The Environmentalist, 22, 345–351, 2002

© 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Manufactured in The Netherlands.

Environmental education: biodiversity

M. KASSAS∗
Faculty of Science, University of Cairo, Giza 12613, Egypt

Summary. Environmental education was a principal topic on the agenda of the Stockholm 1972 Confer-
ence. In response to its recommendation UNESCO and UNEP developed and launched the International
Environmental Education Program (IEEP) in 1977. Environmental education was perceived to encom-
pass in-school and out-of-school activities and public awareness. Later developments added training to its
objectives and the concept of sustainable development to its dimensions. The international Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD) represented a phase in the world commitment to ‘conservation of nature.’
It underpinned biodiversity in the fields of environmental education. Biodiversity education is based on
five pivots: scale of boundaries (from local to worldwide), perspectives, goals, themes (vary according to
actors), and assimilation (evaluation of programs of action). Directions relate to learners and teachers,
and processes address: awareness, school education, education (and professional training) at tertiary level,
roles of communication and media institutions.

Keywords: international concerns, biological diversity, education, public awareness, training

Introduction provided materials for an intergovernmental con-

ference held in Tbilisi in 1977 that launched the
International concern International Environmental Education Program
(IEEP). In 1987, ten years after Tbilisi, a second
‘Environmental education’ was one of the princi- international conference (the Moscow Congress
pal topics on the agenda of the UN Conference on Environmental Education and Training) pro-
on Human Environment held in Stockholm (Swe- duced the International Strategy for Action in the
den) in 1972. Recommendation 96 of the Plan field of Environmental Education and Training in
of Action adopted by the Conference required the 1990s. It should be noted that training was
UNESCO and UNEP, together with interested added to education. Chapter 36 of Agenda 21
international bodies, to establish an international adopted by the UN Conference on Environment
program on environmental education. UNESCO and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 1992) outlined
and UNEP collaborated in planning and devel- three principal programs for environmental educa-
oping a world cooperative program. The prepara- tion: (a) reorienting education towards sustainable
tory process included an international workshop development, (b) increasing public awareness, and
in Belgrade, 1975, followed by regional symposia (c) promoting training. In Agenda 21, the concept
held during 1975–77 in: Europe (Helsinki), Africa of sustainable development seemed to subsume
(Brazzaville and Lagos), Arab States (Kuwait), environmental concerns.
Asia (Bangkok), Latin America (Bogotá), North
The UN Commission on Sustainable
America (Ottawa), and East Europe (Prague).
Development, that was set to monitor progress
The outcome of these worldwide consultations
in implementing Agenda 21, reviewed in its
∗
Professor M. Kassas (e-mail: [email protected]) is Emir-
fourth session (1996) progress and constraints
itus professor of Botany, an Adivsory Board member of this related to chapter 36 of Agenda 21. Environmen-
journal, and former president of IUCN. tal education acquired a new form: education
346 Kassas

for sustainability. For a review of the UN led skills, literacy, and responsible behavior
endeavour in this field, see Smyth et al. (1997). (Hawthorne and Alabaster, 1999). Here
sustainable development prevails.

