Manufacturing Processes

1. ASSEMBLY OPERATIONS:
An assembly operation joins two or more components to create a new entity,
called an assembly, subassembly, or some other term that refers to the joining processes.

1.1 PERMANENT JOINING PROCESSES:

Permanent joining processes are the processes that provide the
permanent joint and after joining they cannot be easily separated. They include welding,
brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding.

1.1.1 WELDING:
Welding is a materials joining process in which two or more parts are coalesced at their
contacting surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure. Many welding processes
are accomplished by heat alone, with no pressure applied; others by a combination of heat and
pressure; and still others by pressure alone, with no external heat supplied. In some welding
processes a filler material is added to facilitate coalescence. The assemblage of parts that are
joined by welding is called a weldment. Welding is most commonly associated with metal parts.

Welding Types
1.1.1.1 FUSION WELDING:
Fusion-welding processes use heat to melt the base metals. In
many fusion welding operations, a filler metal is added to the molten pool to facilitate the
process and provide bulk and strength to the welded joint. A fusion-welding operation in which
no filler metal is added is referred to as an autogenous weld. Types of fusion welding are:

ARC WELDING (AW):

Arc welding refers to a group of welding processes in which heating of the
metals is accomplished by an electric arc. Some arc welding operations also apply pressure
during the process and most utilize a filler metal.
 RESISTANCE WELDING (RW):
Resistance welding achieves coalescence using heat from electrical
resistance to the flow of a current passing between the faying surfaces of two parts held
together under pressure.

OXYFUEL GAS WELDING (OFW):

These joining processes use an oxyfuel gas, such as a mixture of
oxygen and acetylene, to produce a hot flame for melting the base metal and filler metal, if one
is used.
Electron beam welding and Laser beam welding also fall in category of fusion welding.

1.1.1.2 SOLID STATE WELDING:

Solid-state welding refers to joining processes in which
coalescence results from application of pressure alone or a combination of heat and pressure.
If heat is used, the temperature in the process is below the melting point of the metals being
welded. No filler metal is utilized. Representative welding processes in this group include:

DIFFUSION WELDING (DFW):

Two surfaces are held together under pressure at an elevated
temperature and the parts coalesce by solid-state diffusion.

FRICTION WELDING (FRW):

Coalescence is achieved by the heat of friction between two surfaces.

ULTRASONIC WELDING (USW):

Moderate pressure is applied between the two parts and an
oscillating motion at ultrasonic frequencies is used in a direction parallel to the contacting
surfaces. The combination of normal and vibratory forces results in shear stresses that remove
surface films and achieve atomic bonding of surfaces.
 Experiments Conducted in Lab
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING:
A group of fusion-welding processes that uses a combination of heat
and pressure to accomplish coalescence, the heat being generated by electrical resistance to
current flow at the junction to be welded.

COMPONENTS FOR WELDING:

Work parts (metal sheets), Two opposing electrodes, a mean of
applying pressure to squeeze parts between electrodes, AC power supply for current source

PROCEDURE:
The complete labeled diagram of the process is given as:

This process is used to join the metal sheets of thickness 3mm or less and resulting welding
nugget is of 5 to 10mm in diameter with the heat affected zone extending slightly beyond the
nugget. The size of weld nugget also depends on the size of electrodes. The electrodes are of
copper based alloys, refractory metal composition such as copper and tungsten combination
and are wear resistant, water cooling passage ways are made in these electrodes to increase
their life.
The Resistance spot welding done in lab is by rocker arm spot welding machine as:

Spot welding is typically used when welding particular types of sheet metal, welded wire mesh
or wire mesh. Thicker stock is more difficult to spot weld because the heat flows into the
surrounding metal more easily. Spot welding can be easily identified on many sheet metal
goods, such as metal buckets. Aluminum alloys can be spot welded, but their much higher
thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity requires higher welding currents. This requires
larger, more powerful, and more expensive welding transformers. Perhaps the most common
application of spot welding is in the automobile manufacturing industry, where it is used almost
universally to weld the sheet metal to form a car. Spot welders can also be completely
automated, and many of the industrial robots found on assembly lines are spot welders (the
other major use for robots being painting)
Another application is spot welding straps to nickel–cadmium or nickel–metal hydride cells to
make batteries. The cells are joined by spot welding thin nickel straps to the battery terminals.
Spot welding can keep the battery from getting too hot, as might happen if conventional
soldering were done.

