Math 116 - College Algebra Lecture

Notes
Go to: Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 3 | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 | Chapter 6 | Chapter 7 |
Chapter 8

Prerequisites
Chapter 1 - Functions and Their Graphs
 Graphs and Graphing Utilities
 Lines in the Plane
 Functions
 Graphs of Functions
 Shifting, Reflecting, and Stretching Graphs
 Combinations of Functions
 Inverse Functions

Chapter 2 - Intercepts, Zeros, and Solutions

1. Linear Equations and Modeling
2. Solving Equations Graphically
3. Complex Numbers
4. Solving Equations Algebraically
5. Solving Inequalities Algebraically and Graphically
6. Exploring Data: Linear Models and Scatter Plots (now covered in 2.1 in text)

Chapter 3 - Polynomials and Rational Functions

 Quadratic Functions
 Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree
 Real Zeros of Polynomial Functions
 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
 Rational Functions and Asymptotes
 Graphs of Rational Functions

Chapter 4 - Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

 Exponential Functions and Their Graphs
 Logarithmic Functions and Their Graphs
 Properties of Logarithms
  Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
 Exponential and Logarithmic Models
 Exploring Data: Nonlinear Models (now covered in 4.5 in text)

Chapter 5 - Systems of Equations and Inequalities

 Solving Systems of Equations
 Systems of Linear Equations in Two Variables
 Multivariable Linear Systems
 Partial Fractions
 Systems of Inequalities
 Linear Programming (now covered in 5.3 in text)

Chapter 6 - Matrices and Determinants

1. Matrices and Systems of Equations
2. Matrix Operations
3. The Inverse of a Square Matrix
4. The Determinant of a Square Matrix
5. Applications of Determinants and Matrices

Chapter 7 - Sequences and Probability

1. Sequences and Summation Notation
2. Arithmetic Sequences
3. Geometric Sequences
4. Mathematical Induction
5. The Binomial Theorem
6. Counting Principles
7. Probability

Chapter 8 - Conics and Parametric Equations

 Conics
 Translations of Conics
 Parametric Equations

These notes were written during the Fall 1997 semester to accompany Larson's College
Algebra: A Graphing Approach, 2nd edition text. We have moved on to Larson's 5th
edition and some sections have changed but I have left them where they are since
many people on the Internet find these useful resources.
The notes were updated in the Fall 2003 semester to use Cascading Style Sheets and
validate as XHTML 1.0 strict web pages. If your browser doesn't support CSS, certain
pages (especially those with matrices) will not display properly.

Go to the James Jones website.

LECTURE NOTES ON ALGEBRA

1.1 - Graphs and Graphing Utilities

TI-82
There are several kinds of graphs that the TI-82 or TI-83 will do, but they are accessed
from the same key. The [y=] key and the [2nd] [y=] or [StatPlot] key. The two major kinds
of plots may cause confusion when mixed, so it is best to turn off all unnecessary plots
before trying to graph an equation.

To turn off all statistical plots, hit [StatPlot] and choose option 4 - PlotsOff. Hit enter to
finish the command.

To turn off a regular plot, one can either hit [Clear] while on an equation, or arrow to the
left so that the cursor is on the equal sign, and press enter to toggle the display of that
equation.

Graphing Equations with the Calculator

Equations must be solved explicitly for y before being placed into the calculator. In other
words, y must be written as a function of x before entering the equation into the
calculator.

Sometimes, equations can't be solved for y. Other times, the result is not a function. In
this case, you may need two y functions.

x2 + y2 = 16 has the solutions y = + sqrt(16 - x2) and y = - sqrt(16 - x2)

When you solve the above equation, you get two values for y. Put the positive square
root in y1and the negative square root in y2. Alternatively, you can specify that y2= -y1.
On the TI-82, the y1 variable can be found under [2nd] [Vars] (or [Y-Vars]), Function. On
the TI-83, it is found under [Vars], Y-Vars, Function.
Zoom Settings
There are several zoom settings that we will be using in this class.

Standard

The standard zoom setting sets the domain and range to [-10,10] and the scale to 1. If
you're not familiar with the interval notation [-10,10], please refer to the preliminary
chapter.

When moving the cursor in the standard setting, the x-step is 0.21276596 and the y-
step is 0.32258065. These are not "nice" values, and often cause problems when trying
to find exact values by tracing. They also cause problems with the graph when there are
vertical asymptotes (rational expressions) or at the endpoints of the domain (as was
illustrated in class with the circle).

Decimal

The decimal zoom setting sets up the screen so that the x-step is 0.1 and the y-step is
0.1. This makes the values much nicer to look at, but gives you a much smaller window.

The domain for the decimal setting is [-4.7,4.7] and the range is [-3.1,3.1]. This also
helps us figure out the size of the screen. If each pixel (dot on the screen) is 0.1 apart,
then there are 95 pixels horizontally and 63 pixels vertically.

Square

Because the size of the screen is not the same, graphs have a tendency to not come
out looking right. The square zoom setting is a way to remedy that.

In the decimal setting, the horizontal and vertical steps are both 0.1, so the images will
appear square, but in the standard setting, the horizontal and vertical steps are 0.213
and 0.323 respectively.

The square decimal leaves the larger interval of the domain or range alone and
changes the settings on the smaller one. If the domain and range are the same length
(as in a standard setting), the domain is changed.

Zoom Out / Zoom In

If you want to maintain a square setting, but you need a larger portion of the viewing
window to be shown, you can use the Zoom Out or Zoom In settings. Each of these
require a position to zoom in or out about. So, after you choose the Zoom In or Zoom
Out, you will need to position the cursor to where you want the center of the zoom to be
and press enter.
The zoom factor is four. That is, if you zoom out, you will see sixteen times as much
area (four times the horizontal and four times the vertical makes sixteen times the area).
As an example, assume your domain is [-10,10] and your range is [-5,5]. If you zoom
out with the origin as the center of the zoom, your new domain will be [-40,40] and hte
new range will be [-20,20].

When zooming in, the factor is one-fourth. In other words, a zoom in done after a zoom
out (with the same center for both) will return to the previous settings.

Box

The zoom box option is like the zoom in option, except that you specify two corners of a
box, and then the area between those corners is displayed.

Stat

The zoom statistics setting is useful when you have a statistical plot that you want to
include all the data for. The plot will set the Xmin and Xmax so that all of the data is
visible. If you are graphing a scatter plot, so that there are both x and y data values,
then the Ymin and Ymax will also be changed so that all of the data is visible.

Trig

Sets the domain to be from -2π to +2π with the scale to be π/2. The range is [-4,4] with
a scale of 1. This is a nice setting to use when graphing trigonometric functions, but we
won't be doing that in this class, so you can pretty much ignore it.

Determining the Viewing Window

When you're trying to determine what the viewing window is, you should put the
equation into the calculator so that you will be able to see when the graph matches the
picture. Take into account the number of tick marks and the min and max settings.

The first thing to do is try to find some important points on the graph like y-intercepts, x-
intercepts, or maximums and minimums. If you can figure out where it's at on the graph
from the calculator, you can then figure out what the scale is (how far apart the ticks
are). Once you have that, it's pretty easy to find the viewing window by just counting the
number of ticks to each side of zero.

1.2 - Lines in the Plane

Slope of a Line
The slope is represented by the letter m.

The slope of a non-vertical line is defined several ways. It is the rise over the run. It is
the change in y over the change in x.

For two points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) where x1≠ x2, the slope is m = ( y2 - y1 ) / ( x2 - x1 )

If the slope is positive, the line rises from left to right. If the slope is negative, the line
falls from left to right. If the slope is zero, the line is horizontal. If the slope is undefined,
the line is vertical.

Point-Slope Form of a Line

The equation of the non-vertical line passing through the points (x 1,y1) and (x2,y2) and
having slope m is given by the equation:

y - y1 = m ( x - x 1 )

Which point you call point 1 and which point you call point 2 does not matter.

We almost never leave the equation of a line in point-slope form, but use it as a
stepping ground to a final answer. One exception to this is when we're finding the
asymptotes to hyperbolas in conic sections.

Historical Note

Linear Interpolation is using the equation of a line to approximate a value which falls
between two known points. Linear Interpolation is often used when looking up values in
a table, and the value you need is not in the table, but between two values which are in
the table. In the good old days before there were calculators, we used linear
interpolation to find logarithms and trigonometric values. Now, the calculators have
those functions built into them, so there is less need to use interpolation. Linear
Interpolation is still used some in statistics, but for most things, we just use the value
from the table which is closer or less likely to cause a more serious error (don't worry if
that didn't make sense, take a statistics course, and it will).

Linear Extrapolation is the process of using the equation of a line to approximate a

value which falls outside two known points.

Slope-Intercept Form of a Line

The equation of the non-vertical line crossing the y-axis at the point (0,b) and having
slope m is given by the equation:

y = m x + b
The point-slope form can be placed into the slope-intercept form with a little algebra.

The slope-intercept form of a line is what must be placed into the calculator to get it to
graph the line.

General Form of a Line

In general, the general form of anything will be the form where all the variables and
constants are on the left side of the equation, in decreasing degree of the terms and
alphabetically for those terms that have the same degree.

For a line, that means ax + by + c = 0

a and b can not both be zero, if they were, then you would have c=0, which is a
constant, not a linear function.

Vertical and Horizontal Lines

Vertical lines are lines that have all the x-coordinates the same. So, the equation of a
vertical line is x=a (where a is that common abscissa).

Horizontal lines are lines that have all the y-coordinates the same. So, the equation of a
horizontal line is y=b (where b is that common ordinate).

Parallel Lines
Parallel lines are lines in the same plane that do not intersect. The slope of parallel lines
is the same.

Perpendicular Lines
Perpendicular lines are lines in the same plane that intersect at a right angle. The
product of non-vertical and non-horizontal perpendicular lines is negative one. Another
way of saying that is that the slopes of perpendicular lines are opposite reciprocals of
each other.

Calculator
Using the graphing calculator to graph lines is pretty straightforward. Solve for y and
enter the expression into the calculator. Solving for y is equivalent to putting the
equation into slope-intercept form.

One warning though for users of the TI82 calculator. Be careful with slopes that are
fractions.
Consider the following equations.

 y = 1/2x + 2
 y = x/2 + 2
 y = (1/2)x + 2
 y = 1/2*x + 2
 y = 0.5x + 2
 y = 0.5*x + 2

All of the above except for the first one will give you the graph of a line. The first one will
give you the graph of a rational function.

The TI82 incorrectly gives implied multiplication a higher preference than division and
assumes that when people put an expression without a multiplication symbol after a
division symbol, they wish to have the whole expression in the denominator.

The TI-82 takes y=1/2x + 2 as y = 1/(2x) + 2, which is a rational function, not a line.

Some people use a slash (/) to indicate division. You should use a horizontal division
bar for division. A slash is okay when there is no implied multiplication in the
denominator.

The TI83 properly handles the expression and all six expressions above will graph
properly.

1.3 - Functions
Definitions
Relation
A rule that associates a value in the domain with a value in the range.
Function
A function is a relation (rule) that assigns each element in the domain to exactly
one element in the range.
Domain
The set of all the values which may be input into a function. That is, the set of all
the values the independent variable may assume. Graphically, the domain is the
set of all the x-coordinates.
Range
The set of all the values which are output when the function is evaluated at all the
input values from the domain. That is, the set of all the values the dependent
variable may assume. Graphically, the range is the set of all the y-coordinates.
Independent Variable
 Typically, the independent variable is x. However, the independent variable is the
variable which is free to assume different values independently of the other
variable. Most of what we're going to do in this class will only involve one
independent variable, but realize that it is possible to have more than one
independent variable.
Dependent Variable
Typically, the dependent variable is y. However, the dependent variable is the
variable which is determined based on the value of the independent variable(s). If
a function is written as y=3x+2, then y depends on x, but x doesn't depend on y
(in the form it's written in). So, x is independent of y, but y is dependent of x.
Implied Domain
The set of all real numbers for which the expression is defined.

How is a function different from a relation?

Here are some guidelines for determining whether a relation is a function or not.

 Each and every element in the domain (x) must be matched with an element in
the range (y).
 Every element in the domain (x) can only be matched with one element in the
range (y).
 Different elements in the domain can go to the same element in the range. A y-
coordinate may be repeated, but an x-coordinate may not.
 Some values in the range don't have to be used at all

Function Notation
Function notation is used to name functions for easy reference. Imagine if every
function in the world had to start off with y=. Pretty soon, you would become confused
about which y= you were talking about. This is the way antecedents work in English. If
you just say "it" is red, you really don't have any clue which "it" you're talking about. You
need some other way of naming things. Enter function notation.

Function Definition

7. f(x) = 3x + 2
8. g(x,y) = x2 + 3y

In this example, the f is a function of x. That is, x is the independent variable, and the
value of f depends on what x is. Also, g is a function of both x and y.

The notation f(x) does not mean f times x. It means the "value of f evaluated at x" or
"value of f at x" or simply "f of x"

Function Evaluation
f(3) = 3(3) + 2 = 9 + 2 = 11

f(3) does not mean f times 3. It means the "value of f evaluated when x is 3".

f(t) = 3(t) + 2 = 3t + 2

Whatever is in parentheses on the left side of the function (t in this case) is substituted
for the value of the independent variable on the right side.

f(x+h) = 3(x+h) + 2 = 3x + 3h + 2

Every occurrence of the independent variable is replaced by the quantity in

parentheses. A common mistake is to take a quantity and apply linear or affine
transformations to it.

f(x+h)

 f(x+h) does not equal f(x) + h = 3x+2 + h

 f(x+h) does not equal f(x) + f(h) = 3x+2 + 3h+2 = 3x + 3h + 4
 f(x+h) does equal 3(x+h) + 2 = 3x + 3h + 2

f(3x)

 f(3x) does not equal 3 * f(x) = 3( 3x+2) = 9x + 6

 It does equal 3(3x) + 2 = 9x + 2

You also specify which function you want to use when you use function notation.
Consider

g(2,1) = 22 + 3(1) = 4 + 3 = 7

Since the order of the independent variables in the original definition was x and then y,
the function g is evaluated when x=2 and y=1.

g(1,2) is something completely different. In this case, x=1 and y=2.

g(1,2) = 12 + 3(2) = 1 + 6 = 7

Okay, so it's not completely different, but it is found in a different manner.

