPA), Washington DC, 1979.

5. Guide for Environmental Practice, Mining Association of Canada (MAC), 1990.

6. Mining and the Geoenvironment, Geology and the Environment, Volume II,
UNESCO/UNEP, Vartanyan, G.S. (Ed.), 1989.

7. Mine Rehabilitation Handbook, Australian Mining Industry Council (AMIC), 1989.

8. The Restoration and Rehabilitation of Land and Soils after Mining Activities,
Environmental Management Guidelines, United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), 1983

9. Evaluation of Acid Production Potential of Mining Waste Materials, Minerals and the
Environment, 4, 5-8, Bruynesteyn, A & Hackl, R.P., 1984.

10. Control of Acid Mine Drainage (Circular nø 9027), US Bureau of Mines Information
(USBM), 1985.

11. Guidelines for Assessing Industrial Environmental Impact and Environmental Criteria
for the Siting of Industry, UNEP, ISBN 92 1015 X, 122p, 1980.

12. Environmental Auditing (Technical Report Series Nø 2), UNEP, ISBN 92 807 12535,
125 p., 1990

13. Audit and Reduction Manual for Industrial Emissions and Wastes (Technical Report
Series Nø7), UNEP, ISBN 92 807 1303 5, 127 p, 1991.

14. Storage of Hazardous Materials: A Guide for Safe Warehousing of Hazardous

Materials (Technical Report Series Nø 3), UNEP, ISBN 92 807 12381, 80 p, 1990.

15. The Safe Disposal of Hazardous Wastes: The Special Problems of Developing
Countries, WB/UNEP/WHO, ISBN-O-8213-1144-1, 1989.

16. Treatment and Disposal Methods for Waste Chemicals, UNEP/IRPTC, ISBN 92-807-
1106-7, 1985.

17. Erosion and Sediment Control, EPA-670/2-74-093, Washington, 1976.

18. Planning, Design and Analysis of Tailings Dams, Vick S.G., John Wiley and Sons, NY,
1983.

19. Edits, Tailings and Effluent Management, Chalkley M.E., Conard B.R., Kakshmanam
V.I., Whelland K.C., Pergamon Press, NY, 1989
 17

20. Tailings Management - Problems and Solutions in the Mining Industry, Ritcey G.M.,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1989.

21. APELL - Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at the Local Level - a process
for responding to technological accidents, UNEP IEO, 1988.