Our Comprehensive List of GD&T Symbols.

We conveniently grouped the GD&T Symbols into various categories according to when
each is used in. Be sure to click on the links to get more information on each GD&T
symbol or concept. We will be adding to this list periodically as we continue to build up
our content.

FLAT NESS

Symbol:
Relative to Datum: No
MMC or LMC applicable: Yes – New in 2009
Drawing Callout:

Description:
GD&T Flatness is very straight forward. It is a common symbol that references how flat a surface is regardless of any other datum’s or features.
It comes in useful if a feature is to be defined on a drawing that needs to be uniformly flat without tightening any other dimensions on the
drawing. The flatness tolerance references two parallel planes (parallel to the surface that it is called out on) that define a zone where the entire
reference surface must lie. Flatness tolerance is always less than the dimensional tolerance associated with it.

Tolerance Zone:
Two Sets of Parallel Planes where the entire referenced surface must lie.
 Gauging / Measurement:
Flatness is can be measured using a height gauge run across the surface of the part if only the reference feature is held parallel. You are trying
making sure that any point along the surface does not go above or below the tolerance zone. Modern CMM’s are best for measuring the part as
they can create virtual planes that the true surface profile can be compared to. This is a 3D measurement so points must be measured across the
length and width of the part to ensure the entire surface is in tolerance.Flatness cannot be measured by simply placing the part on a granite slab
and running height gauge over it. This would be measuring parallelism instead as you are fixing the bottom of the part as a datum.

Relation to Other Symbols:

Flatness is the 3D version of surface straightness – Instead of the tolerance zone between two lines; the tolerance zone exists between two planes.

When Used:
When you want to constrain the amount of waviness or variation in a surface without tightening the dimensional tolerance of said surface.
Usually flatness is used to give a surface an even amount of wear or for sealing properly with a mating part. Commonly used on a fixture that
must mate flush with another part without wobbling, but where orientation is not important.

Example:
If you want to make sure that a tabletop is perfectly flat, if you did not have a flatness callout, you would have to constrain the height of the table
very tightly to make sure that the entire surface is straight. With flatness, you can allow the table to be flat without constraining the tabletop
thickness very tight. (You would be rejecting tables that were good thicknesses and normally in spec if using GD&T)

Flatness Example 2 Table without GDT: Keeping the table flat without GD&T
Flatness Example 1 Table with gdt:Table using the GD&T flatness Symbol

Final Notes:
Flatness is not the same as parallelism. Parallelism uses a datum to control a surface while flatness does not. Think of a table with two missing
legs at an angle to the floor. The table top may be within flatness tolerance but would not be parallel to the floor.

STRAIGHTNESS
Special Note:
Straightness actually has two very different functions in GD&T depending how it is called out. In its normal form or Surface Straightness, is a
tolerance that controls the form of a line somewhere on the surface or the feature. Axis Straightness is a tolerance that controls how much curve
is allowed in the part’s axis. This is usually called out with an included call to maximum material condition. Both callouts are very different from
each other!

GD&T Symbol:
Relative to Datum: No
MMC or LMC applicable: Yes – Axis Straightness
Drawing Callout:
Surface Straightness

Axis Straightness with Maximum Material Condition

Note: Surface Straightness is called out on the surface of the part. Axis straightness is called out next to the size

dimension of the axis.

Description:
Surface Straightness:
The standard form of straightness is a 2-Dimensional tolerance that is used to ensure that a part is uniform across a surface or feature.
Straightness can apply to either a flat feature such as the surface of a block, or it can apply to the surface of a cylinder along the axial direction. It
is defined as the variance of the surface within a specified line on that surface.

Axis Straightness:
The form of straightness that controls the central axis of a part is sometimes referred to as Axial Straightness. This tolerance callout specifies how
straight the axis of a part is (usually a cylinder). By definition, axis straightness is actually a 3D tolerance that constrains the center axis of the
part preventing it from bending or twisting too far.

Maximum Material Condition further specifies this by controlling the size of the feature in addition to the allowed “bend” of the
axis. Although a control of the axis, when MMC is called out, the entire part is used to determine if the tolerance has been met with a Go-Gauge.
(See Gauging Section)

GD&T Tolerance Zone:

Surface:
Two Parallel Lines on either side of a surface line where the surface must lie (2D)

Axis:
A cylindrical boundary around the true central axis of the part, where the derived midpoint axis of the part must fit into.
Gauging / Measurement:
Surface:
A part is constrained and a gauge measures along a straight line. In this example the height variance is measured to see how flat or straight the
line is along this surface.