Environmental education Difficulties that face environmental educators

are many-faceted, the field is broad and often
Perceptions of environmental education reflect ill-defined: (1) Environmental issues may be per-
priorities related to various operational purposes. ceived within limited space (a room, a hall in a
Here are examples: factory, etc.), a wider space of a city, a rural area,
1. Environmental education is aimed at devel- a much wider space of a country, an ecoregion,
oping a world population that is aware of, a continent, several environmental issues are per-
and concerned about, the environment and its ceived as worldwide or global. (2) Environmental
associated problems, and which has the knowl- issues may relate to ecology (disruption of nat-
edge, skills, attitudes, motivation and com- ural cycles, land degradation, loss of species), to
mitment to work individually and collectively societal pressures (population and demographic
towards solving current problems or preven- forces, consumption and needs, etc.), to scien-
tion of new ones (UNESCO, 1975). tific constraints (shortages of information, uncer-
2. Lucas (1980) recognizes three approaches to tainties that undermine clearly cut conclusions,
environmental education: (1) education in the etc.). (3) Environmental issues are inherently
environment, (2) education about the envi- multi-dimensional as they relate to interactions
ronment, and (3) education for the environ- among nature (the biosphere), sociosphere (socio-
ment. While environmental education seeks
economic, socio-political and socio-cultural pro-
the goal of understanding the environmental
cesses), and the technosphere (structures estab-
issues, environmental training is to provide
lished by the human species within the space of
selected people with the necessary skills to
monitor, assess, and manage the environment the biosphere using and applying technologies and
and the interactions between environment and scientific knowledge available). These three sys-
development. tems are different in origin, time scale, space scale,
3. Related to environmental education is the and control forces. This means that environmental
concept worldview. “The expression environ- interactions and processes of sustainable develop-
mental worldview is typically used to describe ment are not linear, and hence complex, not easy
beliefs, values, and concepts that collectively to grasp, and marred with ambivalence and uncer-
make up the individual’s perception of the tainty.
environment and humankind’s relation to it” Planners and developers of programs of envi-
(Disinger and Tomsen, 1995). Environmental ronmental education share with their colleagues
education aims at: (1) instilling in the learn- in fields of education at large difficulties related
ers a positive perception of the environmental to the variety of audience and hence variety of
worldview, and (2) cultivating in the society, methodologies and instruments. A pedagogical
through educational institutions, a broader
approach to environmental education befits school
environmental worldview.
curricula. Education for university level needs to
4. Environmental citizenship: environmental
combine the objectives of training (development
education and education for sustainability
attempts to create an environmentally respon- of technicians) and human development (ability
sible population that contributes to sustain- for life-long learning and ability for broad per-
able development and consists of a number ception of multi-dimensional processes of ecology
of discrete (but related) components. These and development). Education for public partici-
environmental citizenship components include pation and awareness (democratic behavior and
information, awareness, concern, attitude, attitude) includes programs for the media and
beliefs, education and training, knowledge, requires methodologies that tap its potentials.
 Environmental education: biodiversity 347

Biological diversity The disappearance of the sacred ibis and the

papyrus are cultural losses for Egypt.
The international Convention on Biological Diver- 5. Species of plants and animals are aesthetic
sity (CBD) brought the issue of biodiversity to elements in the environment, and for many
worldwide attention of scientists, educators, policy- people they may be foci of special interest.
makers and the public at large (activist societal Many of the societies and civil institutions are
groups). The Convention commits countries to concerned with particular groups of species,
protect biodiversity and to conserve its elements. world-wide support for conservation of biota
This requires a variety of instruments including derive from the energies of this interest.
education, communication, and research. Conser- 6. The world biota, including human kind, are
vation of biodiversity is conceived as an integral elements of the biosphere (creation) and have
element of the broader concept of sustainable use evolved through eons of evolutionary history.
of natural resources. The two concepts are broad Humans who have become the stewards of
and all-encompassing. The generally accepted per- the Planet Earth are ethically bound to ensure
ception of biodiversity is that it embraces all survival of this biota, and so dictate religions.
species of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the The purpose of biodiversity education is to
ecosystems and ecological processes of which they develop knowledge and skills and to cultivate atti-
are part; this includes three levels: genetic diversity tudes that would enable the society to respond to
(intraspecies diversity), species diversity (richness) these requirements and responsibilities.
and ecosystem diversity.
Biodiversity is a value-laden concept, different
Biodiversity education
actors perceive varied urges for conserving bio-
diversity: scientific, ecological, economic, cultural,
Programs for biodiversity education, as part of the
aesthetic, etc. These are mostly homocentric val-
broader vista of environmental education, need to
ues. To these may be added ethical values that
be based on a number of pivots that should form
are biocentric and relate to species as natural
common grounds for all involved in the processes
share-holders of the biosphere with an inherent
of planning and implementing the programs. Five
right to survival. These issues need to be consid-
pivots may be recognized (Wals, 1999).
ered and addressed in programs of biodiversity–
environmental education. They may be summed
up as follows, (see Kassas, 2002): Defining scope