SAFETY MEASURES:
Another application is spot welding straps to nickel–cadmium or nickel–metal hydride cells to
make batteries. The cells are joined by spot welding thin nickel straps to the battery terminals.
Spot welding can keep the battery from getting too hot, as might happen if conventional
soldering were done.
ARC WELDING:
Arc welding (AW) is a fusion-welding process in which coalescence of the metals is achieved
by the heat of an electric arc between an electrode and the work.

COMPONENTS FOR WELDING:

Working body, AC or DC power source, Electrode with an holder,
Filler metal, Working cables and clamps.
The descriptive diagram of arc welding is given as:

PROCEDURE:
The working body is brought together and mating ends are cleaned and placed
with a very small distance between them. The apparatus is setup as shown in figure the non-
consumable electrode is used along with filler metal. The electrode is connected to source
and just slightly touch the surface it creates the arc and filler metal melts and start to deposit
on matting surfaces and flux coated start producing the shielding gas. In this way the
complete welding is done.

THEORY:
An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a gap in a circuit. It is sustained
by the presence of a thermally ionized column of gas (called a plasma) through which current
flows. To initiate the arc in an AW process, the electrode is brought into contact with the work
and then quickly separated from it by a short distance. The electric energy from the arc thus
formed produces temperatures of 5500 C (10,000F) or higher, sufficiently hot to melt any metal.
A pool of molten metal, consisting of base metal(s) and filler metal (if one is used) is formed
near the tip of the electrode. In most arc welding processes, filler metal is added during the
operation to increase the volume and strength of the weld joint. As the electrode is moved
along the joint, the molten weld pool solidifies in its wake. The direction of current used in arc
welding also plays an important role in welding. Consumable electrode processes such as
shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use direct current, but the
electrode can be charged either positively or negatively.

Arc welding is usually performed manually. Common applications include construction,

pipelines, machinery structures, shipbuilding, job shop fabrication, and repair work. It is
preferred over oxyfuel welding for thicker sections—above 5 mm (3/16 in)—because of its
higher power density. The equipment is portable and low cost,

SAFETY ISSUES:
Welding can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice without the proper precautions:
Eye Damage: Exposure to the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye in
which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes.
Welding goggles and helmets with dark face plates—much darker than those in sunglasses or
oxy-fuel goggles—are worn to prevent this exposure
Inhaled matter: Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter.
Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce smoke
containing particles of various types of oxides. The size of the particles in question tends to
influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger.
Interference with pace makers: Certain welding machines which use a high frequency
alternating current component have been found to affect pacemaker operation when within 2
meters of the power unit and 1 meter of the weld site.
OXYFUEL WELDING:
Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) is the term used to describe the group of FW
operations that burn various fuels mixed with oxygen to perform welding. The OFW processes
employ several types of gases, which is the primary distinction among the members of this
group. Oxyfuelgasisalsocommonlyusedincuttingtorchestocutandseparatemetalplates. The
most important OFW process is oxyacetylene welding.

COMPONENTS FOR WELDING:

Working body, filler metal, welding torch, Fuel (hydrogen gas) and
Oxygen gas.
The schematic diagram of oxyhydrogen welding is as:

PROCEDURE:
The surfaces that are being welded are brought together and then hydrogen is
supplied from one separated cylinder and oxygen is supplied from other one to weld torch
where the combustion of hydrogen is taken place and heat us generated that is sufficient to
melt the base metal and to provide coalescence. The filler metal is used to provide the bulk and
strength to joint. In this way the whole procedure is completed.

