CHAPTER 1: THE HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

1-1. Brief History of Roads

 As early as 3500 BC, roads were found in Mesopotamia, Mediterranean Island of
Crete, and Western Hemisphere by the Mayans, the Aztecs, and the Incas of Central
South America.
 Primary Purposes of Early Road Systems:
 Conquest and defense against invasion
 Transport of food and trade of goods

 Romans
 Discovered cement
 Expanded their vast empire through extensive road networks
 After 2,000 years, many roads still exist
 Three Courses of Roman Roads:
 Layer of small broken stones
 Layer of small stones with mortar compacted firmly
 Massive stone blocks properly set and bedded with cement mortar

 Jerome Tresaguet (1716-1796)

 French Engineer
 Father of Modern Road Building
 Introduced new methods of construction and maintenance of stone roads.
 Improved the crown, the drainage, and the grade of the road (reduced the depth
of broken stones to 25cm).

 Thomas Telford (1757-1834)

 Scottish Engineer
 President and founder of Institute of Civil Engineer
 Improved the method of J. Tresaguet
 Foundation course: 3 inches min. Thickness, 5 inches breadth and 7 inches height
 Employed a flat sub-grade with slight crown using varying sizes of stones.

 Louden Mac Adam (1755-1836)

 Scottish Engineer
 Macadam Road Concept – single sized crushed stone layers of small angular
stones are placed in shallow lifts and compacted thoroughly.
  Eli Blake
 Invented the first stone crusher in 1858.
 Thomas Aveling & Thomas Porter
 Invented a steam road roller weighing 30 tons in 1858.

1-2. Early Laws that Regulates Roadway

 Saxon Laws:
1. To repair the roads and bridges
2. To repair the castles and the garrisons
3. To aid repel invasions

 After the Norman Quest of England:

1. The king’s highway is sacred. Roads are for public use.
2. Property owners adjoining the roads were required to drain the road, clip any
bordering hedges, and refrain from plowing and planting closer than the specified
distance from the center of the road.

1-3. Highways in the Philippines

 1900
 Transportation depended largely on trails, waterways, railroad, earth roads and
gravel roads.
 Development of roadways was initiated by American government.
 Macadam road type was introduced.

 1945 (End of World War II)

 Rehabilitation and construction of roads and bridges were continued through the
financial aids and grants of the American and the Japanese governments.

 1960-1980
 Automobile Age
 Cars as “a necessity, not a luxury”
 Government’s slogan, “THIS NATION IS ON WHEELS”, aims to get the farmer out
of the mud.

 1995 (50 Years After World War II)

 Major highways and expressways were constructed through financial assistance
and loans from foreign banks
 Boom age of vehicles
 Every year, 30,000 new vehicles mean 400 km new roads.

1-4. Planning Difficulties
 Development and maintenance of roads and highways is a continuing process
alongside with the technological advancement.
 Engineers are conscious of the need for roadway to be safe, useful, and attractive.
Unfortunately, highway planners are confronted with problems categorized as follows:
1. FINANCIAL
2. POLITICAL
3. TECHNICAL

1-5. Highway Programming

 3 Inseparable Sets of Inputs Involved
 ECONOMIC - deals with the questions of resources
 FINANCIAL - the questions of who pays and who spends, how much and where
 POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATION - involves decision making

 Highway Programming Approaches

 Financial resources are either in short or long range implementation by the agencies
functions like construction, operations, and maintenance.
 Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire and constraint.
 Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical situations, present and
future expected level of traffic, and claims based on political subdivision.
 Providing continuity of route system and coordination with other transportation
mode.
 Selection of projects based on availability of labor and materials, including climatic
conditions.
 Scheduling the project implementation in coordination with other agencies,
acquiring right of way and making final plan and specifications.
 Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and other natural disasters.

 Direct Effects of Highway Construction and its Use

A. Quantifiable market value
1. Cost of highway as to:
a. Planning cost
b. Right of way appropriations
c. Construction costs
d. Maintenance costs
e. Operating cost
 2. Cost benefits to highway users
a. Vehicles operating costs (including congestion cost) net income or decrease
in costs of vehicle operation per year.
b. Travel savings time (commercial). Net increase or decrease in travel time
multiplied by the peso value of commercial time.
c. Motorist’s safety (economic cost accident). Net change in expected number
of accidents times the average cost per accident per year.