Axis:
To gauge axis straightness effectively, MMC is commonly called out. To ensure that a part or feature is axially straight, a cylinder gauge is used
to determine if the part fits in its total envelope at MMC. This is both a control of the diameter and of the axial straightness. The ID of the
cylinder gauge represents the maximum virtual condition of the part.

Gauge Cylinder ID = Max Ø part (MMC) + Straightness Tolerance

See the 2nd Example below for a how axis straightness is used with a maximum material callout.

Note on Bonus Tolerance: When a functional gauge is used to measure axis straightness, the straightness tolerance can have bonus tolerance
added when the part diameter is smaller than MMC. The goal of a maximum material condition callout is to ensure that when the part is in its
worst tolerances, both straightness and dimensionally, that the part will always fit a given size hole. This means that if you make a part smaller in
OD, you gain bonus tolerance and can actually have it be less straight! Remember – the goal of this callout is functional: The part must fit in a
specific envelope.

Bonus Tolerance = difference between MMC and the actual size of the part.

For more detail on see the sections on Maximum Material Condition.

Relation to Other GD&T Symbols:
Surface:
Straightness can be considered the 2-Dimensional version of Flatness as both are measured without a datum and controls and refine the size
of the feature. While flatness measures the variance across a 2D plane, Straightness only measures the variance on a straight line.

Axis:
Axis Straightness is also closely related to axis parallelism and axis perpendicularity since they both are controlling a center
axis with a cylindrical tolerance zone. When MMC is applied, all of these callouts constrain the central axis to a specific variance amount
ensuring the even at the worst case tolerances, the part will function properly.

When Used:
Surface:
Commonly used for sealing surfaces or surfaces that mate with another part. For example, hydraulic channel cover in a transmission would need
to make steel on steel contact in order to seal off the open hydraulic channels and maintain pressure. With a straightness call out you can specify
which lines on the surfaces are most critical to make sure the pressure is maintained.

Axis / Max Material Condition:

Used mainly on pins or cylindrical surfaces which must be installed with clearance into a bore or hole. The straightness callout ensures that even
in the Maximum material condition; the part will still fit its mating hole or section. Straightness is commonly used to control the
curve of some parts that may be prone to bending during manufacturing.

Surface Straightness Example:

A steel bar is welded in a T pattern to another steel bar. If you want to make sure that the surface of the tube is always uniform, where the weld
occurs, you would need to either greatly tighten the dimensional diameter of the tube, (which would be very costly for such a simple part!), or
callout straightness along the mating surface.

Ensuring straightness without GD&T

Controlling the surface of the tube in the weld area with GD&T straightness callout.
Axial Straightness with MMC Example:
A boss pin on an engine housing is inserted into the chassis of a car to set the alignment before being bolted in. The pin is always in the correct
position, however since it is so critical the dimension of the chassis mating hole is very tight. To ensure that this pin is always a correct fit for the
hole, straightness is called out on the axis with maximum material condition.

Ensuring straightness on the drawing

To quickly check for this a gauge was made to check that the pin always fits into the hole in the maximum material condition. Using the
calculation below the ID of the cylinder gauge can be determined to check for this during production.

Gauge Cylinder ID = MMC + Straightness

Gauge ID = Maximum Material Condition of Part + Straightness Bonus Tolerance

Gauge ID = 10.100 + 0.050

Gauge ID = 10.150 mm

Gauge control for axis/MMC straightness

If the part is close to MMC, it has to be a tighter straightness tolerance than if it was smaller and closer to the least material
condition. As long as the entire part envelope fits within the 10.15 cylinder, the part is in specification. This extra tolerance on the
straightness is the bonus tolerance

Final Notes:

Straightness and Perpendicularity with maximum material condition are most commonly used when controlling the form of a pin – while
straightness controls the curve or bend of the center axis, perpendicularity controls the angle at which the pin is to a datum. Both constrain the
axis of a pin feature, and used gauges to control the entire features boundary.

