Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 1 4.1.

2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

Petroleum
Production
Part I Engineering
Fundamentals

The upstream of the petroleum industry involves itself in the business of oil and gas exploration and
production (E & P) activities. While the exploration activities find oil and gas reserves, the
production activities deliver oil and gas to the downstream of the industry (i.e., processing plants).
The petroleum production is definitely the heart of the petroleum industry.
Petroleum production engineering is that part of petroleum engineering that attempts to maxi-
mize oil and gas production in a cost-effective manner. To achieve this objective, production
engineers need to have a thorough understanding of the petroleum production systems with
which they work. To perform their job correctly, production engineers should have solid back-
ground and sound knowledge about the properties of fluids they produce and working principles of
all the major components of producing wells and surface facilities. This part of the book provides
graduating production engineers with fundamentals of petroleum production engineering.
Materials are presented in the following eight chapters:

Chapter 1 Petroleum Production System 1/3

Chapter 2 Properties of Oil and Natural Gas 2/19
Chapter 3 Reservoir Deliverability 3/29
Chapter 4 Wellbore Performance 4/45
Chapter 5 Choke Performance 5/59
Chapter 6 Well Deliverability 6/69
Chapter 7 Forecast of Well Production 7/87
Chapter 8 Production Decline Analysis 8/97
Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 2 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun
Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 3 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

Petroleum
1 Production
System

Contents
1.1 Introduction 1/4
1.2 Reservoir 1/4
1.3 Well 1/5
1.4 Separator 1/8
1.5 Pump 1/9
1.6 Gas Compressor 1/10
1.7 Pipelines 1/11
1.8 Safety Control System 1/11
1.9 Unit Systems 1/17
Summary 1/17
References 1/17
Problems 1/17
 Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 4 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

1/4 PETROLEUM PRODUCTION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS

1.1 Introduction no more gas at the given temperature. Single (liquid)-phase

flow prevails in an undersaturated oil reservoir, whereas
The role of a production engineer is to maximize oil and
two-phase (liquid oil and free gas) flow exists in a sat-
gas production in a cost-effective manner. Familiarization
and understanding of oil and gas production systems are urated oil reservoir.
essential to the engineers. This chapter provides graduat- Wells in the same reservoir can fall into categories of
ing production engineers with some basic knowledge oil, condensate, and gas wells depending on the producing
about production systems. More engineering principles gas–oil ratio (GOR). Gas wells are wells with producing GOR
being greater than 100,000 scf/stb; condensate wells are those
are discussed in the later chapters.
with producing GOR being less than 100,000 scf/stb but
As shown in Fig. 1.1, a complete oil or gas production
system consists of a reservoir, well, flowline, separators, greater than 5,000 scf/stb; and wells with producing GOR
pumps, and transportation pipelines. The reservoir sup- being less than 5,000 scf/stb are classified as oil wells.
plies wellbore with crude oil or gas. The well provides a Oil reservoirs can be classified on the basis of boundary
path for the production fluid to flow from bottom hole to type, which determines driving mechanism, and which are
surface and offers a means to control the fluid production as follows:
rate. The flowline leads the produced fluid to separators. . Water-drive reservoir
The separators remove gas and water from the crude oil. . Gas-cap drive reservoir
Pumps and compressors are used to transport oil and gas . Dissolved-gas drive reservoir
through pipelines to sales points.
In water-drive reservoirs, the oil zone is connected by
a continuous path to the surface groundwater system (aqui-
fer). The pressure caused by the ‘‘column’’ of water to the
1.2 Reservoir surface forces the oil (and gas) to the top of the reservoir
Hydrocarbon accumulations in geological traps can be clas- against the impermeable barrier that restricts the oil and gas
sified as reservoir, field, and pool. A ‘‘reservoir’’ is a porous (the trap boundary). This pressure will force the oil and gas
and permeable underground formation containing an indi- toward the wellbore. With the same oil production, reservoir
vidual bank of hydrocarbons confined by impermeable rock pressure will be maintained longer (relative to other mech-
or water barriers and is characterized by a single natural anisms of drive) when there is an active water drive. Edge-
pressure system. A ‘‘field’’ is an area that consists of one or water drive reservoir is the most preferable type of reservoir
more reservoirs all related to the same structural feature. A compared to bottom-water drive. The reservoir pressure can
‘‘pool’’ contains one or more reservoirs in isolated structures. remain at its initial value above bubble-point pressure so that
Depending on the initial reservoir condition in the phase single-phase liquid flow exists in the reservoir for maximum
diagram (Fig. 1.2), hydrocarbon accumulations are classi- well productivity. A steady-state flow condition can prevail
fied as oil, gas condensate, and gas reservoirs. An oil that in a edge-water drive reservoir for a long time before water
is at a pressure above its bubble-point pressure is called an breakthrough into the well. Bottom-water drive reservoir
‘‘undersaturated oil’’ because it can dissolve more gas at (Fig. 1.3) is less preferable because of water-coning problems
the given temperature. An oil that is at its bubble-point that can affect oil production economics due to water treat-
pressure is called a ‘‘saturated oil’’ because it can dissolve ment and disposal issues.