Piecewise Definitions
Sometimes, functions are a little more complex than the simple functions we've
described so far. If different rules are used for different values of the independent
variable, then we can use a piecewise definition.
Consider the function shown and the following evaluations.

f(2.1) = 2(2.1) = 4.2

Since 2.1 is in the interval [1,3), we use the second piece of the definition, f(x) = 2x.

f(-2) = 3 - (-2)2 =3 - 4 = -1

Since -2 is in the interval (-∞,-1), we use the first piece of the definition, f(x) = 3-x 2

f(3) = 5 - (3) = 5 - 3 = 2

Since 3 is not included in the second piece, but it is included in the third piece on the
interval [3,+∞) we use the third piece of the definition, f(x) = 5 - x.

f(0) is undefined

Since 0 doesn't fall into any of the domains, the function is undefined there.

When all of the domains are combined, the domain of the function f, is the set of all real
numbers except [-1,1). You could also write it as (-∞,-1)U[1,+∞). The symbol U stands
for the union of two sets.

Piecewise Functions and the Calculator

You can put piecewise functions into the graphing calculator. The TI82 and TI83
calculators have a [Test] key obtained by pressing [2 nd] [Math]. Under this key, you will
find the different test operators (equal to, not equal to, greater than, greater than or
equal to, less than, and less than or equal to).

When the calculator evaluates a test expression (x<1), it will return the value of 1 if the
statement is true and the value of 0 if the statement is false. This works really well with
multiplication, because multiplying by 1 won't change the expression, and multiplying by
0 will make the expression 0.

y = (1 - x2)*(x<-1)

Consider just the first part of the piecewise definition from above. If x<-1, then the
calculator will return (1-x^2). If x is not less than negative one, then the calculator will
return 0. That's not the proper value to return (it should be undefined), but it will graph
on the x-axis and won't show up because the axis is already there. So, it has the
semblance on graphing correctly.

The complete piecewise function can be defined for the calculator as:

y = (1-x2)*(x<-1) + 5x*(1≤x and x<3) + (5-3x)*(x≥3)

The "and" keyword can be found under [Test] Logic menu. Similarly, the ≤ and ≥
symbols can also be found under the [Test] menu. If you try to put in 1≤x<3 like we right,
the calculator will interpret that as 1≤3 and always return true.

Be sure to use some kind of decimal setting or dot mode when you're viewing a
piecewise function. Otherwise, you may get some weird results.

Finding the Domain

Implied Domain

We defined implied domain earlier. It is the set of all real numbers where the expression
is defined.

 Start off with all real numbers

 Exclude any values of the independent variable which cause division by zero
 Exclude any values of the independent variable which result in taking the square
root of a negative number. Square root can be replaced with any even (4 th, 6th,
etc) root.

You do not need to state restrictions which result from the implied domain. In other
words, if there is an (x-2) in the denominator, you do not need to state that x cannot be
2.

Other Exclusions
Sometimes, you will need to exclude other values.

6. Problem Constraints - these are used in applications. Here are some examples
1. If x is the length of the side of a triangle, then x can't be negative
2. If x is the position on a 12' teeter totter at which the fulcrum must be
positioned, then x must be between 0 and 12.
3. If x is the number of people in a room, then x can't be negative.
7. Stated Restrictions - sometimes the problem will just come out and say you can't
use a specific value, or that you can only use specific values. These aren't in the
implied domain, so they need to be stated.

If you ever simplify a function, and a value which was in the implied domain is no longer
in the implied domain, then it needs to become a stated restriction. Example, divide (x 2-
4) by (x-2). The implied domain is x cannot equal 2 because that would cause division
by zero. However, if you factor the numerator as (x-2)(x+2), then (x-2) in the numerator
divides out with the (x-2) in the denominator and you're left with just (x+2). The fact that
x cannot be 2 is no longer implied by a simple x+2 in the numerator, so you must now
state that x cannot be 2.

Combining Domains
When you have a function which is a composition of several pieces, the values in the
domain must be able to be used in all parts of the function. Let's say the numerator has
a square root of x in it (so that x must be non-negative) and the denominator has an x-2
in it (so that x cannot be 2). When you combine those domains, you get all values of x
that are non-negative except 2.

In other words, the domain for the function is the intersection of all the domains of the
individual parts.

Now, let's say the numerator has a square root of x in it (so that x must be non-
negative) and the denominator has an x+2 in it (so that x cannot be -2). When you
combine those domains, you get all values of x that are non-negative except -2. Well,
you don't need to state that x cannot be -2 since you've already said that x is non-
negative. So, in this case, the domain would be all non-negative values of x.

1.4 - Graphs of Functions

Definitions
These definitions are mathematically loose (that means a mathematician would pull his
or her hair out but a normal person might understand them).

Graph of a function
 The graph of a function f is the set of all ordered pairs ( x, f(x) ) where x is in the domain
of f.

Increasing Function

A function is increasing on an open interval if the function rises (positive slope) on the
interval as you move from left to right.

Decreasing Function

A function is decreasing on an open interval if the function falls (negative slope) on the
interval as you move from left to right.

Constant Function

A function is constant on an open interval if the function remains constant (horizontal line
segment) on the interval as you move from left to right.

Relative Minimum

A function has a relative minimum at x=a if the function evaluated at x=a is less than at
any other point in the neighborhood surrounding x=a. A relative minimum is the lowest
point in an open interval, but not necessarily over the entire domain. Relative minimums
occur when the function is decreasing to the left of the point and increasing to the right of
the point.

Relative Maximum

A function has a relative maximum at x=a if the function evaluated at x=a is greater than
at any other point in the neighborhood surrounding x=a. A relative maximum is the
highest point in an open interval, but not necessarily over the entire domain. Relative
maximums occur when the function is increasing to the left of the point and decreasing
to the right of the point.

Greatest Integer Function

The greatest integer of a value is the largest integer less than or equal to the value.

Symmetry about the y-axis

A relation is symmetric about the y-axis if for every point (x,y) on the graph, the point (-
x,y) is also on the graph.

Symmetry about the x-axis

A relation is symmetric about the x-axis if for every point (x,y) on the graph, the point (x,-
y) is also on the graph.

Symmetry about the origin

 A relation is symmetric about the origin if for every point (x,y) on the graph, the point (-x,-
y) is also on the graph.

Even Function

A function is even if for every x in the domain of the function, f(-x) = f(x)

Odd Function

A function is odd if for every x in the domain of the function, f(-x) = -f(x)

Vertical Line Test

A relation is a function if all vertical lines drawn through the graph of the relation
intersect in no more than one point.

The contrapositive of that is often used.

If a vertical line intersects the graph of a relation in two or more points, then the relation
is not a function.

Greatest Integer Function

The greatest integer function is often called the

Integer function (or Floor in upper level mathematics), and is abbreviated INT on the
calculator. You may find the INT function on the calculator by going into the [Math]
menu, arrowing right to the NUM option, and then choosing the INT function (it's number
5 on the TI83).

The Integer function is sometimes called the step function because of the stair step
effect obtained when graphing it. Be sure to use a decimal setting when graphing the
greatest integer function, or you will get weird results. You may also want to use Dot
mode instead of Connected mode when graphing the Integer function. You can change
modes on the TI series by hitting the [Mode] key.

Mathematically, the greatest integer function is represented using a double left bracket
and double right bracket

Symmetry - Odd / Even Functions

Symmetry about the y-axis

Symmetry about the y-axis means that the left side of the graph is a mirror image of the
right side of the graph. Mathematically, a relation which is symmetric about the y-axis
has the property that for every point (x,y) that is on the graph, the point (-x,y) is also on
the graph. In other words, to mirror something about the y-axis, take the opposite of all
the x-coordinates and leave the y-coordinates alone.

Symmetry about the x-axis

Symmetry about the x-axis means that the bottom side of the graph is a mirror image of
the top side of the graph. Mathematically, a relation which is symmetric about the x-axis
has the property that for every point (x,y) that is on the graph, the point (x,-y) is also on
the graph. In other words, to mirror something about the x-axis, take the opposite of all
the y-coordinates and leave the x-coordinates alone.

Symmetry about the origin

Symmetry about the origin means that for every point (x,y) on the graph, the point (-x,-y)
is also on the graph. Graphically, to create symmetry about the origin, take any point,
draw an imaginary line through the origin, and place a point on that line the same
distance as the original point was from the origin on the other side of the origin.

Even Function

A function is even if it is symmetric about the y-axis. Mathematically, since the y-

coordinates (values of the function) have to be equal, and the x-coordinates are
opposite, one can write: f(-x) = f(x).

There is a reason these functions are called even. If you have a polynomial function in
one variable, all of the exponents on the independent variable will be even. Remember
that a constant is the zero power of the variable and zero is even.

Odd Function

A function is odd if it is symmetric about the origin. Mathematically, since both the x-
coordinate and the y-coordinates are negated, one can write: f(-x) = -f(x).

There is a reason these functions are called odd. If you have a polynomial function in
one variable, all of the exponents on the independent variable will be odd. Remember
 that a constant is the zero power of a variable and will be even, so if there is a constant
term, it is not an odd function.

1.5 - Shifting, Reflecting, and Stretching

Graphs
Definitions
Abscissa
The x-coordinate
Ordinate
The y-coordinate
Shift
A translation in which the size and shape of a graph of a function is not changed,
but the location of the graph is.
Scale
A translation in which the size and shape of the graph of a function is changed.
Reflection
A translation in which the graph of a function is mirrored about an axis.

Common Functions
Part of the beauty of mathematics is that almost everything builds upon something else,
and if you can understand the foundations, then you can apply new elements to old. It is
this ability which makes comprehension of mathematics possible. If you were to
memorize every piece of mathematics presented to you without making the connection
to other parts, you will 1) become frustrated at math and 2) not really understand math.

There are some basic graphs that we have seen before. By applying translations to
these basic graphs, we are able to obtain new graphs that still have all the properties of
the old ones. By understanding the basic graphs and the way translations apply to
them, we will recognize each new graph as a small variation in an old one, not as a
completely different graph that we have never seen before. Understanding these
translations will allow us to quickly recognize and sketch a new function without having
to resort to plotting points.

These are the common functions you should know the graphs of at this time:

 Constant Function: y = c
 Linear Function: y = x
 Quadratic Function: y = x2
 Cubic Function: y = x3
 Absolute Value Function: y = |x|
  Square Root Function: y = sqrt(x)
 Greatest Integer Function: y = int(x) was talked about in the last section.

Constant Function Linear Function Quadratic Function

Cubic function Absolute Value function Square Root function

Your text calls the linear function the identity function and the quadratic function the
squaring function.

Translations
There are two kinds of translations that we can do to a graph of a function. They are
shifting and scaling. There are three if you count reflections, but reflections are just a
special case of the second translation.

Shifts

A shift is a rigid translation in that it does not change the shape or size of the graph of
the function. All that a shift will do is change the location of the graph. A vertical shift
adds/subtracts a constant to/from every y-coordinate while leaving the x-coordinate
unchanged. A horizontal shift adds/subtracts a constant to/from every x-coordinate
while leaving the y-coordinate unchanged. Vertical and horizontal shifts can be
combined into one expression.

Shifts are added/subtracted to the x or f(x) components. If the constant is grouped with
the x, then it is a horizontal shift, otherwise it is a vertical shift.

Scales (Stretch/Compress)

A scale is a non-rigid translation in that it does alter the shape and size of the graph of
the function. A scale will multiply/divide coordinates and this will change the appearance
as well as the location. A vertical scaling multiplies/divides every y-coordinate by a
constant while leaving the x-coordinate unchanged. A horizontal scaling
multiplies/divides every x-coordinate by a constant while leaving the y-coordinate
unchanged. The vertical and horizontal scalings can be combined into one expression.

Scaling factors are multiplied/divided by the x or f(x) components. If the constant is

grouped with the x, then it is a horizontal scaling, otherwise it is a vertical scaling.

Reflections

A function can be reflected about an axis by multiplying by negative one. To reflect

about the y-axis, multiply every x by -1 to get -x. To reflect about the x-axis, multiply f(x)
by -1 to get -f(x).

Putting it all together

Consider the basic graph of the function: y = f(x)

All of the translations can be expressed in the form:

y = a * f [ b (x-c) ] + d

Vertical Horizontal
Scale a b
 Shift d c
acts normally acts inversely

Digression

Understanding the concepts here are fundamental to understanding polynomial and

rational functions (ch 3) and especially conic sections (ch 8). It will also play a very big
roll in Trigonometry (Math 117) and Calculus (Math 121, 122, 221, or 190).

Earlier in the text (section 1.2, problems 61-64), there were a series of problems which
wrote the equation of a line as:

x/a + y/b = 1

Where a was the x-intercept and b was the y-intercept of the line. The "a" could really
be thought of how far to go in the x-direction (an x-scaling) and the "b" could be thought
of as how far to go in the "y" direction (a y-scaling). So the "a" and "b" there are actually
multipliers (even though they appear on the bottom). What they are multiplying is the 1
which is on the right side. x+y=1 would have an x-intercept and y-intercept of 1.

Okay. Consider the equation: y = f(x)

This is the most basic graph of the function. But transformations can be applied to it,
too. It can be written in the format shown to the below.

In this format, the "a" is a vertical multiplier and the "b" is a horizontal multiplier. We
know that "a" affects the y because it is grouped with the y and the "b" affects the x
because it is grouped with the x.