CYLINDRICITY

GD&T Symbol:
Relative to Datum: No
MMC or LMC applicable: No
Drawing Callout:

Description:
The Cylindricity symbol is used to describe how close an object conforms to a true cylinder. Cylindricity is a 3-Dimensional tolerance that
controls the overall form of a cylindrical feature to ensure that it is round enough and straight enough along its axis. Cylindricity is independent
of any datum feature the tolerance needs to be less than the diameter dimensional tolerance of the part. Cylindricity essentially forms a perfect
cylindrical boundary around the object that the entire 3-Dimensional part must lie in.

GD&T Tolerance Zone:

Two concentric cylinders that run the entire length of the feature – one inner and one outer, in which all the points on the entire surface of the
cylindrical feature must fall into. The entire length of the called out feature would be controlled.
Gauging / Measurement:
Cylindricity is measured by constraining a part on its axis, and rotating it around while a height gauge records the variation of the surface in
several locations along the length. The height gauge must have total variation less than the tolerance amount.

Relation to Other GD&T Symbols:

Cylindricity is a merger of circularity and surface straightness. It is the 3-Dimensional version of circularity along an entire cylinder length.
While circularity only is concerned with individual measurements around the surface in one circle, cylindricity takes into account how straight
the axial portion of the cylinder is. Thinking of stack of coins, cylindricity would measure to make sure that the entire stack is straight up and that
every coin is round. Circularity would only be measurements of the roundness of the individual coins.

When Used:
Cylindricity is a fairly common callout for shafts, pins and any critical cylindrical element. When a part needs to be both round and straight along
its axis, such as a sliding shaft, or a dynamic locating pin, cylindricity is usually called out. You will see this GD&T symbol very often in
automotive drawings and mechanical systems.

Example:
If you had a bushing that was to be pressed into a housing, the bushing would take the form of the housing bore when inserted. To ensure that the
bushing maintains its round shape, and wears evenly along its surface, the housing bore needs to be very cylindrical. To do this without GD&T
you would need very tight dimensions on the diameter of the bore, which may be very hard to control when being machined (and expensive)

Cylindricity example 1: Controlling cylindricity without GD&T Symbol

Controlling the circularity and the straightness of the bore with cylindricity.
This GD&T control allows the diameter tolerances of the part to be opened up much larger, and better controls the entire length of the bore. You
can now accept a much broader range of hole sizes as long as the cylindricity is met.

Final Notes:
Statistical Tolerances:
Because cylindricity specifies the form of the surface, it must be considered when calculating a statistical tolerance stack. For example if you
have a part with a diameter and cylindricity callout, you must input both into your statistical stack since the cylindricity can contribute to a large
part envelope than just the diameter tolerance alone. There are different theories on doing this and how to implement it; however it can make a
slight impact on skewing the results higher. Normal tolerance stacks do not require this since due to the envelope principal; the maximum radial
envelop cannot exceed your maximum diameter tolerance due to rule #1 of GD&T.

PERPENDICULARITY
Special Note:

Perpendicularity in GD&T can mean two very different things depending which reference feature is called out. The normal form or Surface
Perpendicularity is a tolerance that controls Perpendicularity between two 90° surfaces, or features. Surface Perpendicularity is controlled with
two parallel planes acting as its tolerance zone. Axis Perpendicularity is a tolerance that controls how perpendicular a specific axis needs to be
to a datum. Axis Perpendicularity is controlled by a cylinder around a theoretical perfectly parallel axis. Pay close attention if a hole or pin is
referenced since axis perpendicularity is commonly called out on these features.

GD&T Symbol:
Relative to Datum: Yes
MMC or LMC applicable: Yes
GD&T Drawing Callout:
Surface Perpendicularity:
Axis Perpendicularity:

Description:
Surface:
Perpendicularity is a fairly common symbol that requires the referenced surface or line to be perpendicular or 90° from a datum surface
or line. Perpendicularity can reference a 2D line, but more commonly it describes the orientation of one surface plane perpendicular to another
datum plane. The tolerance of the perpendicularity callout indirectly controls the 90° angle between the parts by controlling the location where
the surfaces have to lie. See the tolerance zone below for more details.

Note: Perpendicularity does not control the angle of the referenced feature –the tolerance is in distance units. (mm/in)

Axis:
Axis control can also be called out for Perpendicularity and is one of the more common forms of axes call outs. When it is referenced for a
circular feature, the feature control frame will contain the diameter (Ø) symbol. Axis Perpendicularity can be applied to a positive feature
(pin/boss) or to a negative feature (a hole). When Perpendicularity is referenced for axial control of a feature, the symbol now specifies a
cylindrical boundary where the axis of the referenced feature must lie. This cylindrical boundary is formed by taking a line that is directly
perpendicular to the datum feature. When this version of Perpendicularity is called out it is to be used with maximum material
condition to enable easy gauging of the part. See example 2 below for how these particular parts are gauged.