Separator Gas
Wellhead

Water

Oil

Wellbore

Reservoir
Pwf P Pe

Figure 1.1 A sketch of a petroleum production system.

Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 5 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

PETROLEUM PRODUCTION SYSTEM 1/5

4,000 solution in the oil (and water). The reservoir gas is actually
Gas Reservoirs
Retrograde in a liquid form in a dissolved solution with the liquids (at
Condensate atmospheric conditions) from the reservoir. Compared to
3,500 the water- and gas-drive reservoirs, expansion of solution
Reservoirs
(dissolved) gas in the oil provides a weak driving mech-
anism in a volumetric reservoir. In the regions where the
Reservoir Pressure (psia)

pi, T
3,000 Critical oil pressure drops to below the bubble-point pressure, gas
Point De escapes from the oil and oil–gas two-phase flow exists. To
le
bb w
improve oil recovery in the solution-gas reservoir, early
2,500 Bu oint Po
in
P t pressure maintenance is usually preferred.
pwf, Twf
80%
2,000

Cricondentherm
ptf, Ttf 1.3 Well
%
%

40

Point
20

1,500 e
Oil and gas wells are drilled like an upside-down telescope.
%
m 10
The large-diameter borehole section is at the top of the
V olu
u id well. Each section is cased to the surface, or a liner is
i q placed in the well that laps over the last casing in the
1,000 L
well. Each casing or liner is cemented into the well (usually
5 % 0 %
up to at least where the cement overlaps the previous
500 cement job).
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 The last casing in the well is the production casing
Reservoir Temperature (⬚F) (or production liner). Once the production casing has
been cemented into the well, the production tubing is run
Figure 1.2 A typical hydrocarbon phase diagram. into the well. Usually a packer is used near the bottom of
the tubing to isolate the annulus between the outside of the
In a gas-cap drive reservoir, gas-cap drive is the drive tubing and the inside of the casing. Thus, the produced
mechanism where the gas in the reservoir has come out of fluids are forced to move out of the perforation into the
solution and rises to the top of the reservoir to form a gas bottom of the well and then into the inside of the tubing.
cap (Fig. 1.4). Thus, the oil below the gas cap can be Packers can be actuated by either mechanical or hydraulic
produced. If the gas in the gas cap is taken out of the mechanisms. The production tubing is often (particularly
reservoir early in the production process, the reservoir during initial well flow) provided with a bottom-hole
pressure will decrease rapidly. Sometimes an oil reservoir choke to control the initial well flow (i.e., to restrict over-
is subjected to both water and gas-cap drive. production and loss of reservoir pressure).
A dissolved-gas drive reservoir (Fig. 1.5) is also called a Figure 1.6 shows a typical flowing oil well, defined as a
‘‘solution-gas drive reservoir’’ and ‘‘volumetric reservoir.’’ well producing solely because of the natural pressure of the
The oil reservoir has a fixed oil volume surrounded by no- reservoir. It is composed of casings, tubing, packers,
flow boundaries (faults or pinch-outs). Dissolved-gas drive down-hole chokes (optional), wellhead, Christmas tree,
is the drive mechanism where the reservoir gas is held in and surface chokes.

Oil

WOC
Water

Figure 1.3 A sketch of a water-drive reservoir.

 Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 6 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

1/6 PETROLEUM PRODUCTION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS

The ‘‘wellhead’’ is defined as the surface equipment set

below the master valve. As we can see in Fig. 1.7, it
includes casing heads and a tubing head. The casing head
(lowermost) is threaded onto the surface casing. This can
also be a flanged or studded connection. A ‘‘casing head’’
is a mechanical assembly used for hanging a casing string
(Fig. 1.8). Depending on casing programs in well drilling,
several casing heads can be installed during well construc-
tion. The casing head has a bowl that supports the casing
hanger. This casing hanger is threaded onto the top of the
production casing (or uses friction grips to hold the cas-
ing). As in the case of the production tubing, the produc-
tion casing is landed in tension so that the casing hanger
actually supports the production casing (down to the
freeze point). In a similar manner, the intermediate cas-
ing(s) are supported by their respective casing hangers
(and bowls). All of these casing head arrangements are
supported by the surface casing, which is in compression
and cemented to the surface. A well completed with three
Gas Cap casing strings has two casing heads. The uppermost casing
head supports the production casing. The lowermost cas-
ing head sits on the surface casing (threaded to the top of
the surface casing).
Most flowing wells are produced through a string of
tubing run inside the production casing string. At the
Oil surface, the tubing is supported by the tubing head (i.e.,
the tubing head is used for hanging tubing string on the
production casing head [Fig. 1.9]). The tubing head sup-
ports the tubing string at the surface (this tubing is landed
on the tubing head so that it is in tension all the way down
Figure 1.4 A sketch of a gas-cap drive reservoir.
to the packer).
Most wells produce oil through tubing strings, mainly The equipment at the top of the producing wellhead is
because a tubing string provides good sealing performance called a ‘‘Christmas tree’’ (Fig. 1.10) and it is used to
and allows the use of gas expansion to lift oil. The Ameri- control flow. The ‘‘Christmas tree’’ is installed above the
can Petroleum Institute (API) defines tubing size using tubing head. An ‘‘adaptor’’ is a piece of equipment used to
nominal diameter and weight (per foot). The nominal join the two. The ‘‘Christmas tree’’ may have one flow
diameter is based on the internal diameter of the tubing outlet (a tee) or two flow outlets (a cross). The master
body. The weight of tubing determines the tubing outer valve is installed below the tee or cross. To replace a master
diameter. Steel grades of tubing are designated H-40, J-55, valve, the tubing must be plugged. A Christmas tree consists
C-75, L-80, N-80, C-90, and P-105, where the digits repre- of a main valve, wing valves, and a needle valve. These valves
sent the minimum yield strength in 1,000 psi. The min- are used for closing the well when needed. At the top of the
imum performance properties of tubing are given in tee structure (on the top of the ‘‘Christmas tree’’), there is a
Chapter 9 and Appendix B. pressure gauge that indicates the pressure in the tubing.

Oil and Gas

Reservoir

Figure 1.5 A sketch of a dissolved-gas drive reservoir.

Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 7 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