The "d" and "c" are vertical and horizontal shifts, respectively. We know that they are
shifts because they are subtracted from the variable rather than being divided into the
variable, which would make them scales.

In this format, all changes seem to be the opposite of what you would expect. If you
have the expression (y-2)/3, it is a vertical shift of 2 to the right (even though it says y
minus 2) and it is a vertical stretching by 3 (even though it says y divided by 3). It is
important to realize that in this format, when the constants are grouped with the variable
they are affecting, the translation is the opposite (inverse) of what most people think it
should be.
However, this format is not conducive to sketching with technology, because we like
functions to be written as y =, rather than (y-c)/d =. So, if you take the notation above
and solve it for y, you get the notation below, which is similar, but not exactly our basic
form state above.

y = a * f( (x-c) / b ) + d

Note that to solve for y, you have had to inverse both the "a" and "d" constants. Instead
of dividing by "a", you are now multiplying by "a". Well, it used to be that you had to
apply the inverse of the constant anyway. When it said "divide by a", you knew that it
meant to "multiply each y by a". When it said "subtract d", you knew that you really had
to "add d". You have already applied the inverse, so don't do it again! With the
constants affecting the y, since they have been moved to the other side, take them at
face value. If it says multiply by 2, do it, don't divide by 2.

However, the constants affecting the x have not been changed. They are still the
opposite of what you think they should be. And, to make matters worse, the "x divided
b" that really means multiply each x-coordinate by "b" has been reversed to be written
as "b times x" so that it really means divide each x by "b". The "x minus c" really means
add c to each x-coordinate.

So, the final form (for technology) is as above:

y = a * f [ b (x-c) ] + d

Ok, end of digression.

Normal & Inverse Behavior

You will notice that the chart says the vertical translations are normal and the horizontal
translations are inversed. For an explanation of why, read the digression above. The
concepts in there really are fundamental to understanding a lot of graphing.

Examples
y=f(x)
No translation
y=f(x+2)
The +2 is grouped with the x, therefore it is a horizontal translation. Since it is
added to the x, rather than multiplied by the x, it is a shift and not a scale. Since it
says plus and the horizontal changes are inversed, the actual translation is to
move the entire graph to the left two units or "subtract two from every x-
coordinate" while leaving the y-coordinates alone.
y=f(x)+2
The +2 is not grouped with the x, therefore it is a vertical translation. Since it is
added, rather than multiplied, it is a shift and not a scale. Since it says plus and
 the vertical changes act the way they look, the actual translation is to move the
entire graph two units up or "add two to every y-coordinate" while leaving the x-
coordinates alone.
y=f(x-3)+5
This time, there is a horizontal shift of three to the right and vertical shift of five
up. So the translation would be to move the entire graph right three and up five or
"add three to every x-coordinate and five to every y-coordinate"
y=3f(x)
The 3 is multiplied so it is a scaling rather than a shifting. The 3 is not grouped
with the x, so it is a vertical scaling. Vertical changes are affected the way you
think they should be, so the result is to "multiply every y-coordinate by three"
while leaving the x-coordinates alone.
y=-f(x)
The y is to be multiplied by -1. This makes the translation to be "reflect about the
x-axis" while leaving the x-coordinates alone.
y=f(2x)
The 2 is multiplied rather than added, so it is a scaling instead of a shifting. The 2
is grouped with the x, so it is a horizontal scaling. Horizontal changes are the
inverse of what they appear to be so instead of multiplying every x-coordinate by
two, the translation is to "divide every x-coordinate by two" while leaving the y-
coordinates unchanged.
y=f(-x)
The x is to be multiplied by -1. This makes the translation to be "reflect about the
y-axis" while leaving the y-coordinates alone.
y=1/2 f(x/3)
The translation here would be to "multiply every y-coordinate by 1/2 and multiply
every x-coordinate by 3".
y=2f(x)+5
There could be some ambiguity here. Do you "add five to every y-coordinate and
then multiply by two" or do you "multiply every y-coordinate by two and then add
five"? This is where my comment earlier about mathematics building upon itself
comes into play. There is an order of operations which says that multiplication
and division is performed before addition and subtraction. If you remember this,
then the decision is easy. The correct transformation is to "multiply every y-
coordinate by two and then add five" while leaving the x-coordinates alone.
y=f(2x-3)
Now that the order of operations is clearly defined, the ambiguity here about
which should be done first is removed. The answer is not to "divide each x-
coordinate by two and add three" as you might expect. The reason is that
problem is not written in standard form. Standard form is y=f[b(x-c)]. When
written in standard form, this problem becomes y=f[2(x-3/2)]. This means that
the proper translation is to "divide every x-coordinate by two and add three-
halves" while leaving the y-coordinates unchanged.
y=3f(x-2)
The translation here is to "multiply every y-coordinate by three and add two to
every x-coordinate". Alternatively, you could change the order around. Changes
 to the x or y can be made independently of each other, but if there are scales and
shifts to the same variable, it is important to do the scaling first and the shifting
second.

Translations and the Effect on Domain & Range

Any horizontal translation will affect the domain and leave the range unchanged. Any
vertical translation will affect the range and the leave the domain unchanged.

Apply the same translation to the domain or range that you apply to the x-coordinates or
the y-coordinates. This works because the domain can be written in interval notation as
the interval between two x-coordinates. Likewise for the range as the interval between
two y-coordinates.

In the following table, remember that domain and range are given in interval notation. If
you're not familiar with interval notation, then please check the prerequisite chapter. The
first line is the definition statement and should be used to determine the rest of the
answers.

Graph Translation Domain Range

y=f(x) none (-2,5) [4,8]
y=f(x-2) right 2 (0,7) [4,8]
y=f(x)-2 down 2 (-2,5) [2,6]
y=3f(x) multiply each y by 3 (-2,5) [12,24]
y=f(3x) divide each x by 3 (-2/3,5/3) [4,8]
y=2f(x-3)-5 multiply each y by 2 and subtract 5; (1,8) [3,11]

add 3 to every x
y=-f(x) reflect about x-axis (-2,5) [-8,-4]
y=1/f(x) take the reciprocal of each y (-2,5) [1/8,1/4]

Notice on the last two that the order in the range has changed. This is because in
interval notation, the smaller number always comes first.

Really Good Stuff

Understanding the translations can also help when finding the domain and range of a
function. Let's say your problem is to find the domain and range of the function y=2-
sqrt(x-3).
Begin with what you know. You know the basic function is the sqrt(x) and you know the
domain and range of the sqrt(x) are both [0,+infinity). You know this because you know
those six common functions on the front cover of your text which are going to be used
as building blocks for other functions.

Function Translation Domain Range

Begin with what you y=sqrt(x) None [0,+infinity) [0,+infinity)
know
Apply the translations y=-sqrt(x) Reflect about x-axis [0,+infinity) (-infinity,0]
y=2-sqrt(x) Add 2 to each [0,+infinity) (-infinity,2]
ordinate
y=2-sqrt(x- Add 3 to each [3,+infinity) (-infinity,2]
3) abscissa

So, for the function y=2-sqrt(x-3), the domain is x≥3 and the range is y≤2.

And the best part of it is that you understood it! Not only did you understand it, but you
were able to do it without graphing it on the calculator.

There is nothing wrong with making a graph to see what's going on, but you should be
able to understand what's going on without the graph because we have learned that the
graphing calculator doesn't always show exactly what's going on. It is a tool to assist
your understanding and comprehension, not a tool to replace it.

It is this cohesiveness of math that I want all of you to "get". It all fits together so
beautifully.

1.6 - Combinations of Functions

Arithmetic Combinations of Functions
The sum, difference, product, or quotient of functions can be found easily.

Sum

(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

Difference

(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)

Product
 (f · g)(x) = f(x) · g(x)

Quotient

(f / g)(x) = f(x) / g(x), as long as g(x) isn't zero.

The domain of each of these combinations is the intersection of the domain of f and the
domain of g. In other words, both functions must be defined at a point for the
combination to be defined. One additional requirement for the division of functions is
that the denominator can't be zero, but we knew that because it's part of the implied
domain.

Basically what the above says is that to evaluate a combination of functions, you may
combine the functions and then evaluate or you may evaluate each function and then
combine.

Examples

In the following examples, let f(x) = 5x+2 and g(x) = x 2-1. We will then evaluate each
combination at the point x=4. f(4)=5(4)+2=22 and g(4)=4 2-1=15

Expression Combine, then evaluate Evaluate, then combine

(f+g)(x) (5x+2) + (x2-1) (f+g)(4) 42+5(4)+1 f(4)+g(4) 22+15

=x2+5x+1 =16+20+1 =37
=37

(f-g)(x) (5x+2) - (x2-1) (f-g)(4) -42+5(4)+3 f(4)-g(4) 22-15

=-x2+5x+3 =-16+20+3 =7
=7

(f·g)(x) (5x+2)*(x2-1) (f·g)(4) 5(43)+2(42)-5(4)-2 f(4)·g(4) 22(15)

=5x3+2x2-5x-2 =5(64)+2(16)-20-2 =330
=330

(f/g)(4) (5x+2)/(x2-1) (f/g)(4) [5(4)+2]/[42-1] f(4)/g(4) 22/15

=22/15

As you can see from the examples, it doesn't matter if you combine and then evaluate
or if you evaluate and then combine.

In each of the above problems, the domain is all real numbers with the exception of the
division. The domain in the division combination is all real numbers except for 1 and -1.
Composition of Functions
While the arithmetic combinations of functions are straightforward and fairly easy, there
is another type of combination called a composition.

A composition of functions is the applying of one function to another function. The

symbol of composition of functions is a small circle between the function names. I can't
do that symbol in text mode on the web, so I'll use a lower case oh " o" to represent
composition of functions.

 (fog)(x) = f [ g(x) ]
 (gof)(x) = g [ f(x) ]

These are read "f composed with g of x" and "g composed with f of x" respectively.

The function on the outside is always written first with the functions that follow being on
the inside. The order is important. Composition of functions is not commutative.

Examples of Composition of Functions

That doesn't sound that bad. Let's look at a few examples.

f(x)=5x+2 and g(x)=x2-1

 (fog)(x) = f [ g(x) ] = f [ x2-1 ] = 5( x2-1 ) + 2 = 5x2- 5 + 2 = 5x2-3

 (gof)(x) = g [ f(x) ] = g [ 5x+2 ] = ( 5x+2 )2 - 1 = 25x2 + 20x + 4 - 1 = 25x2 + 20x + 3

f(x) = sqrt(x) and g(x) = 4x2

 (fog)(x) = f [ g(x) ] = f [ 4x2 ] = sqrt( 4x2 ) = 2 | x |

 (gof)(x) = g [ f(x) ] = g [ sqrt(x) ] = 4 ( sqrt(x) )2 = 4x, x ≥ 0

This example probably needs some explanation. From the prerequisite chapter, the
square root of (x2) is the absolute value of x. The square of (the square root of x) is x,
but this assumes that x is not negative because you couldn't find the square root of x in
the first place if it was. This is a case where the implied domain (because of the square
root) is no longer implied (because the square root is gone), so you have to explicitly
state it (I told you it all fit together).

f(x) = sqrt(x-4) and g(x) = 1 - x2

 (fog)(x) = f [ g(x) ] = f [ 1-x2 ] = sqrt ( [1-x2] - 4 ) = sqrt ( -x2 - 3 ) = ø

 (gof)(x) = g [ f(x) ] = g [ sqrt(x-4) ] = 1 - [ sqrt(x-4) ]2 = 1 - ( x-4 ) = 5 - x, x ≥ 4
If the last example needed some explanation, then this one definitely needs some, too.
Let's take the easier one (gof)(x) first. There was an implied domain of x ≥ 4 because of
the square root, but after squaring it, it was no longer implied, so it needed to be stated
explicitly.

Okay, now for the harder one (fog)(x). I'll give the simple explanation here and the more
complete one later. After simplifying, you got the square root of (-x 2 - 3). -x2-3 is always
negative, no matter what real number x is, and you can't take the square root of a
negative number, so it is always undefined (for the set of reals).

Finding Domains on Composition of Functions

When you find a composition of a functions, it is no longer x that is being plugged into
the outer function, it is the inner function evaluated at x. So there are two domains that
we have to be concerned about. If we consider (f og)(x), we see that g is evaluated at x,
so x has to be in the domain of g. We also see that f is evaluated at g(x), so g(x) has to
be in the domain of f.

 For (fog)(x), x is a value that can be plugged into g and gives you a value g(x) that can
be plugged into f to get f(g(x))
 For (gof)(x), x is a value that can be plugged into f and gives you a value f(x) that can be
plugged into g to get g(f(x)).

But, it's not as bad as it looks, either. Let's consider that last example again.

Function Domain Range

f(x) = sqrt(x-4) x ≥ 4 y≥0

g(x) = 1-x2 all reals y≤1

When you find (fog)(x), there are two things that must be satisfied:

1. x must be in the domain of g, which means x is a real number (pretty easy to do)
2. g(x) must be in the domain of f, which means that 1-x2^2 ≥ 4 (when you try to solve this,
you get the empty set)

When you combine the two domains to see what they have in common, you find the
intersection of everything and nothing is nothing (the empty set), so the function is
defined nowhere and undefined everywhere.

When you find (gof)(x), there are two things that must be satisfied:

1. x must be in the domain of f, which means that x ≥ 4 (not too bad)

 2. f(x) must be in the domain of g which means that the sqrt(x-4) must be a real number
(that occurs when x ≥ 4, which we already have stated from the first part)

When you combine the two domains to see what they have in common, you find the
intersection to be x ≥ 4, so that is the where the composition is defined.

Decomposition of Functions
Decomposition of functions is the reverse of composition of functions. Instead of
combining two functions to get a new function, you're breaking apart a combined
function into its separate components. There is often more than one way to decompose
a function, so your answers may vary from the books.