B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value

1. Cost benefits to highway user:
a. Motorist safety- Accident cost of pain suffering and deprivation.
b. Comfort and conversion- Discomfort, inconvenience and strain of driving.
c. Aesthetic from driving viewpoint- Benefit of pleasing views and scenery from
road.

C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value

1. Cost benefits to highway users- Traveling savings time. (non-commercial)
Minutes save per vehicle trip.

1-6. The Planner

 Planner’s Must Be:
 Clarifier
 Expediters
 Conciliators
 Impartial Negotiators
 Planner’s Role Are:
1. To provide technical and organizational support.
2. To receive input or information on the needs and goals of affected persons group
or agencies.
3. Incorporate the above for planning and making decisions.

• The Functions of the Planners are:

1. To prepare preliminary design, scoop of study and the initial work program,
know the basic needs, plan and objectives of affected persons.
2. Exploration of alternatives.
3. Detailed analysis.
4. Secure formal ratification from the local officials and have the results
documented.
1-7. Community Involvement
• Topics for Discussion and Involvement of the Community:
1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials, non-government
organizations, influential persons and conservative group of the community.
2. Create special staff to carry out this function.
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate continuously in the planning
stage.
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group meeting, workshops,
hearing and other relative activities.

1-8. Highway Economy

“A minimum of expenses is of course, highway desirable; but the road which is truly the
cheapest is not the one which has cost the least money, but the one which makes the
most profitable returns in proportion to the amount expended upon it.” - W GILLESPE
(PROFESSOR OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNION COLLEGE)

• The Intent of Expenditures for Highways and Public Transportations are Enumerated
as Follows:
1. To augment the country’s level of economy
2. To provide easy access to working place
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of related basic services
5. To give land owner benefits to transportation and increase property
assessment
6. Benefit for motor vehicle users through lower cost of operations and
maintenance
7. Benefit in time saving
8. Less road accident
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel

• Arguments of Those Who Favors Borrowings are:

1. The need is immediate to have instant infrastructures
2. No impact project will be seen because the “pay as you go” fund is scattered
throughout the entire road system where the situation is most critical
3. Borrowings encourage investors because of fast progress

• Counter Arguments of Those Against Financing Infrastructures Through Borrowing:

1. Borrowing may impair the credit rating of government agencies obstructing
other more important improvements
2. If future income is committed to pay past improvements, no more funds
available to maintain the existing system
 3. With much amount available temptation is there to over build and recklessly
spend extravagantly
4. Interest of the loan is a big waste of public funds

1-9. Computation and Survey

• Highway and transportation problems were based on the results of their
computations with the aid of slide rule and replaced by the calculator machine.
• This method is time consuming and was totally discarded in the advent of
computers.
 Most of the agencies have their own data processing and reporting is done through
computer networks.
Computers can do processing data for many problems like:
1. Projections and statistical studies of traffic an transit passengers
2. Economic analysis
3. Financial programming
4. Geometric
5. Bridges
6. Pavement design and maintenance
7. Pavement management
8. Scheduling for design and construction
9. Computation of earthworks and other quantities both for planning and payment
of contractors.

 Computers are provided with stereo plotter for map making and location
identification.
 Computer base interactive graphics could present problems into the screen, focused
on technical matters and management decisions making data.
 Computer programs are abundantly available to solve the repetitive highway and
transportation problems.
 Computer graphics display a motorist view of the highway so that the engineer could
make appropriate treatment of certain portion from cut to fills, route, location,
traffic, and transportation planning and accident analysis.
 The interactive graphics is used without computer. A remote controlled television
camera passes through small scales of the area of the route. The passage is recorded
in the tape and the playback will show impression similar to that of the walker on
the road or the vehicle driver.
 Computers are less prone to computational error if correctly programmed and too
much reliance on this machine might be trap for the ununiformed to assume that
the program inputs are absolutely correct.
  Deeper analysis and professional attention to computer program is the key to
accurate results that could be the basis for good decisions.