PETROLEUM PRODUCTION SYSTEM 1/7

in the line. The back-pressure (caused by the chokes or

other restrictions in the flowline) increases the bottom-
hole flowing pressure. Increasing the bottom-hole flowing
pressure decreases the pressure drop from the reservoir to
the wellbore (pressure drawdown). Thus, increasing the
back-pressure in the wellbore decreases the flow rate
Wellhead from the reservoir.
In some wells, chokes are installed in the lower section
of tubing strings. This choke arrangement reduces well-
head pressure and enhances oil production rate as a result
of gas expansion in the tubing string. For gas wells, use of
Surface Casing down-hole chokes minimizes the gas hydrate problem in
Intermediate Casing the well stream. A major disadvantage of using down-hole
chokes is that replacing a choke is costly.
Cement Production Casing Certain procedures must be followed to open or close a
Annulus well. Before opening, check all the surface equipment such
as safety valves, fittings, and so on. The burner of a line
heater must be lit before the well is opened. This is neces-
Wellbore Tubing sary because the pressure drop across a choke cools the
fluid and may cause gas hydrates or paraffin to deposit
out. A gas burner keeps the involved fluid (usually water)
Bottom-hole Choke hot. Fluid from the well is carried through a coil of piping.
The choke is installed in the heater. Well fluid is heated
Packer both before and after it flows through the choke. The
upstream heating helps melt any solids that may be present
Casing Perforation in the producing fluid. The downstream heating prevents
Reservoir hydrates and paraffins from forming at the choke.
Oil Reservoir
Surface vessels should be open and clear before the well
is allowed to flow. All valves that are in the master valve
Figure 1.6 A sketch of a typical flowing oil well.
and other downstream valves are closed. Then follow the
following procedure to open a well:
The wing valves and their gauges allow access (for pressure 1. The operator barely opens the master valve (just a
measurements and gas or liquid flow) to the annulus crack), and escaping fluid makes a hissing sound.
spaces (Fig. 1.11). When the fluid no longer hisses through the valve, the
‘‘Surface choke’’ (i.e., a restriction in the flowline) is a pressure has been equalized, and then the master valve
piece of equipment used to control the flow rate (Fig. 1.12). is opened wide.
In most flowing wells, the oil production rate is altered by 2. If there are no oil leaks, the operator cracks the next
adjusting the choke size. The choke causes back-pressure downstream valve that is closed. Usually, this will be

Tubing Pressure Gauge

Wing Valve
Flow Fitting
Choke

Tubing Head

Master Valve
Casing Valve

Tubing

Casing Pressure Gauge

Production Casing

Uppermost Casing Head Intermediate Casing

Lowermost Casing Head Surface Casing

Figure 1.7 A sketch of a wellhead.

 Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 8 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

1/8 PETROLEUM PRODUCTION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS

Casing Hanger
Bowl
Hanger Bowl

Production Seal
Casing Tubing Head

Casing
Head

Surface
Casing

Tubing
Figure 1.8 A sketch of a casing head.

Figure 1.9 A sketch of a tubing head.

either the second (backup) master valve or a wing valve.
Again, when the hissing sound stops, the valve is
opened wide. 1.4 Separator
3. The operator opens the other downstream valves the
same way. The fluids produced from oil wells are normally complex
4. To read the tubing pressure gauge, the operator must mixtures of hundreds of different compounds. A typical
open the needle valve at the top of the Christmas tree. oil well stream is a high-velocity, turbulent, constantly
After reading and recording the pressure, the operator expanding mixture of gases and hydrocarbon liquids, in-
may close the valve again to protect the gauge. timately mixed with water vapor, free water, and some-
times solids. The well stream should be processed as soon
The procedure for ‘‘shutting-in’’ a well is the opposite of as possible after bringing them to the surface. Separators
the procedure for opening a well. In shutting-in the well, are used for the purpose.
the master valve is closed last. Valves are closed rather Three types of separators are generally available from
rapidly to avoid wearing of the valve (to prevent erosion). manufacturers: horizontal, vertical, and spherical sep-
At least two valves must be closed. arators. Horizontal separators are further classified into

Gauge Valve

Top Connection

Swabbing Valve

Flow Fitting

Choke Wing Valve

Wing Valve Choke

Master Valve

Tubing Head Adaptor

Figure 1.10 A sketch of a ‘‘Christmas tree.’’

Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 9 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

PETROLEUM PRODUCTION SYSTEM 1/9

Handwheel

Wellhead Choke

Packing

Gate

Port

Figure 1.11 A sketch of a surface valve.