Basically, you want to look at the function and look for an "outside function" and an
"inside function". Another thing to look for is repeated patterns and make that the inside
function. The outside function is summarized as "the big picture" and the inside function
is "what you are doing the big picture to".

Examples

Write each function h as the composition of two functions f and g such that h(x)=(fog)(x)

Outside Inside
h(x) Notes
f(x) g(x)

(1-x)3 x3 1-x The big thing going on is cubing something,

so the outside function is a cubing function.
1-x is what you're cubing, so it's the inside
function.

sqrt(9-x) sqrt(x) 9-x The big thing going on is taking the square
root (outside), 9-x is what you're taking the
square root of (inside)

4/(5x2+2)2 4/x2 5x2+2 Looks like 4 over something squared

4/x (5x2+2)2 An alternative, but correct answer.

(x+2)2+2(x+2)+1 x2+2x+1 x+2 x+2 is repeated, so that's a good choice for

the inside function. Replace every
occurrence of the pattern by x for the
outside function
Difference Quotients
Difference quotients are what they say they are. They involve a difference and a
quotient. A difference quotient is really the slope of a secant line between two points on
a curve.

The formula for the difference quotient is: [ f(x+h) - f(x) ] / h

If you go on to calculus, you will be introduced to the concept of limits (Calculus is Algebra with
limits) and find as the two points on the curve get closer together, the secant line turns into a
tangent line, and the slope of the secant line becomes the slope of the tangent line which is
called the derivative of the function and there are a whole lot of shortcuts for finding derivatives.
However, you're still in College Algebra and don't know about limits until chapter 3 when we talk
about asymptotes, so you'll have to find the difference quotients by hand. The difference
quotient is very important in Calculus, so if you are going on, make sure you get this!

For polynomial functions, finding the difference quotient isn't that difficult. Where you're
going to run into trouble is with radical and rational functions.

Polynomial Functions

f(x) = 5x2 - 2

f(x+h) = 5(x+h)2 - 2 = 5( x2 + 2xh + h2 ) - 2 = 5x2 + 10xh + 5h2 - 2

f(x+h) - f(x) = 5( x2 + 2xh + h2 ) - 2 = 5x2 + 10xh + 5h2 - 2 - ( 5x2 - 2 )

f(x+h) - f(x) = 5x2 + 10xh + 5h2 - 2 - 5x2 + 2 = 10xh + 5h2
f(x+h) - f(x) = h ( 10x + 5h )
 
[f(x+h) - f(x)] / h = h ( 10x + 5h ) / h = 10x + 5h
 
Rational Functions

The trick with rational functions is to get a common denominator and then simplify.

f(x) = 3 / x

f(x+h) = 3 / (x+h)

f(x+h) - f(x) = 3 / (x+h) - 3 / x

f(x+h) - f(x) = 3 x / [ x(x+h)] - 3(x+h) / [x(x+h)]
f(x+h) - f(x) = ( 3x - 3x - 3h ) / [ x(x+h) ]
f(x+h) - f(x) = -3h / [x(x+h)]

[f(x+h) - f(x)] / h = -3h / [x(x+h)] / h = -3 / [ x(x+h) ]

Radical Functions

The trick with a radical function is to rationalize the numerator by multiplying by the
conjugate of the numerator.

Don't worry that you're left with a radical in the denominator, it's okay in this instance.
It's much better than having a factor of h in the denominator because in calculus, we're
going to let h approach 0 and we'll want to just plug a zero in for h. When given the
choice of having a radical in the denominator or division by 0, we'll pick a radical in the
denominator anyday.

1.7 - Inverse Functions

Notation
The inverse of the function f is denoted by f -1 (if your browser doesn't support
superscripts, that is looks like f with an exponent of -1) and is pronounced "f inverse".
Although the inverse of a function looks like you're raising the function to the -1 power, it
isn't. The inverse of a function does not mean the reciprocal of a function.

Inverses
A function normally tells you what y is if you know what x is. The inverse of a function
will tell you what x had to be to get that value of y.

A function f -1 is the inverse of f if

 for every x in the domain of f, f -1[f(x)] = x, and

 for every x in the domain of f -1, f[f -1(x)] = x

-1
The domain of f is the range of f and the range of f is the domain of f -1.

Graph of the Inverse Function

The inverse of a function differs from the function in that all the x-coordinates and y-
coordinates have been switched. That is, if (4,6) is a point on the graph of the function,
then (6,4) is a point on the graph of the inverse function.

Points on the identity function (y=x) will remain on the identity function when switched.
All other points will have their coordinates switched and move locations.

The graph of a function and its inverse are mirror images of each other. They are
reflected about the identity function y=x.

Existence of an Inverse Function

A function says that for every x, there is exactly one y. That is, y values can be
duplicated but x values can not be repeated.

If the function has an inverse that is also a function, then there can only be one y for
every x.

A one-to-one function, is a function in which for every x there is exactly one y and for
every y, there is exactly one x. A one-to-one function has an inverse that is also a
function.
There are functions which have inverses that are not functions. There are also inverses
for relations. For the most part, we disregard these, and deal only with functions whose
inverses are also functions.

If the inverse of a function is also a function, then the inverse relation must pass a
vertical line test. Since all the x-coordinates and y-coordinates are switched when
finding the inverse, saying that the inverse must pass a vertical line test is the same as
saying the original function must pass a horizontal line test.

If a function passes both the vertical line test (so that it is a function in the first place)
and the horizontal line test (so that its inverse is a function), then the function is one-to-
one and has an inverse function.

Finding Inverses Informally

The inverse of some functions, especially those where there is only one occurrence of
the independent variable, can be solved by undoing the operations. To undo the
operations, you must not only reverse the order, but use the inverse operation.

Example 1

The function f(x) = 5x-2

1. Start with x: x
2. Multiply by 5: 5x
3. Subtract 2: 5x-2

The inverse f -1(x) = (x+2)/5

1. Start with x: x
2. Add 2: x+2
3. Divide by 5: (x+2) / 5

Example 2

The function f(x) = 2(x-3)2-5, x≥3

Note that there is a restriction on x.

1. Start with x: x
2. Subtract 3: x-3
3. Square: (x-3)2
4. Multiply by 2: 2(x-3)2
5. Subtract 5: 2(x-3)2-5
The inverse f -1(x) = 3 + sqrt[(x+5)/2]

1. Start with x: x
2. Add 5: x+5
3. Divide by 2: (x+5)/2
4. Take the square root: ± sqrt[(x+5)/2]
5. Add 3: 3 ± sqrt[(x+5)/2]
6. Wait! That inverse isn't a function because there are two values of y for every x. That's
because of the ± that appeared when we took the square root of both sides. Now we go
back to the original domain of x≥3. That means that for the inverse, the range is y≥3.
Since y must be at least 3, we need the positive square root and not the negative.
Without the restriction on x in the original function, it wouldn't have had an inverse
function: 3 + sqrt[(x+5)/2]

Example 3

The function f(x) = x2 - 4x + 6, x≤2

Uhhh????

What happens when there is more than one occurrence of the independent variable in
the function? You don't know what you did to x because you did it to two different x's
and you didn't do the same thing to both of them.

Finding Inverses Formally

Now, that last example is not to be said it can't be done, but it involves completing the
square to obtain f(x) = (x-2)2+2, then inversing it so that you get f -1(x) = 2-sqrt(x-2).

However, there is another way that doesn't rely so much on informality and will work
whether or not you can figure out exactly what you did with exactly one x.

1. Start with the function

2. Replace f(x) by y if necessary
3. Switch the x's and y's. At this point you are dealing with the inverse
4. Solve for y
5. Replace y with f -1(x) if the inverse is also a function, otherwise leave it as y

Example 4

The function f(x) = x2 / (x2+1), x≥0

The restriction is important to make it 1-1.

1. Start with the function: f(x) = x2 / (x2+1), x≥0

2. Replace f(x) by y: y = x2 / (x2+1), x≥0
3. Switch the x's and y's: x = y2 / (y2+1), y ≥0
 4. Solve for y:
1. Multiply by denominator: x(y2+1) = y2
2. Distribute: xy2 + x = y2
3. Move y's to one side and everything else to other: xy2-y2 = -x
4. Factor: y2(x-1)=-x
5. Divide by coefficient on y2: y2 = -x/(x-1)
6. Simplify right hand side: y2 = x/(1-x)
7. Take square root: y = ± sqrt[ x/(1-x) ]
8. Since y≥0, we need the positive square root: y = sqrt[ x/(1-x) ]
5. Call this f -1(x): f -1(x) = sqrt[ x/(1-x) ]

On this last function, the implied domain of the inverse is [0,1). That means that the
range of the original function must have been [0,1), also. Check it on your calculator,
and you'll see it is.

Sometimes the instructions say if the function is not one-to-one, then don't find the
inverse function (because there's not one). So, always check before wasting time trying
to find the inverse function. Now, if you're supposed to find the inverse, regardless of
whether it is a function or not, then go ahead.

Good Stuff!

One-to-One Functions are wonderful things.

When solving equations, you can add the same thing to both sides, subtract the same
thing from both sides, multiply both sides by the same non-zero thing, and divide both
sides by the same non-zero thing and still get the same solution without worrying about
having to check your answer.

You can also apply a one-to-one function to both sides of an equation without worrying
about introducing extraneous solutions (solutions that work after doing something that
didn't work before). This is not necessarily true with functions that aren't one-to-one like
the squaring function where you should always check answers after you square both
sides of an equation. For example, the equation sqrt(x) = -2 has no solution, but if you
square both sides, you get x = 4, but it doesn't check in the original problem. With one-
to-one functions, you won't be introducing any extraneous solutions.

Wow! Talk about powerful. You don't appreciate it now, and the book doesn't deal with it
properly until you get to chapter 4 and deal with logarithmic and exponential functions,
and even then they don't make as big of deal out of it as it is.

Okay, let's try one now. Take my word for it that exp(x) is a one-to-one function and is
the inverse of ln(x).

ln(x) = 3

Solve for x.
exp[ ln(x) ] = exp [ 3 ]

"Wait a minute, Mr. Jones" is your response. You've never seen such a beast. That's
okay. Take the inverse of the function, and apply it to both sides.

x = exp ( 3 )

Go back to the definition of an inverse at the top of this document. When inverses are
applied to each other, they inverse each other out, and you're just left with the argument
(input) to the function.

x = e3

On the calculator, the exp(x) function is written e^x, and is found on the [2nd] [ln] key.

Wow - more cohesiveness. The inverse of a function is found by taking the [2 nd]
function. Look at it for other things on the calculator.

The square root is the inverse of the square. If you look at the three trigonometric keys
[sin], [cos], and [tan], their inverses are all found by using the [2 nd] key.

Soapbox mode on.

I'm telling you - it all fits together. For those who remember the line Hannibal Smith used
in the A-Team, "I love it when a plan comes together".

Mathematics is one of the most together subjects there is. Everything complements
everything else. What I'm hoping you get out of this course is much more than just the
mechanics of mathematics, but a comprehension, understanding, and appreciation of
the way the system works. With that solid foundation, mathematics can be less
stressful, and yes, even enjoyable. You have to stop dealing with concepts as individual
things that don't relate to each other and stand alone. They are all related to each other
and intertwined. You can not separate them and understand.

Soapbox mode off.

2.1 - Linear Equations and Modeling

Definitions
Equation
A statement that two expressions are equal
Solutions
Values which make the equation true
Identity
An equation which is true for every real number in the domain
Contradiction
An equation which is false for every real number in the domain
Conditional equation
An equation which may be true or false depending on the values of the variables.
Equivalent equations
Equations having the same solution set.
Linear equation in one variable
Equation that can be written as ax+b=0, where a and b are reals and a doesn't
equal zero. If a did equal zero, it would be a constant equation and an identity if
b=0 or a contradiction if b≠0.
Extraneous solutions
Solutions which satisfy an "equivalent" equation, but not the original equation.
They can be introduced by multiplying or dividing by an expression containing a
variable. They can also be introduced by applying a non-one-to-one function to
both sides (like squaring both sides). You should always check your answer
when there is a possibility that you have introduced an extraneous solution.
Mathematical model
An algebraic equation used to solve a problem that occurs in real life.

Equivalent Operations
The following operations can be used to generate an equivalent equation

 Remove grouping symbols

 Combine like terms
 Reduce fractions
 Add the same quantity to both sides of an equation
 Subtract the same quantity from both sides of an equation
 Multiply both sides of an equation by the same nonzero quantity
 Divide both sides of an equation by the same nonzero quantity
 Apply a one-to-one function to both sides of the equation. Be careful of domains
when doing this, though.

Solving Equations
These are general guidelines, individual problems may vary.

Linear Equations

9. Eliminate any grouping symbols

10. Use addition/subtraction to move all terms containing the variable to one side
and all terms without the variable to the other side. Simplify. If there is more than
one occurrence of the variable, you may need to factor the variable out.
11. Use multiplication/division to get the variable by itself.
12. Check your answer
Decimals

 Multiply every term of both sides of the equation by a power of 10 (10, 100, 1000,
etc) to eliminate the decimals. Note that expressions like 0.42 (x + 2) are just
one term because of the multiplication. Either multiply the 0.42 by 100
(preferred), or the (x+2) by 100 (ok, but doesn't get rid of the decimals), but not
the 0.42 by 100 and the (x+2) by 100 (you've really multiplied by 10,000 if you do
that).
 Finish the problem like it was a regular linear equation.

Note that there is no requirement to eliminate the decimals. Some people prefer to work
with the decimals. Other people find it more difficult. It is a personal preference, but
most people will eliminate the decimals.

Fractions

Fractions are your friends. They will hang out with you on the weekends when no one
else will. However, most people find it difficult to work with fractions, and although they
are your friends, solving equations becomes much easier if they're not around.