1. There is a wide gap in our knowledge of biodi- Biodiversity may mean different things to the wide
versity. Our taxonomic records of world fauna range of practitioners, policy makers, and con-
and flora (c. 1.7 million species) represent a cerned citizens. For policy makers, biodiversity
small share of the species that may exist (best is indicative and its degradation (loss of species)
guess-estimate 10 million, WRI-IUCN-UNEP, indicates degradation of the environment (human
1992). habitat). For advocacy groups, attention is given
2. Biological materials are natural resources that to particular plants or animals of concern. For
provide a substantial share of human wealth, scientists the word may mean different things
and include potential resources that may be to agronomists, foresters, taxonomists, geneticists,
discovered and developed to contribute to bio-geographers, ecologists, etc. Biodiversity edu-
wealth in forms of materials or genetic assets. cation needs to embrace all these meanings.
3. Biological entities contribute to the healthy This is further complicated by variabilities in
functioning of ecosystems that are the human space and in time. Variability may be considered
life-support systems. Loss of biological enti- in terms of richness of biodiversity (number of
ties may disrupt the ecological processes that species in a unit of space at a certain time) and
produce goods and services. in terms of abundance (number of individuals in
4. Biological materials of plants and animals are a unit of space at a certain time). This means that
elements of cultures and cultural heritage. the geographical location and limits, and that time
348 Kassas

scale (season, year, decade, century, etc.), should biodiversity education): emotional aspects,
also set boundaries for our consideration. scientific–ecological aspects, ethical aspects, and
political aspects. Emotional relates to sensitiza-
Determining perspectives tion that creates personal meaning. Ecological
relates to understanding relationships, functions,
Because of the broad dimensions of the area etc. operating within the ecosystem. It also
of biodiversity and wide range of learning goals relates to dimensions that range from the micro
(related to different groups of learners), planners (local) to the global. Ethical relates to values,
of education programs need to determine perspec- moral standards, etc. Political relates to making
tives that help them navigate the course of their choices among controversial issues and competing
steps. Three perspectives may be considered. demands.
The perspectives (‘Determining perspectives’
(i) Understand ecology. Ecological literacy means above) and the goals are compatible. Together
understanding the relationships among differ- they establish the foundations of environmental
ent species (plants, animals, etc.) that share education. These influence the contents of learn-
the ecosystem. This includes understanding the ing processes. Two groups of actors need to be
impacts of human action on the biota. It also considered:
means understanding the interactions between the
biota (including humans) and the habitat (the abi- (i) the learners—their motivation, skills, and
otic elements of the ecosystem). cultural background;
(ii) the teachers—the quality of their training,
(ii) Intimacy with nature. To work with biodiver- motivation, the support staff, and the insti-
sity, its conservation and its sustainable use, it is tutional support.
necessary to develop a personal association with
nature. This underlines the special value of field
Themes—sites
work that ensures contact with biota and their
habitats; develops appreciation of its scientific,
Appropriate themes for biodiversity education
aesthetic and resource values; instils caring for
may be found in area (local) of the institution
the biota (or special taxa of it) and the balance
of education, or may consider broader horizons.
of its ecological set-up. Here, senses of wonder,
Here are examples:
enjoyment, etc., and ultimately caring can be men-
tioned. By this involvement, action for biodiversity (i) Biodiversity in school garden, house back-
becomes work with compassion, a requirement for yard, crop field, fruit orchard, etc. These are
effectiveness of action. local sites that provide fields for biodiver-
sity inventory, for monitoring seasonal (in
(iii) Supportive society. Societal support requires
time) changes, for noting variations in dif-
dissemination of information nation-wide on the
ferent parts of the site (in space changes),
values involved. These relate to local and national
and for recording impacts of human actions.
interests and responsibilities to regional and inter-
(ii) A canal, a drainage ditch, a river bank, a sea
national conventions to which the nation is com-
shore, etc. could provide sites for: observ-
mitted. Individual citizens and groups of citizens
ing fishing activities with records of sea-
need to be willing to participate in, and con-
sonal changes in fish species along with the
tribute to, action programs. In this domain, media
difference in abundance of diverse species,
programs of biodiversity education complement
observing and monitoring bird diversity, and
school curricula and university courses of biodi-
related seasonal variation.
versity education.
(iii) Botanical gardens, zoological gardens, and
nature reserves provide sites for rich
Defining goals studies on biodiversity. These could be
single species oriented: diversity within
There seem to be four aspects of learning species, habitat requirement, reproduction,
in fields of environmental education (including etc. These sites, especially nature reserves,
 Environmental education: biodiversity 349