two categories: single tube and double tube. Each type of

separator has specific advantages and limitations. Selec-
tion of separator type is based on several factors including
characteristics of production steam to be treated, floor Figure 1.12 A sketch of a wellhead choke.
space availability at the facility site, transportation, and
cost.
such as those on offshore platforms where space is limited.
Horizontal separators (Fig. 1.13) are usually the first
Because of the large vertical distance between the liquid
choice because of their low costs. Horizontal separators
level and the gas outlet, the chance for liquid to re-vapor-
are almost widely used for high-GOR well streams, foam-
ize into the gas phase is limited. However, because of the
ing well streams, or liquid-from-liquid separation. They
natural upward flow of gas in a vertical separator against
have much greater gas–liquid interface because of a
the falling droplets of liquid, adequate separator diameter
large, long, baffled gas-separation section. Horizontal sep-
is required. Vertical separators are more costly to fabricate
arators are easier to skid-mount and service and require
and ship in skid-mounted assemblies.
less piping for field connections. Individual separators can
Spherical separators offer an inexpensive and compact
be stacked easily into stage-separation assemblies to min-
means of separation arrangement. Because of their com-
imize space requirements. In horizontal separators, gas
pact configurations, these types of separators have a very
flows horizontally while liquid droplets fall toward the
limited surge space and liquid-settling section. Also, the
liquid surface. The moisture gas flows in the baffle surface
placement and action of the liquid-level control in this type
and forms a liquid film that is drained away to the liquid
of separator is more critical.
section of the separator. The baffles need to be longer than
Chapter 10 provides more details on separators and
the distance of liquid trajectory travel. The liquid-level
dehydrators.
control placement is more critical in a horizontal separator
than in a vertical separator because of limited surge space.
Vertical separators are often used to treat low to inter-
mediate GOR well streams and streams with relatively 1.5 Pump
large slugs of liquid. They handle greater slugs of liquid After separation, oil is transported through pipelines to
without carryover to the gas outlet, and the action of the the sales points. Reciprocating piston pumps are used to
liquid-level control is not as critical. Vertical separators provide mechanical energy required for the transportation.
occupy less floor space, which is important for facility sites There are two types of piston strokes, the single-action

Figure 1.13 Conventional horizontal separator. (Courtesy Petroleum Extension Services.)

 Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 10 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

1/10 PETROLEUM PRODUCTION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS

Discharge Discharge

P2 P2

Piston
Piston Rod dL

dr

Ls

P1 P1
Suction Suction

Figure 1.14 Double-action piston pump.

piston stroke and the double-action piston stroke. The As shown in Fig. 1.15, reciprocating compressors have more
double-action stroke is used for duplex (two pistons) moving parts and, therefore, lower mechanical efficiencies
pumps. The single-action stroke is used for pumps with than rotary compressors. Each cylinder assembly of a recip-
three pistons or greater (e.g., triplex pump). Figure 1.14 rocating compressor consists of a piston, cylinder, cylinder
shows how a duplex pump works. More information heads, suction and discharge valves, and other parts neces-
about pumps is presented in Chapter 11. sary to convert rotary motion to reciprocation motion.
A reciprocating compressor is designed for a certain range
of compression ratios through the selection of proper piston
displacement and clearance volume within the cylinder.
1.6 Gas Compressor This clearance volume can be either fixed or variable,
Compressors are used for providing gas pressure required depending on the extent of the operation range and the
to transport gas with pipelines and to lift oil in gas-lift percent of load variation desired. A typical reciprocating
operations. The compressors used in today’s natural gas compressor can deliver a volumetric gas flow rate up to
production industry fall into two distinct types: reciprocat- 30,000 cubic feet per minute (cfm) at a discharge pressure
ing and rotary compressors. Reciprocating compressors are up to 10,000 psig.
most commonly used in the natural gas industry. They are Rotary compressors are divided into two classes: the
built for practically all pressures and volumetric capacities. centrifugal compressor and the rotary blower. A centrifu-

Piston Cylinder
Suction Head
Valve
Piston
Rod

Crosshead

Connecting Rod

Wrist
Pin

Crankshaft Cylinder

Discharge
Valve

Figure 1.15 Elements of a typical reciprocating compressor. (Courtesy Petroleum Extension Services.)
Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 11 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