 Find the least common denominator out of all of the denominators. Be sure to
factor any denominator first if possible.
 Note somewhere that the values which make the LCD zero can not be used. The
LCD is a collection of all things in the denominator, and so anything that makes it
zero would cause division by zero, and this is a very bad thing. Our goal is to get
rid of the fractions, so in the next step there will be no more denominator. That
means that what was in the implied domain is no longer in the implied domain
and must be stated overtly.
 Multiply each term of both sides of the equation by the least common
denominator. All of the denominators will inverse out and become 1 (and hence
don't need to be written).

Note that if you're working with an equation, the fractions can be eliminated. No such
claim can be made about working with expressions, however. It is the multiplicative
property of equality which allows us to eliminate the denominators, and you just don't
have equality when you're working with expressions.

Mathematical Models
Mathematical modeling is the process of taking a verbal description of a problem,
assigning labels to the unknown quantities and forming a mathematical model or
algebraic equation.

Keywords
Here are some words and what they usually mean.

Equality
is, are, will be, represents
Addition
sum, plus, greater, increased by, more than, exceeds, total
Subtraction
difference, minus, less, decreased by, subtracted from, reduced by, the
remainder
Multiplication
product, multiplied by, twice, times, percent of
Division
quotient, divided by, ratio, per

Formulas
There are common formulas, formulas from geometry, and conversions on the back
cover of your text.

You can ignore the formulas dealing with the trigonometric functions (sin, cos, tan) and
the area of a sector. You don't need to memorize, but don't forget that they're there, the
formulas for an equilateral triangle, circular ring, right circular cone, and frustrum.

Definitely know (be able to recall and apply) the formulas for the area,
perimeter/circumference of a triangle, parallelogram (includes rectangles and squares),
and circle. Also be aware that other shapes, like a trapezoid, can be broken down into
simpler shapes (like two triangles with the same height).

2.2 - Solving Equations Graphically

Intercepts
x-intercept
The x-intercept is the point where the graph of an equation crosses the x-axis.
The x-intercept can be found by substituting y=0 into the equation and solving for
x. The x-intercept is also called a solution, root, or zero of the equation.
y-intercept
The y-intercept is the point where the graph of an equation crosses the y-axis.
The y-intercept can be found by substitution x=0 into the equation and solving for
y.

There is no requirement that an equation have either an x-intercept or y-intercept. It is

also possible that there may be more than one of each intercept.
Intercept, Root, Zero, Solution?
The following statements are equivalent:

 The point (a,0) is an x-intercept of the graph of y=f(x)

 x=a is a zero or root of the function f
 x=a is a solution of the equation f(x)=0
 (x-a) is a factor of f(x)

Finding roots with the Graphing Calculator

To find the roots of a function using the graphing calculator, it may be necessary to put
the equation into standard form f(x)=0. To accomplish this, you may need to move
everything over to one side of the equation. It does not matter which side you move the
terms to, the solutions will be the same either way. Then, graph the equation y=f(x) on
the calculator.

The book teaches you to use the zoom and trace features of your calculator to find the
zeros of a function. There is a much easier and more accurate way.

13. Use the [Calc] (2nd Trace) key and choose the zero (TI83) or root (TI82) option.
14. When it asks for the left or lower bound, use the left arrow key to position the
cursor to the left of the zero and press the [Enter] key.
15. When it asks for the right or upper bound, use the right arrow key to position the
cursor to the right of the zero and press the [Enter] key.
16. When it asks for a guess, use the left arrow key to move back to the point closest
to the x-intercept and press the [Enter] key.
17. The x-coordinate returned is the x-intercept, root, zero, or solution that you're
looking for.

The zoom and trace method will work, but it is a whole lot faster, and more accurate, to
use the options under [Calc].

Finding Intersections with the Graphing Calculator

To find the intersection of two equations with the graphing calculator, enter the two
functions into the calculator as y1 and y2 and graph them both. Play around with the
viewing window until you find the point of intersection, and then ...

 Use the [Calc] key and choose the intersect option.

 It will ask for the first curve. If there are only two plots active, then you can just hit
[Enter] as it defaults to the first curve. If you have more than two plots active,
then use the up or down arrow keys to select the proper function, and then press
enter. It does not matter where on the curve you press enter.
  It will ask for the second curve. If there are only two plots active, then you can
just hit [Enter]. Use the up or down arrow keys if you need to select a different
function.
 It then asks for a guess. Use the left or right arrow keys to move to a position
close to the point of intersection and press [Enter].
 The x-coordinate and y-coordinate of the point of intersection are returned.

It is possible to find the solution to an equation in non-standard form by letting the y 1 plot
be the left hand side of the equation, the y 2 plot being the right hand side of the
equation, and using the intersect option. However, it is much more convenient and time
efficient to rewrite the equation in standard form and use the zero or root option instead.

2.3 - Complex Numbers

Imaginary number, i
The square of no real number can be negative. That, however, leaves certain equations
(like x2+1=0) with no real solution. We mathematicians don't like things not to have an
answer. So, we came up an imaginary number i such that i2 = -1. That makes i=sqrt(-1).

It is important to remember that i is an imaginary number. There will never be a real

number whose square is negative. Since we graph equations in the real world, solutions
that involve i will not appear on the graph.

Complex Numbers
Every complex number can be written as "a + bi" where a and b are real numbers. If
b=0, then it is just an ordinary real number. If a=0 and the b<>0, then it is an imaginary
number. When they are put together, you get a complex number.

It is important to remember, however, that every real number, and every imaginary
number is also a complex number. This will come back into play in the chapter on
polynomials when they state a theorem involving complex numbers. It is not true for just
complex numbers involving i, it is true for all reals also.

Equality of Complex Numbers

If two complex numbers are equal, then the real component of the left side must equal
the real component of the right side and the imaginary component of the left side must
equal the imaginary component of the right side.
Powers of i
i should never be written to any power other than 1.

0 1 2 3

i0 = 1 i1 = i i2 = -1 i3 = -i

i4 = 1 i5 = i i6 = -1 i7 = -i

i8 = 1 i9 = i i10 = -1 i11 = -i

This pattern repeats. To simplify i to any power, just divide the exponent by 4 and look
at the remainder. The remainder will either be 0, 1, 2, or 3, and that will correspond to 1,
i, -1, and -i respectively. The column headings are the remaineder when dividing by 4.

A shortcut to dividing the exponent by four is to divide the last two digits of the exponent
by four. The remainder will be the same.

Complex Conjugates

Consider the square of a complex number

(a+bi)2 = a2 + 2ab i + b2 i2 = (a2 - b2) + 2ab i

Notice that when you square a complex number involving i, you get another complex
number involving i.

However, now consider this product

(a+bi)(a-bi) = a2 - b2 i2 = a2 + b2

(a+bi) and (a-bi) are called complex conjugates, and their product is a real number.
Notice that the sign is only changed on the imaginary component. Do not go through
and change the signs on the real component, only the imaginary component.

To eliminate the imaginary component from a complex number, multiply by its complex
conjugate.

This is how division with complex numbers is done. The numerator and denominator is
multiplied by the complex conjugate of the denominator.

Graphing Complex Numbers

To graph a complex number, the real component is the x-coordinate and the imaginary
component is the y-coordinate.

2.4 - Solving Equations Algebraically

Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation is an equation that can be written as Ax 2 + Bx + C = 0 where A≠0.
This form is called the standard form.

There are four ways to solve a quadratic equation.

Factoring
Works well when the quadratic can easily be factored.

Some of you were taught the trial and error method of factoring. Others of you were
taught the AC Method of Factoring. The AC Method is explained elsewhere if you want to
review or learn it.

The idea behind factoring is to place the equation into standard form, and then factor
the left hand side into two factors (x-a) and (x-b). The solutions to the equation are then
x=a and x=b. The factors will of course vary if A≠1. Factoring works because there is a
rule which says if the product of two factors is zero, then one of the factors must be
zero.

Extraction of Roots
Works well when there is no linear term, that is, when B=0.

The extraction of roots is called the square root principle by your text. The goal here is
to get the squared variable term by itself on one side and a non-negative constant on
the other side.

The square root of both sides is then taken. Remember that the square root of x 2 is the
absolute value of x. When you solve an equation involving an absolute value, you will
get a plus and minus in the solution. Too often, we bypass the step with the absolute
value in it and go straight to the plus/minus phase. This is okay, as long as we
remember the reason.

Completing the Square

Works well when the leading coefficient A is 1 and B is even.

 If A is not 1, then either divide every term by A so that it is 1 or factor an A out of

the variable terms only (not out of the constant).
 Move the constant to the right hand side. Be sure and leave space at the end of
the left hand side before the equal sign for the constant which will be inserted in
there later.
 Take 1 / 2 of the linear coefficient (B) and call that number "b". On the next line,
write (x+b)2 =. We will fill in the right hand side later. Of course, if B is negative,
then the expression will look like (x-b)2 =.
 Square that value you just found (one-half of B) and write it in that space you left
at the end of the left hand side before the equal sign on the previous line. Add
the same value to the right hand side, also. It is very important that we add the
same thing to both sides. If you chose to factor out the A, rather than dividing
through by it, make sure that you add A times that constant to the right hand
side.
 Simplify the right hand side
 Continue the process as an extraction of roots problem.

Quadratic Formula
Works well when the moon is aligned with Jupiter. Not actually, just seeing if anyone
bothers to read these notes.

The quadratic formula is a catch-all that can be used to solve any quadratic equation.
The equation must first of all be written in standard form, and then the coefficients
plugged into the formula. The formula was derived in class by completing the square on
a generic quadratic equation.

if ax2 + bx + c = 0 and a ≠ 0, then x = ( -b +/- sqrt (b2 - 4ac ) ) / ( 2a )

If the solutions from the quadratic formula are rational (no radicals), then the equation
could have been solved by factoring.

Discriminant b2-4ac
The discriminant is the radicand from the radical in the quadratic formula. Depending on
what type of number the discriminant is, we can tell what type and how many solutions
there will be.
 Discriminant Number and Type of Solutions
negative 2 complex solutions involving i. Equation can not be
factored over the reals because there are no real solutions.
zero 1 real, rational zero. Called a double or repeated root.
Equation could be factored.
positive and a perfect 2 real, rational zeros. Equation could be factored.
square
positive, but not a 2 real, irrational zeros. Equation could no be factored.
perfect square

Polynomials of Higher Degree

Try factoring. Be sure to check for a greatest common factor first.

Equations involving Radicals

18. Isolate the radical term on one side.
19. Square both sides of the equation. Warning! Squaring is not a one-to-one
function and you may introduce extraneous solutions. Also, don't forget that there
is a middle term when squaring a binomial.
20. Solve for x.
21. Check your answers. There may be extraneous solutions.

Equations with more than one radical term

 Isolate one of the radical terms on one side. It doesn't matter which one. Do NOT
square both sides of the equation if both radicals are on the same side of the
equal sign. It will work out if you are careful, but it will be extremely messy.
 Square both sides of the equation.
 Simplify.
 Isolate the remaining radical on a side by itself. Remember there will be a radical
because of the middle term when you square a binomial.
 Square both sides again.
 Solve for x.
 Check your answers. Really important here. You applied a non 1-1 function twice
and so there really could be extraneous solutions. Be sure to check.

Equations involving Fractions

Fractions are indeed your friends. Sometimes. When you need to give a solution, they
are preferred over decimals. If you have the choice as to working with decimals or
working with fractions, always choose the fraction if the decimals do not terminate.
However, if you have the option, and you do with equations, of not working with either
one - take it!

 Find the least common denominator (LCD).

 Set the LCD = 0 and note what values of x cannot be used. We will be
eliminating the denominators in the next step and the domain will no longer be
implied, therefore it is necessary to state the restrictions. I told you this all fit
together.
 Multiply every term of both sides by the LCD and simplify.
 Check your answer against your restrictions to make sure you're not using an
extraneous solution.

Equations involving Absolute Value

There are two possible values which have the same absolute value. Remember, the
absolute value is a piece-wisely defined function. Therefore, when solving an equation
containing an absolute value you must create two equations, one for each piece.

Also note the restrictions when you break the equation up into its two parts. It is
possible to get extraneous solutions (see problem 102). If you don't want to take the
time to keep track of the restrictions, then 1) don't be surprised when you miss the
problem on the exam or 2) check all of your solutions back into the original equation.

Position Equation
The height, s, in feet of a freely falling body (near the surface of the earth), after t
seconds, can be modeled by the function given.

s(t) = -16 t2 + v0t + s0

v0 = initial velocity and s0 = initial height

The -16 is valid for the earth's surface and will change depending on the celestial body
exerting the gravitational pull. For those interested, the quadratic coefficient will always
be one-half the acceleration due to gravity (-32 ft/s/s on the earth). The rest of the
equation is valid no matter what body you're on.

2.5 - Solving Inequalities Algebraically

and Graphically
Linear Inequalities
When solving a linear inequality, treat it just like you were solving an equation with a few
exceptions.

 When you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a negative constant,

change the sense (direction) of the inequality.
 When both sides of an inequality are the same sign, change the sense of the
inequality when you take the reciprocal of both sides.
 You may chain like inequalities together:
o If a<b and b<c, then a<c (transitive property)
o If a<b and c<d, then a+c<b+d. In English, that means that if you take two
things that are smaller and put them together, it will be smaller than the
two larger things put together.
 You can not combine mixed inequalities.
o If a<b and b>c, then you can't say for sure that a<c or that c<a.
o If a<b and c>d, then you can't say for sure that a+c<b+d or that a+c>b+d
 If you rewrite the entire problem, just switching sides, make sure you change the
sense of the inequality so that it still points to the same quantity.
 The following operations do not change the sense of the inequality
o Adding a constant to both sides of an inequality
o Subtracting a constant from both sides of an inequality
o Multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by a positive constant

Double Inequalities
Sometimes, two inequalities are combined into one. However, you need to be careful:

If x>3 and x<6, then you can write 3<x<6. But, if x<3 or x>6, you can not write 3>x>6
because that would imply that 3>6 and that would be a false statement and the set
would be empty.