GD&T Tolerance Zone:

Surface:
Two parallel planes or lines which are oriented perpendicular to the datum feature or surface. The planes are held perpendicular to the datum, but
only ensure that the entire feature falls into the tolerance zone.

Remember: Perpendicularity does not directly control the angle of the referenced surface; it controls the envelope (like flatness) where
the surface needs to be.
Axis:

A cylinder surrounding a referenced theoretical axis which is directly perpendicular to the datum feature. The tolerance zone is the diameter of
this symbol in which the central axis of the measured feature must lie.

Gauging / Measurement:
Surface:
Perpendicularity is measured using a height gauge, similar to flatness, however the gauge (or part) is locked to a 90° datum to measure how
perpendicular the surface is. The entire surface has to be measured if it is a flat feature.
Axis:

To ensure that a part or feature is axially perpendicular, Maximum material condition is most often called out on axis perpendicularity to allow
easy measurement with a gauge. This allows it to be designed for either a negative (hole) or positive (pin) feature and can take into account a
bonus tolerance.*

Gauge size for an internal feature (like a hole):

Gauge Ø (pin gauge)= Min Ø of hole (MMC) – Perpendicularity Tolerance

Gauge size for an external feature (like a pin):

Gauge Ø (hole gauge) = Max Ø of pin (MMC) + Perpendicularity Tolerance

See Example #2 below for a good example Axis Perpendicularity using MMC

*Note on Bonus Tolerance:

When a functional gauge is used for Perpendicularity, any difference the actual feature size is from the maximum material condition would be a
bonus tolerance. The goal of a maximum material condition callout is to ensure that when the part is in its worst tolerances, the orientation and
size of the hole/pin will always assemble together. This means that if you make a pin smaller, you make more bonus tolerance for yourself. This
bonus can be added to the GD&T tolerance and would widen the perpendicularity tolerance.

Bonus Tolerance = Difference between MMC & Actual condition (See Example 2 Below)

Confused yet? No worries! For more detail on see the sections on Maximum Material Condition.

Relation to Other GD&T Symbols:

Surface:
Perpendicularity is a specific form of Angularity at 90°. All of the orientation symbols (Angularity, Parallelism, and Perpendicularity)
all call out the particular feature envelope referenced to a datum.

The Perpendicular Symbol is also closely related to flatness when referenced/measured surface is a surface plane. When you call out
Perpendicularity, flatness is implied (you are measuring a surface variation between two parallel planes = Flatness) Perpendicularity is always
measured with respect to a datum, where flatness is not.
Axis:
Perpendicularity is closely related to all the other orientation GD&T symbols when called on an axis. The tolerance zone now refers to the
uniformity and cylindrical envelope of a central axis. Perpendicularity and Parallelism can be called out on holes and cylindrical pins, often with
MMC added.

When Used:
Surface:
Whenever two surfaces needing a constant 90° angle, Perpendicularity is effective. Flange bearings and critical square edges usually reference it.
Perpendicularity is also commonly called out on the corners of cylinders where the flat bottom must be perpendicular with the curved sides.

Axis:
Perpendicularity is very commonly called out on the center axis of a hole. Almost always, your hole needs to be perpendicular to the surface it is
drilled into. When this is the case, it is called out alongside MMC to ensure that if a pin or bolt needs to be inserted into this hole, the part can
enter the whole perpendicular at and always fit in. See example 2 for this explanation.

Surface Perpendicularity Example:

The edge of a stopping block for a rail must form a 90° to ensure proper mating contact takes place. The base of the block is will be our datum
and the face where the stopping block makes contact is our referenced surface. To ensure that this face is always perpendicular and flat to make
good contact, you would need to both tightly control the angle and the dimensional width of the part.

Ensuring perpendicular/flat surfaces without GD&T symbol

With perpendicularity you can open up the width dimension and control the face’s angle containing the part very tightly. Your
tolerance zone remains the same, but your part is now easer to control and fabricate.

Controlling the perpendicularity with GD&T symbol.