could provide room for diverse studies on water, land and biota. Ecotourism and recreation
populations of plants and animals, habitat may reclaim these links. Rural habitats and their
diversity, etc. inhabitants remained closer to nature.
(iv) The broader theme of the biosphere (Planet Environmental damage caused by various forms
Earth Ecosystem) could provide a rich and of pollution and deterioration of life-support sys-
challenging topic. In units of the biosphere tems became particularly evident during the sec-
(ecoregions of the world) learners could find ond half of the 20th century. Awareness of
room for comprehending aspects of biodi- environmental groups of concerned citizens and
versity, perspectives and goals. This broad advances in the sciences of ecology and environ-
theme provides for understanding relation- ment created worldwide feelings that humankind
ships of the life support functions for biota has the duty to protect the environment. Envi-
(species) including Homo sapiens; it also ronmental education became a tool for nurtur-
provides for appreciating global linkages and ing environmental ethics and for instilling prudent
interdependencies. attitude and practices towards nature, its health
and its resources.
The above themes are just examples, the pro- By the 1990s the concept of sustainable devel-
gram planners in diverse places will be able to opment became prevalent, almost a widely held
select themes for which sites are available. In belief. This has added a future dimension to
every situation, a specific theme will focus on per- environmental ethics: responsibility of the present
spective/goal in a set of learning activities. generation towards the wellbeing of the future
generations and their environment. The IUCN-
UNEP-WWF(1991): Caring for the Earth: a Strat-
Assimilation of program egy for Sustainable Living calls for worldwide adop-
tion of an ethic for sustainable living, under which
Assimilation, here, means that the program as every person takes responsibility for his or her
designed and implemented produces its target: impacts on nature, and each generation under-
learners have achieved knowledge insight, involve- takes to leave to the future a world as diverse and
ment values, responsibility–morality, and skills. prosperous as the world it inherited. The institu-
This ensures that all actors (learners, teachers, tions of religion have an effective role in promot-
program planners and designers, support staff) ing environmental ethics. For instance Harvard
and factors (resources, school facilities, sites for University (USA) initiated a program on reli-
themes, etc.) have undertaken their roles effec- gion and environment which conducted a series
tively. Means need to be developed for evaluating of conferences on major religions and environ-
program as implemented. ment. Civil society organizations, through initia-
tives like: green consumer movement, green belt
movement, etc., are effective tools in cultivating
Education processes environmental ethics. Professional associations are
keenly interested in the roles of its membership
Education: Awareness in conserving the environment. For instance, the
World Federation of Engineering Organizations,
All through history, humankind was aware of its through its Committee on Engineering and Envi-
intimate relationships with nature. The culture of ronment, produced and adopted in its Annual
kinship with other creatures on Earth is old, spir- Plenary Session, New Delhi, 5 November 1985 a
itual environmental ethics was part of ancient civ- “Code of Environmental Ethics for Engineers.”
ilizations that was fostered through teachings of Business, industry and commerce are respond-
religions. This may have been subdued through ing positively to requirements of environmental
societal transformations associated with industri- concerns. Prior to the 1980s, industry seemed to
alization and urbanization, processes that fostered regard environmental issues as a peripheral nui-
societal dependence on power-machines and tech- sance, but during recent decades the process of
nologies and have apparently blurred the sense of ‘greening the corporate boardrooms’ is spreading
intimacy with, and dependence on, nature: its air, (see Tolba et al., 1992, chapter 21).
350 Kassas