To solve a double inequality, just apply the operations to all three portions: If 3<x+2<6,
then subtract 2 from all three parts to get 1<x<4.

Absolute Value Inequalities

These are going to give you trouble. They don't have to, but they will. People just don't
get absolute values.

I could tell you that the major reason people don't get it is because they don't
understand restrictions. That would be the truth, but just telling you that isn't going to
help you. The book is going to give a short cut and people are going to ask "why are
there so many rules?". There aren't! There is one definition of absolute value, and if you
know it, and apply the restrictions like you're supposed to, then the problems work out
every time without a need for additional rules. The additional rules from the book are
used to make the problems go quicker, just like when we omit the absolute value when
taking the square root of both sides and just stick in the plus/minus instead. It sounds
like an extra rule, but it's just an application of absolute value that we try to get around
because we don't like them (and we wonder why we have difficulty with them).

Absolute Values - the right way

Whether the original inequality was a > or < doesn't affect how the problem is done
when you're doing it the correct way. I could show an example of both, but the
technique is similar.

Consider the absolute value inequality | (x - 3) / 4 | ≤ 5

Begin by splitting the absolute value up into its two cases. Remember that the absolute
value can be found by dropping the absolute value signs when the argument is non-
negative (case 1) and by taking the opposite of what was in absolute values when the
argument is negative (case 2).

22. (x-3)/4 ≤ 5 if (x-3)/4 ≥ 0

23. - (x-3)/4 ≤ 5 if (x-3)/4 < 0

Case 1

(x-3)/4 ≤ 5 if (x-3)/4 ≥ 0

First the function portion

(x-3) / 4 ≤ 5
x-3 ≤ 20
x ≤ 23

Now the restriction

(x-3)/4 ≥ 0
x-3 ≥ 0
x≥3

Be sure to pay special attention to the restrictions about what's in absolute value being
non-negative and negative. Inequalities that occur at the same time like the function and
its restriction must both be satisfied. That's why the two portions from solving the first
case can be combined so that x is between 3 and 23 inclusive. It must satisfy both x≥3
and x≤23.

3 ≤ x ≤ 23
Case 2

- (x-3)/4 ≤ 5 if (x-3)/4 < 0

First the function. We'll start off by multiplying by -1 to get rid of the negative sign, but
then we have to change the sense (direction) of the inequality.

- (x-3) / 4 ≤ 5
(x-3) / 4 ≥ -5
x-3 ≥ -20
x ≥ -17

Now the restriction.

(x-3)/4 < 0
x-3 < 0
x<3

Likewise, for the second case, the two portions must both be satisfied at the same time.
Also notice that when I multiplied both sides of the inequality by -4, I changed the sense
of the inequality so that it was no longer ≤, but now ≥. You could have simplified this in
other ways, but I usually find it easier to get rid of the negative right away.

-17 ≤ x < 3

Putting it back together

The two inequalities within a particular case must both be satisfied at the same time.
However, the inequalities that occur between the two sides may be combined with an
"or". Just like if (x-2)(x+4)=0, you would say the answer is x=2 or x=-4, you wouldn't
insist that it be both 2 and -4 and the same time. The same principle holds with the two
parts of the absolute value. I told you it all fits together. I know you're going to be tired of
hearing me say it, but it is much easier to understand if you see the big picture.

So, put the two answers from Case 1 and Case 2 together

-17 ≤ x < 3 or 3 ≤ x ≤ 23

These two intervals can be unioned together to get the final answer.

-17 ≤ x ≤ 23

In interval notation, that would be [ -17, 23 ]

Absolute Values the shortcut way

Less Than
When the absolute value is less than the right hand side, then the answer will be
between the opposite of the right hand side and the right hand side.
The absolute value inequality |x-2|<3 can be written as -3<x-2<3. Applying
techniques discussed in the double inequality section above, this can be solved
by adding 2 to each part to arrive at -1<x<5.
Greater Than
When the absolute value is greater than the right hand side, then the answer will
be in two parts, with an or separating them. It will be greater than the right hand
side or less than the opposite of the right hand side.
The absolute value inequality |x-2|>3 can be written as x-2<-3 or x-2>3. Solving
this arrives at x<-1 or x>5.
Note that this cannot be combined to be -1>x>5 because that implies that 1>5
which is just plain false and would be the empty set.

Absolute Values the Geometric Way

I have no problem with using the geometric approach to solving absolute value
inequalities. Not the geometric approach where you put it into the calculator, but the
geometric approach where you use the geometric definition of absolute value. The
geometric definition of absolute value is the distance from 0 on the number line. If you
modify it slightly, then |x-a| is the distance from x=a on the number line.

However, this technique requires that you know some of the properties of absolute
values. These are good things to know anyway (isn't it all?), so it would be good if you
learned them.

Let's consider the same inequality that we solved before: | (x - 3) / 4 | ≤ 5

Multiply both sides by 4 to get |x-3| ≤ 20.

This says that the distance from 3 on the number line is less than or equal to 20. So,
start at 3 and go 20 to the left (-17) and 20 to the right (23). You need the distance to be
less than (or equal to) 20 units away. This would include values between -17 and 23.
Since the equal to is included, you include the endpoints to get the answer (interval
notation) of [-17,23].

Wow! That was easy, you say. Yep.

A little bit harder problem: | (3-5x) / 2| ≥ 3

Multiply both sides by 2 to get | 3-5x | ≥ 6.

Here's where those properties of absolute values come into play. The absolute value of
the opposite of a number is the same as the absolute value of the number. That means
that we can say | 3-5x | = | 5x-3 | and |5x-3| ≥ 6.
Now divide both sides by 5 to get | x- 3/5 | ≥ 6/5.

This says that the distance from 3/5 is at least 6/5. So, start at 3/5 and go 6/5 to the left
(-3/5) and 6/5 to the right (9/5). Since you need the distance to be more than 6/5 units
away from 3/5, you need the values to the left of -3/5 and to the right of 9/5. The answer
is therefore x≤-3/5 or x≥9/5. In interval notation, you would have to use the union of two
intervals (-∞,-3/5] U [9/5, +∞).

Polynomial Inequalities
Polynomials are continuous. That means that you can draw them without picking up
your pencil (there's a more rigorous definition in calculus, but that definition will work for
us, now). If you're going to change from being less than zero to being greater than zero
and you can't pick up your pencil, then at some point, you must cross the x-axis. That
means that the only place the inequality can change is at an x-intercept, a zero, a root,
a solution.

The key then, to finding the solution set for a polynomial inequality, is to find the zeros
of the inequality (pretend it was an equation), putting them on the number line, and
picking a test point in each region.

 Write the polynomial inequality in standard form so that the right side is zero.
 Find the real solutions (ignore complex solutions involving i) to the inequality any
way that you want to. Factoring is preferred, but you can use the quadratic
formula if you can get it down to a quadratic factor. These values are called
"critical numbers" (not to be confused with the similar but slightly different "critical
values" from calculus).
 Put the zeros of the polynomial (critical numbers) on the number line. Be sure to
put them in order from smallest to largest. It is not important to label any other
value on the number line. Some people were taught that you always put zero on
the number line. That is not necessary here.
 Pick a test point in each interval. You will have one more interval than the
number of test points. Plug that test point back into either the factored inequality
or the original inequality. If the test point gives you a true statement, then any
point in that interval will work, and you want to include that interval in the answer.
If the test point gives you a false statement, then all points in that interval will not
work and you do not want to include that interval.
 Include the endpoints if the inequality includes the equal to and do not include
the endpoints if the inequality does not include the equal to.

Rational Inequalities
Rational inequalities are similar to polynomials, but there is an extra temptation and an
extra place where critical numbers could occur.
Temptation: Yield not to temptation, for yielding is sin.

I know you don't like fractions. You try to get rid of them at every chance you get. But,
fractions are your friends and I really hope you don't treat all of your friends that way.

Here's the problem. If you multiply by a constant, it's pretty obvious whether it is positive
or negative so you know whether or not to change the inequality. However, with rational
expressions, there's going to be a variable in the denominator. Variables can take on
different values - that's why they're called variable (and you thought math made no
sense). Sometimes an expression is positive, but for other values of x, the expression is
negative. So, if you multiply by the least common denominator, you don't know whether
your multiplying by a positive number or a negative number unless you keep track of
the restrictions! So, you have your choice - fractions that you hate or restrictions that
you hate? In this case, fractions are the lesser of the two evils (in your mind - neither
one is really evil in reality)

Continuity
Polynomial functions are continuous everywhere. However, rational functions are not.
They are continuous everywhere except where undefined and that occurs when the
denominator is zero.

If you're moving along and you can't pick up your pencil and you change from negative
to positive, then it has to happen at a zero of the function, same as with a polynomial.
But, if the function is undefined, then you have to pick up your pencil. While the pencil is
up, there is nothing that says you can't move to a completely different location, perhaps
on the other side of the x-axis when you put it back down.

We now have two places that critical numbers can occur. One is at a zero of the
function, the other is where the function is undefined.

 Write the rational inequality in standard form so that the right side is zero.
 Get a common denominator by multiplying top and bottom of terms. Remember
you can not multiply through and get rid of the fractions because you don't know
if what you're multiplying by is negative or positive (unless you want to mess with
restrictions - and you don't in this case)
 Find the critical numbers. In simple terms a critical number is anything that
makes the numerator or denominator zero.
o Find the places where the function is undefined because of division by
zero. These will be critical points that cannot be included in the final
answer even if the equal to is included because it would cause division by
zero.
o Find the real solutions (ignore complex solutions involving i) to the function
any way that you want to. To find the zeros, all you need to worry about is
the numerator.
  Put the critical numbers on the number line.
 Pick a test point in each interval and determine if the interval works or doesn't
work.
 Include the endpoints if the inequality includes the equal to and do not include
the endpoints if the inequality does not include the equal to. Be sure you do not
include any endpoint that would cause division by zero if included.

Actually, converting the whole thing to an equation and solving to find the critical
numbers isn't that bad of a route. The book, and most mathematics teachers assume
that you're going to keep the inequality in the problem in all the way to the end. If you're
willing to plug the values back into the original problem, you can change over to an
equal sign, get rid of the fractions, and find the critical numbers. You still have to watch
the restrictions, but now the restrictions are of the form x≠2 instead of x<2, and much
easier to deal with.

However, learn it this way, because when we get to chapter 3, there is going to be a
fundamental concept which will greatly speed finding the solutions to these problems,
and it requires (sort of) that you look at positives and negatives.

Graphing Utilities
Another way to solve inequalities is to graph the left hand side of the inequality as y 1
and the right hand side as y2 and then find the intersection point. The intersection point
will be your critical number. By looking at the graph, you can tell when the inequality is
satisfied and record that interval. Remember that when you're giving intervals, only the
x-coordinate is necessary. There is no y in the original problem, it was something that
was added to make the graphing convenient.

2.6 - Exploring Data: Linear Models and

Scatter Plots
This section ties in heavily with the notes for a statistics class. In particular, look at the
Introduction to Statistics and Lists on the TI82 and Scatter Plots and Regression Lines on the
TI82. With that said, I will try to convey most of that information here, also.

I have included notes for the TI82, TI83, and TI85 calculators. I don't normally do the
TI85, but the statistics mode on it is fairly difficult to grasp. I do not have notes on how
to use any of the other calculators, like the Casio or Sharp. If you would rather see all of
the notes for your calculator in one location, then see the lecture notes for either the
TI82 / TI83 or the TI85. Everything here is included there, so you only need to print one
or the other.

TI83 Users Only

There is a correlation coefficient which is mentioned in the book. By default, the TI83
does not give this to you. You can enable it (you only need to do this once, and then it's
done forever more until you lose power or reset your calculator) by going [Catalog] (2 nd
zero). Then, scroll down to DiagnosticOn (hit D [the calculator is already in alpha
mode, so just press the inverse key] to get close quickly) and press enter twice until the
calculator says Done.

Correlation and Regression

The Linear Correlation Coefficient (r) is a measure of the strength and direction of a
relationship between two variables. If the y gets larger when the x gets larger, the
coefficient is positive and if the y gets smaller when the x gets larger, the coefficient is
negative. If there is no linear relationship between the two variables, then the coefficient
is zero. If all the data exactly lies on a line, then it is called perfect correlation and the
value will either be 1 or -1. The closer the value is to 1 or -1, the closer the points are to
the line and the stronger the linear relationship. The same concept applies for other
types of regression (the TI82, TI83, and TI85 will do linear, logarithmic, exponential,
power, quadratic, cubic, and quartic regression).

The Regression Equation or Regression Line is the equation of the line which best fits
the data.

One of the uses of regression is to see if there is a correlation between the two
variables. This is indicated by the value of the correlation coefficient r. Another use of
regression is to predict values.

Clearing Existing Data in the Calculator

TI82 / TI83

I'm going to assume that you're putting the x-coordinates into List 1 and the y-
coordinates into List 2. Make appropriate modifications to the instructions if you use
different lists.

 Hit the [Stat] key.

 Choose the Edit option.
 Arrow all the way to the top (above the line) of the list that you're going to use.
Usually this will be L1.
 Press the [Clear] key
 Press [Enter]
 Arrow to the next list to clear out and repeat steps 3-5.

TI85
I'm going to assume that you're putting the x-coordinates into xStat and the y-
coordinates into yStat. Make appropriate modifications to the instructions if you use
different lists.

24. Hit the [Stat] key.

25. Choose Edit [F2]
26. [Enter] twice to accept the lists xStat and yStat (you can change names if you
want to).
27. Choose CLRxy [F5]

Entering Data into the Calculator

TI82 / TI83

With the TI82 or TI83, you enter all the x-coordinates first and all the y-coordinates
second. If you have just cleared out your data, skip steps 1 and 2 and begin on step 3.