Axis Perpendicularity Example with MMC:
If you have a critical hole feature that needs to remain parallel to the surface that is formed into, perpendicularity can be called out to ensure that
the hole is straight. In this example a bolt hole is specified to remain perpendicular to its surface.

Without an MMC callout you would need to control just the center axis of the hole and measure for it to ensure it is at 90° to the bottom surface.
However when MMC is called out on the print, you are controlling both the size and the orientation of the hole. You now can check the both
tolerances using a functional gauge with the following dimensions:

Formula for a perpendicularity functional gauge:

Gauge Ø (pin gauge) = Min hole Ø – Perpendicularity Tolerance

Gauge Ø = 9.9 – 0.2 = 9.7

Hole Ø + Hole Perpendicularity > 9.7 (Pin Ø) to be in spec.

Due to the Max Material Condition callout, if you have a hole that is larger than the MMC of 9.9 you will have bonus tolerance that can be added
on to your perpendicularity. (According to print Hole Ø cannot be above 10.1 though)

In the example below – The hole is at the least material condition (largest hole size) with the hole at the LMC, your bonus tolerance that can be
added to the perpendicularity is calculated as follows:

Bonus Tolerance = Actual Part Size – Max Material Condition

Bonus Tolerance = 10.1 – 9.9 = 0.2

Adding this bonus tolerance to your perpendicularity means your “gauged” perpendicularity tolerance can go up to 0.4 when the part
is at its largest diameter.
Final Notes:
Very Common:
Perpendicularity is very common in its surface and axis form. You will see this commonly on many mechanical engineering drawings.

Features of Size:
Perpendicularity will most likely have a MMC or LMC callout if gauge control is used in a production environment. It allows both size and
orientation to be measured quickly on the line, as opposed to having to measure perpendicularity with a CMM.

Axis Controls:
Straightness, Axis Angularity, Axis Parallelism, True Position, and Axis Perpendicularity can all be called out to control a center
axis. Usually when this is a case in a production environment, MMC is also called out so that a functional gauge can be used. However the only
callouts with this case that you would see commonly are perpendicularity and straightness.

PARALLELISM
Special Note:
Parallelism actually has two different functions in GD&T depending which reference feature is called out. The normal form or Surface
Parallelism is a tolerance that controls parallelism between two surfaces or features. The surface form is controlled similar to flatness with two
parallel planes acting as its tolerance zone. Axis Parallelism is a tolerance that controls how parallel a specific parts central axis needs to be to a
datum plane or axis. The axis form is controlled by a cylinder around a theoretical perfectly parallel axis. Parallelism is most commonly called
out as surface parallelism. However, be sure to pay attention if it is referencing a central axis because it is different! We will only discuss
surface parallelism on this page but be sure to check out our page on Perpendicularity to see how an axis is controlled with GD&T.

GD&T Symbol:
Relative to Datum: Yes
MMC or LMC applicable: Yes
GD&T Drawing Callout:
Description:
Parallelism is a fairly common symbol that describes a parallel orientation of one referenced feature to a datum surface or line. It can reference a
2D line referenced to another element, but more commonly it relates the orientation of one surface plane parallel to another datum plane in a 3-
Dimensional tolerance zone. The tolerance indirectly controls the 0° angle between the parts by controlling where the surface can lie based on the
datum. See the tolerance zone below for more details.

Note: Parallelism does not control the angle of the referenced feature, but only creates an envelope in which the feature must lie.

It is important to determine what the reference feature is (surface or axis) and then what is acting as the datum (surface or axis) to determine how
the parallelism is to be controlled.

GD&T Tolerance Zone:

Two parallel planes or lines which are oriented parallel to the datum feature or surface. All points that are on the referenced feature must in the
tolerance zone.

Remember: Parallelism does not directly control the angle of the referenced surface; it controls the envelope (like flatness) where the
surface needs to be. The goal is to ensure all points are within a specified tolerance distance away from their corresponding datum points.

Gauging / Measurement:
Parallelism is quite simple to measure. Like flatness, a gauge is run across the reference surface or feature. However unlike flatness, the part is
constrained against a granite block or flat plane that acts as the datum surface where it is measured.

Relation to Other GD&T Symbols:

Surface Parallelism
Parallelism is a specific form ofangularity only at 0°/180° instead of a called out angle. All the profiles of orientation and are used in the
exact same way. All of the orientation symbols (angularity, perpendicularity, and parallelism) all call out the particular feature envelope
referenced to a datum.