PETROLEUM PRODUCTION SYSTEM 1/11

gal compressor consists of a housing with flow passages, a most economical means of large-scale overland transpor-
rotating shaft on which the impeller is mounted, bearings, tation for crude oil, natural gas, and their products, clearly
and seals to prevent gas from escaping along the shaft. superior to rail and truck transportation over competing
Centrifugal compressors have few moving parts because routes, given large quantities to be moved on a regular
only the impeller and shaft rotate. Thus, its efficiency is basis. Transporting petroleum fluids with pipelines is
high and lubrication oil consumption and maintenance a continuous and reliable operation. Pipelines have
costs are low. Cooling water is normally unnecessary be- demonstrated an ability to adapt to a wide variety of
cause of lower compression ratio and less friction loss. environments including remote areas and hostile environ-
Compression rates of centrifugal compressors are lower ments. With very minor exceptions, largely due to local
because of the absence of positive displacement. Centrifu- peculiarities, most refineries are served by one or more
gal compressors compress gas using centrifugal force. In pipelines, because of their superior flexibility to the
this type of compressor, work is done on the gas by an alternatives.
impeller. Gas is then discharged at a high velocity into a Figure 1.16 shows applications of pipelines in offshore
diffuser where the velocity is reduced and its kinetic energy operations. It indicates flowlines transporting oil and/or
is converted to static pressure. Unlike reciprocating com- gas from satellite subsea wells to subsea manifolds, flow-
pressors, all this is done without confinement and physical lines transporting oil and/or gas from subsea manifolds to
squeezing. Centrifugal compressors with relatively unre- production facility platforms, infield flowlines transport-
stricted passages and continuous flow are inherently high- ing oil and/or gas from between production facility plat-
capacity, low-pressure ratio machines that adapt easily to forms, and export pipelines transporting oil and/or gas
series arrangements within a station. In this way, each from production facility platforms to shore.
compressor is required to develop only part of the station The pipelines are sized to handle the expected pressure
compression ratio. Typically, the volume is more than and fluid flow. To ensure desired flow rate of product,
100,000 cfm and discharge pressure is up to 100 psig. pipeline size varies significantly from project to project. To
More information about different types of compressors is contain the pressures, wall thicknesses of the pipelines
provided in Chapter 11. range from 3⁄8 inch to 11⁄2 inch. More information about
pipelines is provided in Chapter 11.

1.7 Pipelines
The first pipeline was built in the United States in 1859 1.8 Safety Control System
to transport crude oil (Wolbert, 1952). Through the one The purpose of safety systems is to protect personnel, the
and half century of pipeline operating practice, the petro- environment, and the facility. The major objective of the
leum industry has proven that pipelines are by far the safety system is to prevent the release of hydrocarbons

Expansion
Tie-in
Spoolpiece
Existing
Line
Pipeline To Shore
Crossing

Infield
Flowline
Riser
Satellite
Subsea
Wells
Tie-in
Subsea Manifold Export Pipeline

Flowlines
(several can be
bundled)

Flowlines

Figure 1.16 Uses of offshore pipelines. (Guo et al., 2005.)

 Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 12 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

1/12 PETROLEUM PRODUCTION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS

from the process and to minimize the adverse effects of 3. Mechanical failure due to temperature change,
such releases if they occur. This can be achieved by the overpressure and underpressure, and external im-
following: pact force
C. Liquid overflow caused by
1. Preventing undesirable events 1. Increased input flow due to upstream flow-control
2. Shutting-in the process device failure
3. Recovering released fluids 2. Decreased output flow due to blockage in the liquid
4. Preventing ignition discharge
The modes of safety system operation include D. Gas blow-by caused by
1. Increased input flow due to upstream flow-control
1. Automatic monitoring by sensors device failure
2. Automatic protective action 2. Decreased output flow due to blockage in the gas
3. Emergency shutdown discharge
Protection concepts and safety analysis are based on un- E. Underpressure caused by
desirable events, which include 1. Outlet flow-control device (e.g., choke) failure
2. Inlet blockage
A. Overpressure caused by 3. Cooling of closed system
1. Increased input flow due to upstream flow-control F. Excess temperature caused by
device failure 1. Overfueling of burner
2. Decreased output flow due to blockage 2. External fire
3. Heating of closed system 3. Spark emission
B. Leak caused by
1. Corrosion Figure 1.17 presents some symbols used in safety system
2. Erosion design. Some API-recommended safety devices are shown
in Figs. 1.18 through 1.22.

Flow Safety Burner Safety Pressure Safety Pressure Safety

Valve Low High & Low Element

FSV
BSL PSHL PSE

Flow Safety Flow Safety

High Low Pressure Safety Valve

FSH FSL
PSV
PSV

Level Safety Level Safety

High Low Temperature Temperature
Safety High Safety Low

LSH LSL TSH TSL

Flow Safety Level Safety

High & Low High & Low Temperature Temperature
Safety Safety Element
High & Low

FSHL LSHL TSE

TSHL

Figure 1.17 Safety device symbols.

Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 13 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

PETROLEUM PRODUCTION SYSTEM 1/13

Underwater Safety Valve

USV USV

Pressure Pressure Blow Down Valve

Safety High Safety Low

BDV BDV
PSH PSL

Surface Safety Valve Shut Down Valve

SDV SDV
SSV SSV

Figure 1.17 (Continued)

TSE

SSV

<10’ PSHL FSV

(3M)

Outlet

MAWP > SITP

Option 1

PSL
TSE

SSV

<10’ PSHL FSV

(3M)

Outlet

MAWP > SITP

Option 2

Figure 1.18 Safety system designs for surface wellhead flowlines.

 Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 14 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

1/14 PETROLEUM PRODUCTION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS

TSE PSL

>10’ PSL
SSV (3M)

FSV
PSHL

Outlet

MAWP > SITP

Option 3

PSV
TSE PSL

SSV

>10’ FSV
PSHL
(3M)

Outlet

MAWP > SITP MAWP < SITP

Option 4

TSE
PSHL FSV
SSV

Outlet

MAWP > SITP

Option 5

Figure 1.18 (Continued)

Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 15 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

PETROLEUM PRODUCTION SYSTEM 1/15

USV

PSHL FSV

Option 1 Outlet

MAWP > SITP

PSL SDV
USV

PSHL FSV
Denotes Platform Limits

Outlet

Option 2

MAWP > SITP

Figure 1.19 Safety system designs for underwater wellhead flowlines.

PSV FSV

PSHL
Gas Outlet

Gas Makeup System

TSE

Inlet

Pressure
vessel
LSH

FSV
LSL
Oil Outlet

Figure 1.20 Safety system design for pressure vessel.

 Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 16 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

1/16 PETROLEUM PRODUCTION ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS

PSV

TSE
SDV

From Storage Pump

Component

PSHL
FSV

Discharge

Figure 1.21 Safety system design for pipeline pumps.

PSV

TSE

Suction Pump

PSHL
FSV

Discharge

Figure 1.22 Safety system design for other pumps.

Guo, Boyun / Computer Assited Petroleum Production Engg 0750682701_chap01 Final Proof page 17 4.1.2007 6:12pm Compositor Name: SJoearun

PETROLEUM PRODUCTION SYSTEM 1/17

1.9 Unit Systems guo, b. and ghalambor a., Natural Gas Engineering
This book uses U.S. oil field units in the text. However, the Handbook. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, 2005.
computer spreadsheet programs associated with this book guo, b., song, s., chacko, j., and ghalambor a., Offshore
were developed in both U.S. oil field units and S.I. units. Pipelines. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2005.
Conversion factors between these two unit systems are sivalls, c.r. ‘‘Fundamentals of Oil and Gas Separation.’’
presented in Appendix A. Proceedings of the Gas Conditioning Conference,
University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 1977.
wolbert, g.s., American Pipelines, University of Okla-
Summary homa Press, Norman (1952), p. 5.
This chapter provided a brief introduction to the compo-
nentsin the petroleum production system. Working prin-
ciples, especially flow performances, of the components Problems
are described in later chapters.
1.1 Explain why a water-drive oil reservoir is usually an
unsaturated oil reservoir.
1.2 What are the benefits and disadvantages of using
References down-hole chokes over wellhead chokes?
American Petroleum Institute. ‘‘Bulletin on Performance 1.3 What is the role of an oil production engineer?
Properties of Casing, Tubing, and Drill Pipe,’’ 20th 1.4 Is the tubing nominal diameter closer to tubing
edition. Washington, DC: American Petroleum Insti- outside diameter or tubing inside diameter?
1.5 What do the digits in the tubing specification repre-
tute. API Bulletin 5C2, May 31, 1987.
sent?
American Petroleum Institute. ‘‘Recommended Practice
1.6 What is a wellhead choke used for?
for Analysis, Design, Installation, and Testing of 1.7 What are the separators and pumps used for in the oil
Basic Surface Safety Systems for Offshore Production production operations?
Platforms,’’ 20th edition. Washington, DC: American 1.8 Name three applications of pipelines.
Petroleum Institute. API Bulletin 14C, May 31, 1987. 1.9 What is the temperature safety element used for?