 Hit the [Stat] key

 Choose the Edit option
 Arrow to the first element in the list to be used to hold the x-coordinates. This is
the first element below the line.
 Type in the first x-value and hit [Enter].
 Repeat for each additional x-value.
 Arrow to the list to be used for the y-coordinates. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for the y-
coordinates.
 Choose [Quit] (2nd Mode)

TI85

With the TI85, you enter pairs of x-coordinates and y-coordinates. If you have just
cleared out your data, skip steps 1 through 3 and begin on step 4.

 Hit the [Stat] key.

 Choose Edit [F2]
 [Enter] twice to accept the lists xStat and yStat (you can change names if you
want to).
 Enter the x-coordinate of the first point and hit [Enter]
 Enter the y-coordinate of the second point and hit [Enter]
 Repeat steps 4 and 5 for each additional point
 [Exit] twice to get back to the main screen.

Scatter Plots
TI82 / TI83
  Turn off all regular y= plots by going into [y=] and clearing them out (or move to
the equal sign and hit enter).
 Hit [StatPlot] (2nd y=).
 Choose Plot1. You can use any of the three, but for simplicity sake, I'm going to
use plot 1.
 Turn it ON.
 Choose the Scatter Plot (first plot type - with a bunch of dots)
 For the Xlist, choose List 1 (L1). On the TI82, just press enter. On the TI83, you
will need to actually put in List 1 by pressing [2 nd] and [1].
 For the Ylist, choose List 2 (L2).
 The Mark can be anything. I recommend the little square as it shows up better
than the cross or dot.
 Hit [Zoom]
 Choose the Statistics option. Option 9 (just hitting 9 is quicker than scrolling
down).

TI85

On the TI85, you must set up the viewing window before you view the scatter plot. Also,
the ZoomFit option does not work to automatically set the window for the data.
However, the TI85 does provide an easier way to graph the regression equation

8. Turn off all regular y= plots by going [Graph], y(x) [F1] and either clearing or
deleting the functions. You may also choose to leave the graphs but turn them all
off by using [More] and All- [F2]
9. Set your viewing window by choosing Range [F2]
10. Set the values so that all the data values are displayed.
11. Hit [Stat]
12. Choose Draw [F3]
13. Choose Scatter Plot [F2]

It will be difficult to see the dots on the scatter plot because they are just individual
pixels, not boxes or crosses like with the TI82 or TI83.

Least Squares Regression Line

The least squares regression model is the line which minimizes the variation. Ok, if you
really want to know, take a statistics class. In general terms it is the line that best fits the
data. That is why it is sometimes called the best fit line.

TI82 / TI83

If you have a TI83, make sure you enable Diagnostics as explained at the top of this
document. You need to only do that once.
The TI82 and TI83 return the regression equation y=ax+b. If you want the regression
equation y=a+bx, then you should choose LinReg(a+bx) (option 9 or 8) instead.

8. Hit the [Stat] key

9. Arrow right to the Calc screen
10. Choose the "LinReg (ax+b)" option. It's #5 on the TI82 and #4 on the TI83 .
11. Tell the calculator where you put the data. Enter L1,L2 so that the screen says
"LinReg(ax+b) L1,L2". To enter L1, hit [2nd] [1]. Be sure you get the comma
between L1 and L2. The comma is right above the 7.
12. Press [Enter] to execute the command.
13. The calculator will return values for a, b, and r (and r^2 on the TI83). Write out
the equation of the regression line as y = ax + b, but actually write in the values
for a and b.

TI85

Warning! The TI85 returns the regression equation y=a+bx. The book and the other TI
calculators will be using y=ax+b instead. Be sure to adjust appropriately.

If you have just plotted your scatter plot, then skip to step 2.

 Hit [Stat]
 Choose Calc [F1]
 Hit [Enter] twice to accept the lists containing your data
 Choose Linear Regression [F2]
 The calculator will return the y-intercept (a), slope (b), and the correlation
coefficient r (corr). The TI85 also returns the number of values (n).

Drawing the Regression Line on the Scatter Plot

TI82 / TI83

You must compute the regression equation before doing this.

 Hit [y=]
 You could re-enter the equation that you wrote down, earlier, but it is a pain to
do, and you're likely to lose some accuracy when you do that. While still waiting
to enter the equation to plot, hit the [Vars] key.
 Choose Statistics (5)
 Arrow right to EQ
 Choose RegEQ. This is option 7 for the TI82 and option 1 for the TI83
 Hit [Graph]

TI85
You must compute the regression equation before doing this. If you just computed the
regression equation, skip to step 2

 Hit [Stat]
 Choose Draw [F3]
 Choose Draw Regression Equation (DDREG) [F4]

Predicting Values
One of the uses of the regression equation is to predict values.

TI82 / TI83

You must have computed the regression equation and put it into y 1 to use this.

 Hit [TblSet] (2nd Window)

 The easiest way is to set TblMin to be the value of x you wish to predict y for.
 Set delta-Tbl to be 1
 Hit [Table] (2nd Graph)
 You can scroll through and see other values if you wish.

If you wish to find the value of x that gives a specific y-value, then you need to solve the
regression equation for x and then substitute the known value of y.

TI85

You must have computed the regression equation, but you do not have to graph it to
use this. If you have just completed the Linear Regression, then skip to step 2.

 Hit [Stat]
 Choose Forecast (FCST) [F4]
 Enter the value for x you wish to use and press [Enter].
 With the cursor sitting on the y= line, press Solve [F5]

The TI85 can be used to find the values of x that give a particular value of y. To do that,
enter the value for y, position the cursor on the x= line and hit solve.

When you're all done

Be sure to turn off the statistical plots and clear out the regression equation when you're
done

TI82 / TI83
  Hit [StatPlot] (2nd y=)
 Choose PlotsOff (4)
 Press [Enter]

TI85

You don't have to do anything special. The statistical plots and y= plots are kept
separate from each other. If you want to, however, you may clear your drawing

3. Hit [Graph], [More]

4. Choose Draw [F2]
5. Hit [More] ClrDrw [F5]

Alternatively, and probably quicker ...

3. Hit [Stat]
4. Choose Draw [F3]
5. Choose ClrDrw [F5]

3.1 - Quadratic Functions

Definitions
Polynomial function in one variable of degree n
A function with one variable raised to whole number powers (the largest being n)
and with real coefficients.
The standard form is f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + ... + a2x2 + a1x + a0, an≠0
Constant function
A polynomial function in one variable of degree 0.
Polynomial form: f(x)=a0
Standard form: f(x) = c
Linear function
A polynomial function in one variable of degree 1.
Polynomial form: f(x)= a1x + a0
Standard form: f(x) = ax + b
Quadratic function
A polynomial function in one variable of degree 2.
Polynomial form: f(x)= a2x2 + a1x + a0
Standard form 1: f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
Standard form 2: f(x) = a (x-h)2 + k
Cubic function
A polynomial function in one variable of degree 3.
Polynomial form: f(x)= a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0
Quartic function
 A polynomial function in one variable of degree 4.
Polynomial form: f(x)= a4x4 + a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0
For powers higher than 4, they are usually just referred to by their degree -
example "A 5th degree polynomial"
Parabola
The graph of a quadratic function
Axis of symmetry (for a parabola)
The line of symmetry through the center of the parabola
Vertex
The intersection of the axis of symmetry and the parabola. It will be the minimum
point on the graph if a>0 and the maximum point on the graph if a<0.

A new "standard form"

The old standard form for a parabola was written like any other polynomial, f(x) = ax 2 +
bx + c, a ≠ 0.

We're going to complete the square and place it into a form where the translations are
easily interpreted. This time, instead of dividing through by a, let's factor an a out of the
x-terms instead.

f(x) = a [ x2 + (b/a) x + ? ] + c

Go ahead and take half of the x-coefficient and put it on the next line.

f(x) = a [ x + (b/2a) ]2 + ?

One thing to be careful of here. When you add the b2/(4a2), you are really multiplying it
by the a that you factored out, so it is really just a b 2/(4a). This time, instead of adding it
to both sides of the equation, add it and subtract it on the same side of the equation.

f(x) = a [ x2 + (b/a) x + b2/(4a2) ] + c - b2/(4a)

f(x) = a [ x + (b/2a) ]2 + (4ac - b2)/(4a)

With a couple of substitutions, this can be written in the new standard form.

f(x) = a ( x - h )2 + k

where h = -b/(2a) and k = (4ac - b2) / (4a)

Do not worry about what k is, but you might want to memorize the value for h.

The x-coordinate of the vertex is -b/(2a). The y-coordinate is what you get when you
plug -b/(2a) back into the original function for x.
There are three translations involved here.

 The y-coordinates have been multiplied by a. This is the same a that was in the
original problem. If a>0, then the parabola opens up and the vertex is at the
bottom. If a<0, then the parabola opens down and the vertex is at the top.
 There has been a horizontal shift. Instead of the x-coordinate of the vertex being
at x=0, it is now at x=h, where h=-b/(2a). Since the axis of symmetry passes
through the vertex, that means that the axis of symmetry is now x=-b/(2a).
 There has been a vertical shift. The y-coordinate of the vertex is now at y=k. It is
not worth your time to memorize the formula for the vertical shift. It isn't that hard,
it is -a times the discriminant of the quadratic, but it is easier to find the x-
coordinate, and plug that back into the equation to find the y-coordinate.

Unless the coefficients are really nasty (ie, decimals), you may find it quicker to
complete the square to find the vertex than to let x=-b/(2a) and then find the y-
coordinate.

But do note that the vertex is now at (h,k) instead of (0,0).

Extrema - Maximum and Minimums

Absolute Minimum
If a>0, then the parabola will open up and the vertex will be the lowest point on
the graph. Since it is lower than all other points, not just those around it, it is an
absolute minimum instead of a relative minimum. Since the coordinates of the
vertex are (h,k), the "absolute minimum of the function is k when x=h."
Absolute Maximum
If a<0, then the parabola will open down and the vertex will be the highest point
on the graph. Since it is higher than all other points, not just those around it, it is
an absolute maximum instead of a relative maximum. Since the coordinates of
the vertex are (h,k), the "absolute maximum of the function is k when x=h."

Notice the proper format for answering a minimum or maximum question is to give the
minimum or maximum value (the y-coordinate) and where it occurs (the x-coordinate).

3.2 - Polynomial Functions of Higher

Degree
Graphs of Polynomials
Polynomials are continuous and smooth everywhere.
  A continuous function means that it can be drawn without picking up your
pencil. There are no jumps or holes in the graph of a polynomial function.
 A smooth curve means that there are no sharp turns (like an absolute value) in
the graph of the function.
 The y-intercept of the polynomial is the constant term a0.

Leading Coefficient Test (right hand behavior)

28. If the leading coefficient, an, of the polynomial is positive, then the right hand
side of the graph will rise towards + infinity.
29. If the leading coefficient, an, of the polynomial is negative, then the right hand
side of the graph will fall towards - infinity.

Degree of the Polynomial (left hand behavior)

 If the degree, n, of the polynomial is even, the left hand side will do the same as
the right hand side.
 If the degree, n, of the polynomial is odd, the left hand side will do the opposite
of the right hand side.

Get used to this even-same, odd-changes notion. We will be seeing it a lot ("lot" is a
mathematical term meaning you will be sick of it - but that it's probably something that's
really important.)

Zeros of a Polynomial Function

 An nth degree polynomial in one variable has at most n real zeros. There are
exactly n real or complex zeros (see the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra in the
next section).
 An nth degree polynomial in one variable has at most n-1 relative extrema
(relative maximums or relative minimums). Since a relative extremum is a turn in
the graph, you could also say there are at most n-1 turns in the graph.

Real Zeros

If f is a polynomial function in one variable, then the following statements are equivalent

 x=a is a zero or root of the function f.

 x=a is a solution of the equation f(x)=0.
 (x-a) is a factor of the function f.
 (a,0) is an x-intercept of the graph of f.

The claim is made that there are at most n real zeros. There is no claim made that they
are all unique (different). Some of the roots may be repeated. These are called
repeated roots. Repeated roots are tied to a concept called multiplicity. The
multiplicity of a root is the number of times a root is an answer. The easiest way to
determine the multiplicity of a root is to look at the exponent on the corresponding
factor.

Consider the following

f(x) = (x-3)^2 (x+5) (x+2)^4

The roots to the function will be x=3 with multiplicity 2, x=-5, and x=-2 with multiplicity 4.
It is assumed, and therefore unnecessary to write, a multiplicity of 1.

And the beautiful thing is ...

The multiplicity of a root, and likewise the exponent on the factor, can be used to
determine the behavior of the graph at that zero.

14. If the multiplicity is odd, the graph will cross the x-axis at that zero. That is, it will
change sides, or be on opposite sides of the x-axis.
15. If the multiplicity is even, the graph will touch the x-axis at that zero. That is, it
will stay on the same side of the axis.

Wait - it seems I've mentioned that before. I feel like Tweety-Bird when I thot I thaw a
puddy tat. I did, I did. Odd changes, even stays the same. I call it OCES. Get used to it -
it will be a recurring theme.