Education: In the school ronmental literacy and environmental profession-

alism. Evolution of university programs seems to
The substance of environment in the school pro- move from the initial concern with nature conser-
cesses may combine (1) in-school basic envi- vation (applied ecology) to the wider concern of
ronmental knowledge (ecology, natural resources, interactions of development and environment.
population dynamics, problems of habitat degra- Environmental literacy means, apart from the
dation, etc.) and (2) out-of-school activities, sensitivity required by “environmental citizen-
involvement in community activity, problem- ship,” that learners at the tertiary level should
solving projects, etc. The latter links with the obtain basic knowledge of the interactions of soci-
Lucas (1980) first approach: education in the envi- ety and environment in the processes of resource
ronment; for this purpose field stations, teaching development and management of human habitat.
facilities in biosphere reserves, etc. could provide Here, professionally trained engineers, agricultur-
invaluable means. alists, physicians, economists, lawyers, etc., need to
Environmental education, as other aspects of be fully cognizant of the likely impacts of societal
environmentalism, does not enjoy easy accep- activities and development schemes on the health
tance. Ardent critics in the USA charge that and quality of the environment. For this purpose,
environmental education is “attempting to turn a broadly based general program in environment
school children into overzealous, unthinking envi- and biodiversity sciences may be introduced into
ronmentalists”; “turning children into environ- the undergraduate curricula. This program may
mental crusaders.” Two elements are blamed: include a first part, available to all students, on
teaching materials being scientifically weak and the basic interactions within the biosphere, and a
politically motivated, and teachers try to impart second part comprising case-studies that relate to
their own values to learners. In 1997, an Inde- the professional areas included in the curricula,
pendent Commission on Environmental Educa- that is, tailored according to the interest of the
tion (ICEE) carried out a survey and an evalu- class.
ation study on environmental education in USA Tertiary institutions are required to produce
schools; see Disinger (1997) for a review. The professionals for a variety of job requirements.
ICEE noted that environmental topics were gen- These include (in fields of biodiversity):
erally infused into other subject areas, mostly sci-
— technicians for biodiversity surveys and moni-
ence, and that environment-focused teaching and
toring,
learning materials “often do not provide a frame-
— managers of conservation schemes, including
work for progressive building of knowledge.” The
nature reserves,
importance of the relationship between environ-
— research scholars in fields of biodiversity,
mental concerns and development of good citi-
— school teachers for environmental education,
zenship was noted and approved. ICEE recom-
— technicians for programs of awareness.
mended that “schools should consider teaching
environmental education as an upper-level multi- Two lines seem to prevail: (1) institute a univer-
disciplinary capstone course integrating what stu- sity first degree (B.Sc., etc.) in environment/biodi-
dents have learned in science, social science, and versity sciences, (2) institute postgraduate courses
other upper-level courses.” ICEE emphasized that (diploma, M.Sc., etc.) in environmental sciences.
teachers of environmental education need sub- The latter seems to be more widespread.
stantive preparation in science, economics and
mathematics, and that teaching materials need to
be scientifically accurate and well-balanced. Education: Communication and media

Success in implementing schemes for conserva-

Education: Tertiary level tion of natural resources, protection of the envi-
ronment, undoing environmental degradation, and
Environmental education seeks to provide learn- ensuring sustainable development requires sup-
ers in tertiary institutions with two attributes: envi- port and positive participation of people. There
 Environmental education: biodiversity 351

is a requirement for programs of non-formal edu- produce a series (OUTREACH) of dossiers, each
cation that disseminate environmental knowledge, providing basic information on an environmen-
cultivate public awareness, and motivate active tal issue and variety of means for its narrative
participation. This component of environmental and graphic presentation. A dossier is meant to
education has two principal thrusts: (1) cognitive provide “raw material” that could be remoulded
skills that make people understand the environ- to suite various media. OUTREACH is issued in
ment and appreciate the consequences of action several languages and has now produced (more
and of inaction and the intimate interdependence than 100 issues) a most valuable set of reference
between society and environment; (2) work skills materials.
that enable people to participate meaningfully in
implementing corrective measures.
The press is an effective tool for education
in general. Radio has been, and is likely to References
remain, a principal medium for non-formal edu-
cation in rural areas in developing countries. Disinger, J.F. (1997) Environmental education research news.
The Environmetalist 17(3), 153–56.
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become widespread media with great potentials tion research news. The Environmentalist 15(1), 3–9.
for bringing home the environmental message. Hawthorne, M. and Alabaster, T. (1999) Citizen 2000: Devel-
These media, especially radio and television, have opment of a model of environmental citizenship. Global
the advantages of: (1) can present messages in Environmental Change 9, 25–43.
IUCN-UNEP-WWF (1991) Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for
series that are regularly transmitted and become Sustainable Development. Gland: IUCN.
part of the daily programs of recipients, (2) can Kassas, M. (2002) Biodiversity: Gaps in knowledge. The Envi-
combine news (documentaries) with expert com- ronmentalist 22(1), 43–9.
ments and explanations, (3) can be used for pro- Lucas, A.M. (1980) Science and environmental education:
grams of group education (in country clubs, com- Pious hopes, self-praise, and disciplinary chauvinism. Stud-
ies in Science Education 7, 1–26.
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group interactions. They can also have a useful sustainability at the United Nations: Making progress? The
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tions with audiences and in methods for assessing Tolba, M.K., El-Kholy, O.A., El-Hinnawi, E., Holdgate, M.W.,
impacts of media programs provide useful guid- McMichael, D.F., and R.E. Munn (eds.), (1992) The World
Environment: 1972–1992. Chapter 21: Perceptions and atti-
ance for improving effectiveness and reach. tudes, pp. 659–92. London, Chapman & Hall.
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