1-10. Remote Sensing

 It is the science and art of obtaining measurements by means of photography.
Remote sensing is otherwise called Photogrammetry.
 Photogrammetry is based on aerial photographs for engineers working data on:
1. Locations
2. Planning
3. Geometric Design
4. Right of Way
5. Traffic Studies
6. Drainage
7. Soil Classifications and Identifications
8. Earthwork Measurements
9. Material Location
10. Pavement Condition Survey

1-11. Photogrammetric Mapping

 This mapping provides an accurate land-based for utilities infrastructure, natural
resource, volumetric, etc.
 Is the science of making measurements from photographs, especially for recovering
the exact positions of surface points
 A vertical aerial photograph taken by a camera pointed almost straight downward is
the most useful mapping for highway purposes.
 Stereoscopic -pertaining to three-dimensional vision or any of various processes and
devices for giving the illusion of depth from two-dimensional images or
reproductions.
 For stereoscopic uses, the following must be considered:
1. End lap must be greater than one half the picture width specified not less than
55% nor more than 65% in order that the center of one picture is included in
both adjacent photograph
2. Side lap should average at 25% with less than 15. More than 35% is
unacceptable.
3. For making map purposes, the variable includes the focal length of the aerial
camera, the desired combination of map scale and contour interval, and the
ratio of map scale to photograph scale
 Instrument used in converting data from aerial photographs into maps are:
 1. The Kelsh and Balplex Stereoscopic Plotters
2. The Wild Autograph
3. The Kern PG2
4. The Zeiss Stereoplanigraph

 Features that cannot be identified on the photographs are located by ground

measurements. Any important points to be included on the ground surveys are
marked for easy identification on the photograph.
 Accuracy of the ground control triangulation network is when scaled with aerial
photographs. The THIRD ORDER TRIANGULATION is acceptable in rural areas, and
the SECOND ORDER TRIANGULATION for urban locations wherein the maximum
errors in distance are 1 to 5000 and 1 to 10 000 respectively.
 An accurate angular triangulation measurement is easily obtained by the use of
Modern Theodolites.
 The Photogrammetric technique coupled with digitizer, produces digital terrain
models.
 The horizontal and vertical positions of the ground surface, and other photographic
features are directly transferred for the matched aerial photograph to a computer
data bank. The information is recalled and the computer is programmed to develop
showing the following:
1. Profiles
2. Cross sections
3. Cut and fill earthwork quantities
4. The motorist view of the road
 With photographs and computer record data, a separate map could be plotted easily
like:
1. The highways
2. The drainage
3. Housing
4. Land Use and Zoning
5. Property Assessment
1-12. Orthophotographs
 Is an aerial photograph corrected for scale and tilt
 When the center portion are skillfully matched and copied they appear to be a
single photograph that shows more detail than maps.
 The uncorrected or partially corrected photographs are combined to form a mosaic,
considered better for engineering accuracy and right of way purposes.

1-13. Colored Photographs

 An aerial colored photograph presents a more detailed and precise information on
traffic and parking studies.
 It gives clear information of the geological conditions, land use, source of materials,
surfaces and sub-surface drainage.
 An oblique photograph is used for special studies particularly, where the ground
condition is almost flat or where cliffs are so steep that a black and white
photograph could not give sufficient details.

1-14. Location of the Proposed Highway

New highway locations are blended with curvature grades and other roadway elements
to offer:
 Comfortable easy driving
 Free flowing traffic arteries
 Comply with the rules on safety standards

1. Reliable cost estimate

2. Character and hourly distribution of traffic
3. Economic and community benefit factor
4. Availability of funds
Location surveys in the rural areas are divided into four stages
Stage I. Reconnaissance Survey of the entire area between the terminal points
Activities under Stage I
1. Stereoscopic examination of small scaled aerial photographs of the area
supplemented by available maps
2. Determination control of photography and land use
3. Location of feasible routes based on photographs and maps
 Stage II. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes
Activities under Stage II
1. Stereoscopic examination of large-scale aerial photographs of each route
2. Determination of the detailed control of photography and land use
3. Preparation of the route maps by Photogrammetric methods
4. Location and comparison of feasible routes on photographs and maps
5. Selection of the best route