THEORY:
Oxyhydrogen is a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) gases. This gaseous
mixture is used for torches to process refractory materials and was the first gaseous mixture
used for welding. Theoretically, a ratio of 2:1 hydrogen to oxygen is enough to achieve
maximum efficiency; in practice a ratio 4:1 or 5:1 is needed to avoid an oxidizing flame.
When ignited, the gas mixture converts to water vapor and releases energy, which sustains the
reaction: 241.8 kJ of energy (LHV) for every mole of H2 burned. The amount of heat energy
released is independent of the mode of combustion, but the temperature of the flame
variesThe maximum temperature of about 2,800 °C (5,100 °F) is achieved with an exact
stoichiometric mixture, about 700 °C (1,300 °F) hotter than a hydrogen flame in air. When either
of the gases are mixed in excess of this ratio, or when mixed with an inert gas like nitrogen, the
heat must spread throughout a greater quantity of matter and the temperature will be lower

SAFETY ISSUES:
Following measures should be taken during operation:
 Work under the supervision of trained and qualified personnel when appropriate. •
Always use proper PPE (shield, goggles, gloves, clothing, etc.) • Always work in a well
ventilated area. • Keep regulators free of oil, grease and other flammable substances. •
Use the proper regulator for each specific gas. • Always use an approved friction striker,
never use matches or a cigarette lighter. • Always use an approved friction striker, never
use matches or a cigarette lighter. Purge the lines before and after usage. • Keep
cylinders away from fire. • Extinguish the torch flame by closing the acetylene valve first
and then the oxygen.
 Keep collars, sleeves and pockets buttoned
 Ventilate welding and cutting work areas adequately
 Maintain sufficient air flow to prevent accumulation of explosive or toxic concentrations
of gases.
 Keep all welding and cutting apparatus clean and free of grease, oil, and other flammable
substances.
 Proper Eye protection should be granted
METAL INERT GAS WELDING(MIG):
MIG is a welding process in which an electric arc forms
between a consumable wire electrode and the work piece metal(s), which heats the work
piece metal(s), causing them to melt and join.

COMPONENTS FOR WELDING:

Welding gun, Non-consumable electrode, wires spool, welding
power supply, shielding gas supply and working parts.
The schematic diagram of MIG is as:

PROCEDURE:
The two matting surfaces are brought together and apparatus is set as shown in
figure. A consumable electrode in shape of metal wire is continuously supplied from spool along
with the shielding gas is supplied separately and current source is joined also. In this way the
consumable wire electrode get consumed and start depositing in matting surface. As MIG is for
aluminum the inert gases like Argon and Helium were used.

THEORY:
In metal inert gas welding the electrodes that are consumable are used and in form
of wires having diameters ranging from0.8mm to 6.5mm but this size depends on thickness and
size of joining metals. The commercially available electrodes contain deoxidizing metals such as
silicon, magnesium, titanium and aluminum in small percentages to avoid the oxygen porosity.
The alternating as well as direct current sources are used. The power source used for MIG
welding is called a “constant voltage power supply”. In MIG welding the voltage is what is
controlled and adjusted. When comparing MIG welding to Arc or TIG welding, MIG welding
machines use voltage settings to set the machine. TIG and Arc welding machines use amperage
to set the machine or a “constant amperage power supply”. MIG welding requires a shielding
gas to be used. As the name states “Metal Inert Gas Welding” there is no shielding on the
electrode or filler wire. MIG welding would not be possible without shielding gas. The way the
shielding gas works is it is feed through the MIG gun and it literally suffocates the weld area
from any air. This provides an air free zone where the welding arc and filler wire can do their
work to get the joint welded. MIG welding typically three types of gas for shielding Helium,
Argon and carbon dioxide.

SAFETY MEASURES:
Metal inert gas welding can be dangerous if proper precautions are not taken. Since MIG
employs an electric arc, welders wear protective clothing, including heavy leather gloves and
protective long sleeve jackets, to avoid exposure to extreme heat and flames. Conventional
welding helmets contain dark face plates to prevent this exposure. Newer helmet designs
feature a liquid crystal-type face plate that self-darken upon exposure to high amounts of UV
light. Transparent welding curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, are often used to
shield nearby workers and bystanders from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc.
Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. MIG produces
smoke containing particles of various types of oxides, and the size of the particles in question
tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger.
Proper ventilation is required.