The Parallel Symbol is also closely related to flatness when referenced/measured surface is flat. When you call out parallelism, flatness is
implied (you are measuring a surface variation between two parallel planes = flatness) However the biggest difference is parallelism is measured
with respect to a datum, ensuring both the datum and reference feature are always parallel.

When Used:
Whenever two surfaces or features need to work in sync with each other and constant distance must be maintained, parallelism is effective.
Whenever you have a part that must always fit nicely between two planes that need to reference each other, it comes in handy. Even though
surface parallelism seems to ensure that a flat surface is mating with another flat surface, it can also be applied to two sides of a hole or cylinder
to avoid a taper. Any part with two critical flat surfaces such as gears, would call out parallelism.

Parallelism Example:
A gear has to maintain constant axial load on both faces. To ensure even contact one side of the gear is held parallel to the other side. To do this
without parallelism, the gear width would have to be tightly controlled, which could be very difficult to do.

Ensuring even surfaces without GD&T

With parallelism you can open up the dimension of the gear and control the faces without rejecting good gears.

Controlling two faces with GD&T parallelism callout.

Final Notes:
Combination of Orientation and Form:
Parallelism is very common in its surface form. When dealing with any flat surfaces, flatness may be called out, but parallelism is usually more
critical, since the relation of surfaces in an assembly is more important.
Max Material Condition with Axis:
Straightness, Axis Angularity, Axis Parallelism and Axis Perpendicularity can all be called out and controlled with a gauge in maximum
material condition. However only perpendicularity and straightness are used commonly. Please see our page on Maximum Material
Condition for more information.

ANGULARITY

GD&T Symbol:
Relative to Datum: Yes
MMC or LMC applicable: Yes (Uncommon)
Drawing Callout:

Description:
Angularity is the symbol that describes the specific orientation of one feature to another at a referenced angle. It can reference a 2D line
referenced to another 2D element, but more commonly it relates the orientation of one surface plane relative to another datum plane in a 3-
Dimensional tolerance zone. The tolerance does not directly control the angle variation and should not be confused with an angular
dimension tolerance such as ± 5°. In fact the angle for now becomes a Basic Dimension, since it is controlled by your geometric tolerance.
The tolerance indirectly controls the angle by controlling where the surface can lie based on the datum. See the tolerance zone below for more
details.

Maximum material condition or axis control can also be called out for angularity although the use in design and fabrication is very uncommon
since gauging a hole or pin at an angle is difficult. When angularity is called out on an axis, the tolerance zone now becomes a cylinder around
the referenced axis at an angle to the datum. The page on Perpendicularity goes into this type of reference in further detail since it is more
common with perpendicularity.

GD&T Tolerance Zone:

Two parallel planes or lines which are oriented at the specified angle in relation to a datum. All points on the referenced surface must fall into this
tolerance zone.Angularity does not directly control the angle of the referenced surface; it controls the envelope (like flatness) that the entire surface can lie
Gauging / Measurement:
Angularity is measured by constraining a part, usually with a sine bar, tilted to the reference angle, so that the reference surface is now parallel to
the granite slab. By setting the part at an angle the flatness can now be measured across the now horizontal reference surface. The entire variation
must not fall outside the tolerance zone.

Relation to Other GD&T Symbols:

Perpendicularity and Parallelism are actually refined forms of Angularity. Perpendicularity describes angularity at 90° and parallelism describes it
at 0°. All of these are profiles of orientation and are used in the exact same way. They also can be used with control of an axis under maximum
material condition, although perpendicularity is usually the only one you will ever see with this callout.

Orientation GD&T Symbols are also closely related to flatness when the surfaces are is flat planes. When you call out any of the orientation
symbols, flatness is implied (you are measuring a surface variation between two parallel planes = Flatness) However the biggest difference is that
orientation callouts are measured with respect to a datum, where flatness is not.
When Used:
Angularity helps control any feature that is at an angle to another datum surface. Anytime you have a critical feature which mates with other part
at an angle, angularity can be used to help control the angle and flatness of the mating surfaces. Many stamped parts that have bent features use
angularity to ensure that the 3D surface formed by the stamping operation that is formed always is controlled and encased in a tolerance zone.

