CASTING OPERATION

CASTING is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold
where it solidifies in shape of mold cavity.
The term Casting is also applied to part made from casting, It is one of the oldest
shaping process since 6000.The principle of casting is only to melt the metal by
heating it, pour it into mold cavity and allow it to solidify by cooling. Casting processes
are widely used to produce metal parts in a very economical way, and to obtain
complicated shapes with little or no machining. The manufacture of a part involves
several steps, the first of which is the design of the part itself, and the specification of
the material to be used. This information is passed to the methods engineer, who will
choose the casting process, and then design the rigging system necessary to get the
molten metal into all regions of the part so as to produce a sound casting. Two major
considerations in the casting design are the quality of the final product and the yield
of the casting, both of which heavily depend upon the rigging system used.

1. ORIGIN OF CASTING:
Casting of metals can be tracked back to around 4000 B.C. For
first time discovery of copper gives rise to any shaping process i.e. casting. It was
realized that shapes much more intricate could be formed by casting rather than by
hammering. By casting most of the things were implemented, fashioned and oriented.
For instance, the gold jewelry was made more beautiful and more valuable. Alloys
were first used for casting when it was discovered that mixture of copper and tin
(Alloy) yielded much better casting then copper alone. Another important product
associated with casting is canon that was made in 1313 and composed of bronze. But
the parts that were made by casting were not accurate.

2. BASICS OF CASTING:
Every process has some basics to perform it, that help
one to perform it efficiently and accurately. The basics of casting is:
 COPE AND DRAG are the upper and lower half part of mold respectively.
 FLASK is the box where mold made in cope and drag is kept. It is also divided
into two halves, by parting
Line, one by cope and one by drag.
 PATTERN has shape of part that is to be casted and mold cavity is formed by
means of it.it is made of wood, plastic or other material etc. Pattern is usually
made oversized to allow for shrinkage of metals as they solidifies
 CORE is a form placed inside mold cavity to define the interior geometry of the
part. In sand castings cores are made of sand while other materials can be used
such as metals, plastics and ceramics.
 GATTING SYSTEM is the channel or network of channels by which molten metal
flows into cavity from outside the mold. The gatting system usually consists of
a DOWNSPRUE (OR SPRUE) through which metal enters the RUNNER that leads into
main cavity. At the top of sprue the pouring cup is used to avoid splashing and
turbulence.
 RISER is a reservoir in mold that serves as source of liquid metal for casting to
compensate the shrinking during solidification.
3. CASTING CATEGORY: Based on mold type casting is divided into two
categories:
3.1 EXPANDABLE MOLD CASTING:

In EXPENDABLE MOLD CASTING operations, the mold is

sacrificed in order to remove the cast part. Since a new mold is required for
each new casting, production rates in expendable-mold processes are often
limited by the time required to make the mold rather than the time to make
the casting itself. However, for certain part geometries, sand molds can be
produced and castings made at rates of 400 parts per hour and higher. These
molds are made of sand, plaster or similar materials, whose form is maintained
by using binders of various kinds. Sand Casting is the most prominent example
of expandable mold process. Its advantage is that more complex shape could
be made while low production rate is its disadvantage.

3.2 PERMANENT MOLD CASTING:

A permanent mold is one that can be used over and

over to produce many castings. It is made of metal (or, less commonly, a
ceramic refractory material) that can withstand the high temperatures of the
casting operation. In Permanent-Mold Casting, the mold consists of two (or
more) sections that can be opened to permit removal of the finished part. Die
casting is the most familiar process in this group. High production is its
economic advantage. Geometries are limited in need to open the mold.
 4. PATTERN AND ITS TYPES:
A pattern—a full-sized model of the part, enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining allowances in the final casting. Materials
used to make patterns include wood, plastics, and metals. Wood is a common
pattern material because it is easily shaped. Its disadvantages are that it tends
to warp, and it is abraded by the sand being compacted around it, thus limiting
the number of times it can be reused. Metal patterns are more expensive to
make, but they last much longer. Plastics represent a compromise between
wood and metal. Selection of the appropriate pattern material depends to a
large extent on the total quantity of castings to be made.
There are various types of patterns:

4.1 SOLID PATTERN:

SOLID PATTERN has same geometry as the casting product. It is
adjusted in size for shrinkage and machining.
Although it is the easiest pattern to fabricate, it
is not the easiest to use in making the sand mold.
Determining the location of the parting line
between the two halves of the mold for a solid
pattern can be a problem, and incorporating the
gating system and sprue into the mold is left to
the judgment and skill of the foundry worker.
Consequently, solid patterns are generally
limited to very low production quantities.
Figure (a) Solid Pattern

4.2 SPLIT PATTERNS:

SPLIT PATTERNS consist of two pieces, dividing the part along a
plane coinciding with the parting line of the mold. Split patterns are appropriate for
complex part geometries and moderate production quantities. The parting line of the
mold is predetermined by the two pattern halves, rather than by operator judgment.
 Figure ( b) Split Pattern

4.3 MATCH PLATE:

In MATCH-PLATE PATTERNS, the two pieces of the split pattern are
attached to opposite sides of a wood or metal plate. Holes in the plate allow the top
and bottom (cope and drag) sections of the mold
Is to be aligned accurately.