Stage III. Preliminary survey of the best route

Activities under Stage III
1. Preparation of large scale topographic maps using the route photograph and
Photogrammetric methods or preparation of large scale topographic maps by
ground survey guided by best route location made on photographs in the second
stage.
2. Design of preliminary location

Stage IV. Location survey

Activities under Stage IV
1. Staking of the right of way and the highway and the structures for construction

1-15. Location of Bridges

 Highways and bridges have but one purpose – To convey traffic.
 The location and position of a bridge is subordinate to the general alignment and
grade.
 Lately however, the general policy for minor roads is to determine the proper
highway location, then provide the structures.
Skewed bridge

 Comparatively more expensive than the right angle bridge.

The horizontal and vertical curvature shape of large bridge presents serious design and
construction problem.
Foundation design of piers and abutments has large effect on costs.
 Bridge survey report should be accompanied with accurate data on the waterway and
the historical behavior of the water.
The bridge survey data shall include:
 The foundation conditions
 Stream characteristics
 The adjacent structure on the stream more particularly, their waterway opening
Requirements that must be considered when the location of the bridge is approximately
determined:
1. A complete data report and special survey of the site.
2. Prepare sketches and full scale map and profiles.
3. The survey report must contain accurate data of the waterway for all behavior of
water.
4. There must be a complete report on the foundation condition and the stream
characteristics.
5. A complete data of the adjacent structures particularly the waterway opening.
6. If possible, skewed bridge should be avoided.

1-16. Highway Plans and Specifications

Plans and specifications are set documents of instructions and conditions under which
highways and bridges are built.
Plans
 contains engineering drawings of the project
Specifications
 a written instructions and conditions considered as integral part of the contract
between the contractor and highway agency classified as legal documents.
The complete detailed scheme for the road which are incorporated in the geometric
designs are:
1. Traffic 5. Structure
2. Drainage 6. Soils
3. Erosion control 7. Pavement
4. Roadside development
Presentation of a Road Plan
1. The upper sheet is allocated for the plan, top view showing the horizontal
alignment, right of way takings, drain age arrangement and other features.
2. The lower half is allotted to the profile where the original elevation of the
ground surface is plotted. The roadway centerline and the vertical alignment or
grade line for the road is indicated.
3. The vertical scale of the profile is usually exaggeratedly enlarged from five to ten
times for precise detail.
4. The profile and other details of the drainage, channels or connecting roads
including ramps are also presented.
5. The estimated earthwork quantities for every 50 meters station or other
intervals are indicated along the bottom of each sheet along with the estimated
overhead. This will serve the engineer and the contractor.
6. The roadway cross sections for every situation in the whole project stretch is
indicated on another sheet of the plan.
7. Another sheet of drawings showing all structures and roadway appurtenances is
included.
8. The standard size of the drawing sheet is 55cm x 90cm.
Partial list of subjects covered by the standard drawing:
1. Pipe culverts
2. Concrete box culverts
3. Guard rail and parapet
4. Curbs
5. Gutters
6. Curb structures
7. Sidewalks
8. Drainage inlet and outlet structures of numerous types
9. Manholes
10. Rip-rap and other devices used for bank protection
11. Fences and right of way
12. Other survey markers
The Specifications
Specifications writing is generally different and a delicate work requiring knowledge of
the law of contracts as well as highway practices and experiences.
Specifications that are carelessly written and loosely worded may result in the use of
substandard materials and poor workmanship.
Specifications that are too restrictive are very costly.
Highway Specifications is Divided into Two:
1. Standard Specifications
 Applies to project implemented by administration which treat the subject that
repeatedly occurs in the agency work
2. Special Provisions
 Covers peculiar item of the project in question that include additional
modification to standard specifications.
 Includes copies of all documents required in securing competitive bids and
contracts.
 Specifications are also subdivide into two:
a. The general clause that deals with the bidding procedures and award
execution and control of work and legal matters.
b. Specifying detail regarding the materials, manner of work execution and how
pay quantities are to be measured