Example:
If you have a stamped part that had to hook into another part at an angle of 30 degrees, you would want to call out angularity on the “bent”
feature to ensure that it is always at its proper orientation. If you did not use angularity you would have to both tighten the angle tolerance of the
part and the thickness tolerance of the referenced surface.

Angularity example 1: Tightening the angle and/or the thickness are required if angularity is not called out.

Angularity example 2: A simple call to angularity now ensures that the stamped surface now has both proper angle and flatness. The angle must
be a basic dimension, but now allows your part thickness to open up more. (Note this drawing is unconstrained and would need additional size
dimensions to be accurate.)

Remember – You are not controlling the angle with angularity – you are controlling the surface to fall within the specified dimensional
tolerance in millimeters!

Final Notes to Remember:

Datum Relationship:
Since all of the orientation symbols (Angularity, Perpendicularity, and Parallelism) are referenced to a datum – essentially the tolerance is not
measuring a specific surface or feature on its own. You are measuring the relationship of one feature or surface with respect to another feature. If
one feature is out – both surfaces could be incorrect.
Maximum Material Condition:
Maximum material condition can also be used in a similar method of perpendicularity. Although MMC is usually for pins or holes which need to
be perpendicular to a reference surface, so it is not commonly used on angularity. See Perpendicularity for more details about Gauging and
Calling out MMC on an orientation symbol.

Dimensional Angularity:
As stated before: 2-Dimensional references can also be used with angularity to ensure that an angle is met around a round or complex feature. If
you wanted to specify the angle of a cone for example, the angularity would apply to each line element along that cone referenced to the bottom
of the cone.

COCENTRICITY

GD&T Symbol:
Relative to Datum: Yes
MMC or LMC applicable: No
Drawing Callout:
Description:
Concentricity, sometimes called coaxially, is a tolerance that controls the central axis of the referenced feature, to a datum axis. The axes for the
datum and referenced feature are derived from the median points of the part or feature. Concentricity is a very complex feature because it relies
on measurements from a derived axis as opposed tangible surface or feature.

GD&T Tolerance Zone:

Concentricity is a 3-Dimensional cylindrical tolerance zone that is defined by a datum axis where all the derived median points of a referenced
circular feature must fall into. the median points of the reference surface cross sections form the theoretical axis that must be in this tolerance
zone.

Gauging / Measurement:
Concentricity is considered one of the most difficult GD&T symbols to measure for due to its difficulty in establishing the mid points of the
feature. First you must establish a datum axis which to measure, Once the datum axis is established you must now take measure many a series of
cross sections (however many is realistic). Once the cross sections are taken and the exact plot of the surface is obtained, the median points of
these cross sections must be determined. Then these series of points must be plotted to see if they fall within the cylindrical tolerance zone. This
can only be done on a CMM or other computer measurement device and is quite time consuming.
Relation to Other GD&T Symbols:
Concentricity is considered the circular form of GD&T symmetry. While symmetry measured the true midpoint plane of a feature to a datum
plane or axis, concentricity measures the derived midpoint axis to a datum axis. Both are notoriously difficult to measure.

Runout is a combination of concentricity and circularity.

Runout = Circularity + Concentricity

If a part is perfectly round, the runout will equal the concentricity.

Concentricity is also a 3D form of 2-Dimensional True Position when applied to a circular feature. While true position is usually controlled to a
fixed point in space that forms from coordinate measurements from a datum, concentricity is controlled to the axis derived from a all the median
points of a datum surface or feature.

When Used:
Due to its complex nature, Concentricity is usually reserved for parts that require a high degree of precision to function properly. Transmission
gears, which need to always be coaxial to avoid oscillations and wear, may require concentricity to ensure all the axes line up correctly. Equal
mass or inertial concerns are one of the leading causes for the concentricity callout. Any application where the median points of a feature need to
be controlled relative to a datum would require cylindricity. However in many cases, the use of runout or true position can replace the need for
concentricity and be much easier to measure for.

Example:
An intermediate shaft in a transmission is composed of two different diameter sections which are coaxial. Datum A is the drive side and relatively
fixed with bearings to the housing, The referenced surface B is desired to be concentric with Datum A to avoid oscillations at high speed.