.
Figure (c) Match Plate

4.4 COPE AND DRAG:

COPE-AND-DRAG PATTERNS are similar to match-plate patterns except that
split pattern halves are attached to separate plates, so that the cope and drag sections
of the mold can be fabricated alone.

fig (d) Cope and Drag.

5. FACTORS AFFECTING POURING:

Factors affecting pouring of molten metal into sand
pattern are:
5.1 POURING TEMPERATURE:
The pouring temperature is the temperature of the molten
metal as it is introduced into the mold. What is important here is the difference
between the temperature at pouring and the temperature at which freezing begins
(the melting point for a pure metal or the liquidus temperature for an alloy). This
temperature difference is sometimes referred to as the superheat. This term is also
used for the amount of heat that must be removed from the molten metal between
pouring and when solidification commences.

5.2 POURING RATE:

Pouring rate refers to the volumetric rate at which the molten metal
is poured into the mold. If the rate is too slow, the metal will chill and freeze before
filling the cavity. If the pouring rate is excessive, turbulence can become a serious
problem.

5.3 TURBULENCE:
Turbulence in fluid flow is characterized by erratic variations in the
magnitude and direction of the velocity throughout the fluid. The flow is agitated and
irregular rather than smooth and streamlined, as in laminar flow. Turbulent flow
should be avoided during pouring for several reasons. It tends to accelerate the
formation of metal oxides that can become entrapped during solidification, thus
degrading the quality of the casting. Turbulence also aggravates mold erosion, the
gradual wearing away of the mold surfaces due to impact of the flowing molten metal.
The densities of most molten metals are much higher than water and other fluids we
normally deal with. These molten metals are also much more chemically reactive than
at room temperature. Consequently, the wear caused by the flow of these metals in
the mold is significant, especially under turbulent conditions. Erosion is especially
serious when it occurs in the main cavity because the geometry of the cast part is
affected.

6. QUALITY OF SAND MOLD:

Quality of sand mold includes:
 STRENGTH is the mold’s ability to maintain its shape and resist erosion caused by
the flow of molten metal; it depends on grain shape, adhesive qualities of the
binder, and other factors.
 PERMEABILITY is the capacity of the mold to allow hot air and gases from the
casting operation to pass through the voids in the sand.
  THERMAL STABILITY is ability of the sand at the surface of the mold cavity to resist
cracking and buckling upon contact with the molten metal.
 REUSABILITY is property of sand such that it can be reused to make other molds.
These measures are sometimes incompatible; for example, a mold with greater
strength is less collapsible.

7. MACHINING OF CAST PART:

 TRIMMING involves removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash, fins,
chaplets, and any other excess metal from the cast part.
 SURFACE CLEANING involves removal of sand from the surface of the casting and
otherwise enhancing the appearance of the surface. Methods used to clean the
surface include tumbling, air-blasting with coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire
brushing, buffing, and chemical pickling.
 INSPECTION METHODS includes visual inspection, dimensional measurements,
metallurgical, chemical, physical processes including Pressure testing,
Radioactive testing, Ultrasonic testing, mechanical testing and use of
fluorescent penetrants.
 CORE REMOVAL__ If cores have been used to cast the part, they must be removed.
Most cores are chemically bonded or oil-bonded sand, and they often fall out
of the casting as the binder deteriorates. In some cases, they are removed by
shaking the casting, either manually or mechanically.
 HEAT TREATMENT is process usually done to cast part to achieve desired
properties in cast product by heating at specific temperature.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:

Advantages of casting are:
 Casting can be used to create complex part geometries, including both external
and internal shapes.
 Casting can be used to produce very large parts. Castings weighing more than
100 tons have been made.
 The casting process can be performed on any metal that can be heated to the
liquid state.
 Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production.
Disadvantages of casting are:
Casting applies limitation on mechanical properties, Porosity, poor dimensional
accuracy and surface finish. It has many safety hazards to human while pouring hot
molten metal. Formation of oxides of metals during casting operation is its limitation
that affects the desired geometry and strength of product. Wrapping and shrinkage
is also its disadvantages.