Concentricity would require side B to be measured in all dimensions several times to obtain a full dimensional scan of the surface of
the reference feature. This scan must then be analyzed to determine the central axis points at each location along the cylinder,
forming the true part axis. The tolerance zone would then need to be established by measuring Datum A to determine its axis. Both
the datum tolerance zone and the measured central points from the reference surface would be compared. The measured central
axis points would all need to fall into the cylindrical tolerance zone surrounding datum A. This would all be done with a CMM and
measurement software and required special measurement programs to compare the axes.
In this example the measured axis falls within the cylindrical tolerance zone surrounding datum axis A, ensuring a smooth, near-perfect rotational
system.

Final Notes to Remember:

Avoid Concentricity!
You will always hear from most machinists, measurement techs and designers to avoid concentricity like the plague. Unless it is absolutely
necessary to control the distribution of mass around a part’s median points you should look to other more applicable GD&T symbols. A
good replacement for concentricity is runout since it relates the surface of a feature to a datum axis, while concentricity relates the derived axis to
said datum. You can physically touch and measure the surface of the part to obtain a runout measurement. Controlling runout will also control the
concentricity, albeit at a lesser extent than when concentricity is applied on its own. (Runout tolerance > Concentricity because Runout =
Concentricity + Circularity)

Bullets
Often you will see concentricity gauges that are applied to homemade bullet casings. These gauges however do not measure concentricity by
actually measure runout. However, since runout is just a combination of circularity and concentricity, you can technically say that you are
measuring the concentricity of the bullet.

SYMMETRY

GD&T Symbol:
Relative to Datum: Yes
MMC or LMC applicable: No
Drawing Callout:

Description:
GD&T Symmetry is a 3-Dimensional tolerance that is used to ensure that two features on a part are uniform across a datum plane. An established
“true” central plane is established from the datum and for the symmetry to be in tolerance, the median distance between the every point on the
two surface features need to fall near that central plane. Each set of points on the reference features would have a midpoint that is right between
the two. If you take all the midpoints of the entire surface, this must lie within the tolerance zone to be in specification. Symmetry is not a very
common GD&T callout since it has very limited functional uses (centering location is done with Position) and the verification and measurement
of symmetry can be difficult (See: Final Notes).

GD&T Tolerance Zone:

Parallel Planes on equal sides of a central datum plane. The median points of the symmetrical surfaces must all lie within this zone.
Gauging / Measurement:
As stated before, symmetry is very difficult to measure. Due its tolerance zone being constrained to a virtual plane, you cannot have a gauge to
properly measure this feature quickly. Usually to measure symmetry, a CMM is setup to calculate the theoretical midpoint datum plane, measure
the surfaces of both required surfaces, and then determine where the midpoints lie in reference to the datum plane. This is a complex and
sometimes inaccurate method for determining if a part is symmetrical.

Relation to Other GD&T Symbols:

Symmetry is the non-circular version of concentricity. While concentricity really is a focus of symmetry around a datum axis, The Symmetry
Symbol is a focus on symmetry over a datum plane. Both symbols focus on the theoretical center datum being constrained within a specific limit
to ensure that the entire structure is uniform.

When Used:
When you want to make sure that the center plane of two symmetric features is always held exactly center AND has even form along the surface
of the part. This symbol only has specific uses for mass balance and form distribution. However in most cases it is better to avoid using since this
is a very difficult callout to measure and can easily be replaced with a Position tolerance.
 Example:
If you had a rotating U-Joint a groove that needed to always have even balancing, you would need to make sure that the mating part is always
located to fall into the center of the groove and that the surface form is properly balanced.. Instead of widening the groove causing the
conncetion to be loose, you could constrain it with symmetry.

Symmetry Example 1: Call out symmetry to ensure the groove is centered on the median plane of the latch block.

The part would then need to be measured to ensure that all the median points of the sides of the latch block are symmetrical about the central axis.
The part would have to be measured in the following way:

1. Measure the width and location of both sides of the block reference by datum A (40mm) and determine where the exact median plane is
located to establish our tolerance zone.
2. Side 1 and Side 2 of the part are scanned for their actual profiles
3. Using a program, the median points of the Side 1 and Side 2 scans are laid over the virtual tolerance zone planes and determined if they are in
tolerance.a

Final Notes:
Symmetry should be avoided in most cases due to its specific functional requirements andmeasurement difficulty . With flatness,
parallelism and true position, you can locate the exact same constraints on the part, albeit with more callouts and measurements required.
However since true position can be measured with a gauge (if MMC is used), and flatness is automatically controlled by the size dimension &
directly measured off the surfaces, these can be controlled within a process and do not require timely CMM measurements.