Odd Changes, Even Same

Here are some places you will be using the concept of Odd Changes, Even stays the
Same

14. The left hand behavior of a polynomial function.

o If the degree of the polynomial is Odd, the left hand Changes from the
right hand
o If the degree of the polynomial is Even, the left hand does the Same as
the right hand
15. The behavior of a polynomial function at the x-intercepts
o If the multiplicity is Odd, the graph will Change sides and cross the axis
o If the multiplicity is Even, the graph will stay on the Same side and just
touch the axis
16. Determining the solution to inequalities (this is the key to finding answers really
quickly)
o If the multiplicity is Odd, the sign will Change at the critical number
o If the multiplicity is Even, the sign will stay the Same at the critical number
17. The behavior of a rational functions (later in the chapter) the x-intercepts
o If the multiplicity is Odd, the graph will Change sides and cross the axis
 o If the multiplicity is Even, the graph will stay on the Same side and just
touch the axis
18. Vertical asymptotes of rational functions (later in the chapter)
o If the multiplicity is Odd, the graph will Change sides and one side of the
vertical asymptote will rise to positive infinity while the other side falls to
negative infinity.
o If the multiplicity is Even, the graph will stay on the Same side, and both
sides of the vertical asymptote will rise to positive infinity or both sides will
fall to negative infinity.
19. Determining the sign of the cofactor of an element of a matrix (chapter 6)
o If the sum of the row and column the element is in is Odd, the cofactor will
Change and be the opposite of the minor.
o If the sum of the row and column the element is in is Even, the cofactor
will be the Same as the minor.

Intermediate Value Theorem

Polynomials are continuous functions which mean that you can't pick up your pencil
while graphing them.

Question:
If at some point, you're below the x-axis, and at another point you're above the x-
axis, and you didn't pick up your pencil while moving from one point to the other -
what happened?
Answer:
You crossed the x-axis, had a zero or root of the function, found a solution, etc.

Now, take that concept a little bit farther. Take any two y-values. If they're not the same,
then you had to hit every y-value between the two when moving from one to the other.
The Intermediate Value Theorem states that formally.

What it's primarily used for, however, is to find the zeros of a continuous function.

3.3 - Real Zeros of Polynomial Functions

Long Division of Polynomials
You were taught long division of polynomials in Intermediate Algebra. Basically, the
procedure is carried out like long division of real numbers. The procedure is explained in
the textbook if you're not familiar with it.

One key point about division, and this works for real numbers as well as for polynomial
division, needs to be pointed out. When you divide the dividend by the divisor, you get a
quotient and a remainder. To check the problem, you multiply the divisor by the quotient
and add the remainder to get the dividend. If the remainder is 0, then we say that the
divisor divides evenly into the dividend.

Dividend / Divisor = Quotient + Remainder / Divisor

Dividend = Divisor * Quotient + Remainder

Like I said, the same thing can be done with polynomial functions.

f(x) = d(x) * q(x) + r(x)

Where f(x) is the polynomial function being divided into (dividend), d(x) is the polynomial
function being divided by (divisor), q(x) is the polynomial function that is the quotient,
and r(x) is the polynomial remainder function and will have degree less than the divisor.

If the remainder, r(x), is zero, then f(x) = d(x)*q(x). We have just factored the function
f(x) into two factors, d(x) and q(x).

Remainder Theorem
When a polynomial function f is divided by x-k, the remainder r is f(k).

Okay, now in English. If you divide a polynomial by a linear factor, x-k, the remainder is
the value you would get if you plugged x=k into the function and evaluated.

Now, tie that into what we just said above. If the remainder is zero, then you have
successfully factored the polynomial. If the remainder when dividing by (x-k) is zero,
then the function evaluated at x=k is zero and you have found a zero or root of the
polynomial. Plus, you now have a factored polynomial (the quotient) which is one less
degree than the original polynomial. If the quotient is down to a quadratic or linear
factor, then you can solve and find the other solutions.

Synthetic Division
To divide a polynomial synthetically by x-k, perform the following steps.

Setup

 Write k down, leave some space after it.

 On the same line, right the coefficients of the polynomial function. Make sure you
write the coefficients in order of decreasing power. Be sure to put a zero down if
a power is missing. Place holders are very important
 For now, leave a blank line. Draw the left and bottom portions of a box. The left
portion goes between the k and the coefficients. The bottom portion goes under
the blank line you left.
Synthetic Division

Once you have things set up, you can actually start to perform the synthetic division.

30. Bring the first coefficient down to the bottom row (below the line)
31. Multiply the number in the bottom row by the constant k, and write the product in
the next column of the second row (above the line).
32. Add the numbers in the next column and write the total below the line.
33. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until all the columns are filled.

Interpreting the Results

 The very last value is the remainder. If the remainder is zero, you have found a
zero of the function.
 The rest of the values are the coefficients of the quotient. Each term will be
raised to the one less power than the original dividend. (If it was a fourth degree
polynomial to start with, the quotient will be a third degree polynomial).

Warnings

You can only use synthetic division as described above to divide by x-k. That is, it must
be a linear factor, and the leading coefficient must be a one.

There are similar ways to divide by a quadratic, cubic, etc, but for some reason, they
aren't taught anymore (no, they won't die with me, I'm sure someone else knows them,
too, but thanks for your concern).

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial in one variable of degree n, n > 0, has at least one real or complex
zero.

Corollary to the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial in one variable of degree n, n > 0, has exactly n real or complex
zeros.

Complex Roots
Complex solutions come in pairs. If (a+bi) is a solution, then its complex conjugate
(a-bi) is also a solution.

Square Roots
Solutions involving square roots also come in pairs. If a+sqrt(b) is a solution, then its
conjugate, a-sqrt(b) will also be a solution. The same is not necessarily true of other
roots.

Descartes' Rule of Signs

This is not in your text!

 The maximum number of positive real roots can be found by counting the
number of sign changes in f(x). The actual number of positive real roots may be
the maximum, or the maximum decreased by a multiple of two.
 The maximum number of negative real roots can be found by counting the
number of sign changes in f(-x). The actual number of negative real roots may be
the maximum, or the maximum decreased by a multiple of two.
 Complex roots always come in pairs. That's why the number of positive or
number of negative roots must decrease by two.

Consider: f(x) = 3x^6 + x^5 - x^4 + 3x^3 + 2x^2 - x + 1.

The signs in f(x) are + + - + + - +. There are 4 sign changes (+ to -) or (- to +).

Now, f(-x) = 3x^6 - x^5 - x^4 - 3x^3 + 2x^2 + x + 1.

The signs in f(-x) are + - - - + + +. There are 2 sign changes (+ to -) or (- to +).

Here are the Possible Combinations of Roots

Tot Positi Negati Compl

al ve ve ex
6 4 2 0
6 2 2 2
6 0 2 4
6 4 0 2
6 2 0 4
6 0 0 6

Notice that the positive and negative values can decrease by two independently of each
other.

Rational Root Test

If a polynomial function has integer coefficients, then every rational zero will have the
form p/q where p is a factor of the constant and q is a factor of the leading coefficient.
  Make sure the polynomial has integer coefficients. Multiply to get rid of fractions
or decimals if need be (be sure to later divide).
 This only addresses the rational zeros. There may be real, but non-rational roots.
There may be complex roots involving i.
 This says that rational zeros will have this form. It does not say that everything
that has this form is a rational zero. What it does give you is a list of possible
rational zeros

Example: f(x) = 4x^5 - x^2 + 12

Possible rational zeros will be of the form (factor of 12) over (factor of 4). A division
table can help you find all these values

1 2 3 4 6 12
1 1 2 3 4 6 12
2 1/2 1 3/2 2 3 6
4 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 3/2 3

The division table helps identify the possible rational zeros. You should throw out the
duplicates, and list the others in order.

-12, -6, -4, -3, -2, -3 / 2, -1, -3 / 4, -1 / 2, -1 / 4, 1 / 4, 3 / 4, 1, 3 / 2, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12

Now, you perform synthetic division on possible rational zeros until you find one.

Here's where Descartes' Rule of Signs comes in. In this particular problem, there would
be a maximum of 2 positive and 1 negative root. That means that you may have 2 or 0
positive roots, but you will always have 1 negative. There is no guarantee that negative
is rational, though. Descartes only guaranteed real roots. If there were no negatives,
then you would know not to try any.

Upper and Lower Bounds

If you have a polynomial with real coefficients and a positive leading coefficient, then ...

Upper Bound
If synthetic division is performed by dividing by x-k, where k>0, and all the signs
in the bottom row of the synthetic division are non-negative, then x=k is an upper
bound (nothing is larger) for the zeros of the polynomial.
Lower Bound
If synthetic division is performed by dividing by x-k, where k<0, and the signs in
the bottom row of the synthetic division alternate (between non-negative and
 non-positive), then x=k is a lower bound (nothing is smaller) for the zeros of the
polynomial.

The zero in the bottom row may be considered positive or negative as needed.

Suggested Attack to Finding Zeros of a Polynomial

16. Identify the total number of real or complex zeros (corollary to Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra).
17. Identify the possible number of positive, negative, and complex zeros (Descartes'
Rule of Signs).
18. List the possible rational zeros (Rational Root Theorem)
19. Try possible rational zeros until you find one that works. After each division by a
positive value, check for possible upper bounds. After each division by a negative
value, check for possible lower bounds (Upper and Lower Bound Theorems)
20. After you find a possible rational root that actually works, take the quotient and
continue to try to factor it until it is down to a quadratic or less. Once it is a
quadratic or less, there are other ways to solve it.
21. Write the linear and or linear / irreducible quadratic factorization (next section)

Really Important (and frustrating if you forget)!

Once you have found a zero using synthetic division, use the quotient as a new
polynomial for all further divisions. The quotient will be one less degree than the original
dividend. Each time you find a root, the quotient becomes one less in degree.
Eventually, it will become a quadratic, and then you can factor, extract roots, complete
the square, or use the quadratic equation to find the remaining roots.

If you continue to use the original function, you will become very frustrated and waste a
lot of time.

3.4 - Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Each branch of mathematics has its own fundamental theorem(s). If you check out
fundamental in the dictionary, you will see that it relates to the foundation or the base or
is elementary. Fundamental theorems are important foundations for the rest of the
material to follow.

Here are some of the fundamental theorems or principles that occur in your text.

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (pg 9)

Every integer greater than one is either prime or can be expressed as an unique product
of prime numbers.
Fundamental Theorem of Linear Programming (pg 440)

If there is a solution to a linear programming problem, then it will occur at a corner point,
or on a line segment between two corner points.

Fundamental Counting Principle (pg 574)

If there are m ways to do one thing, and n ways to do another, then there are m*n ways
of doing both.

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial in one variable of degree n>0 has at least one real or complex zero.

Now, your textbook says at least on zero in the complex number system. That is
correct. However, most students forget that reals are also complex numbers, so I will try
to spell out real or complex to make things simpler for you.

Corollary to the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial in one variable of degree n>0 has exactly n, not necessarily distinct,
real or complex zeros.

Linear Factorization Theorem

A polynomial in one variable of degree n>0 can be factored as

f(x)=an (x-c1) (x-c2) (x-c3) ... (x-cn)

Where an is the leading coefficient and each c1 ... cn is a real or complex root of the
function.

Notice that each factor is a linear factor (all x's are raised to the first power), but that
there may be complex roots involved.

Linear and Irreducible Quadratic Factorization

The preferred way of writing a polynomial is to use the linear and irreducible quadratic
factorization. In this factorization, all radicals are eliminated. This includes complex
numbers involving i (remember, i is the sqrt(-1)).

There are two types of irreducible quadratic factors. The book will be talking about
irreducible over the reals. I prefer irreducible over the rationals (if the function has
integer coefficients).
Irreducible over the Reals

When the quadratic factors have no real roots, only complex roots involving i, it is said to
be irreducible over the reals. This may involve square roots, but not the square roots of
negative numbers.

Irreducible over the Rationals

When the quadratic factors have no rational roots, only irrational roots involving radicals
or complex numbers, then it is said to be irreducible over the rationals. This is the
preferred form when the coefficients of the polynomial are rational, or even better,
integers.

Complex Roots
Complex roots come in pairs. This is why the maximum number of positive or negative
real roots (Descartes' Rule of Signs) must decrease by two. It can't decrease by one
because the only place for the roots to go is into the complex field, and they have to
come in pairs. The other complex number which works is the complex conjugate.

Square Roots
Square roots come in pairs. This is not necessarily true of other roots. The other square
root which works is the conjugate of the first.

3.5 - Rational Functions and Asymptotes

A rational function is a function that can be written as the ratio of two polynomials where
the denominator isn't zero.

f(x) = p(x) / q(x)

Domain
The domain of a rational function is all real values except where the denominator, q(x) =
0.

Roots
The roots, zeros, solutions, x-intercepts (whatever you want to call them) of the rational
function will be the places where p(x) = 0. That is, completely ignore the denominator.
Whatever makes the numerator zero will be the roots of the rational function, just like
they were the roots of the polynomial function earlier.
If you can write it in factored form, then you can tell whether it will cross or touch the x-
axis at each x-intercept by whether the multiplicity on the factor is odd or even.

Vertical Asymptotes
An asymptote is a line that the curve approaches but does not cross. The equations of
the vertical asymptotes can be found by finding the roots of q(x). Completely ignore the
numerator when looking for vertical asymptotes, only the denominator matters.

If you can write it in factored form, then you can tell whether the graph will be
asymptotic in the same direction or in different directions by whether the multiplicity is
even or odd.

Asymptotic in the same direction means that the curve will go up or down on both the
left and right sides of the vertical asymptote. Asymptotic in different directions means
that the one side of the curve will go down and the other side of the curve will go up at
the vertical asymptote.

Horizontal Asymptotes
A horizontal line is an asymptote only to the far left and the far right of the graph. "Far"
left or "far" right is defined as anything past the vertical asymptotes or x-intercepts.
Horizontal asymptotes are not asymptotic in the middle. It is okay to cross a horizontal
asymptote in the middle.

The location of the horizontal asymptote is determined by looking at the degrees of the
numerator (n) and denominator (m).

 If n<m, the x-axis, y=0 is the horizontal asymptote.

 If n=m, then y=an / bm is the horizontal asymptote. That is, the ratio of the leading
coefficients.
 If n>m, there is no horizontal asymptote. However, if n=m+1, there is an oblique
or slant asymptote.

Holes
Sometimes, a factor will appear in the numerator and in the denominator. Let's assume
the factor (x-k) is in the numerator and denominator. Because the factor is in the
denominator, x=k will not be in the domain of the function. This means that one of two
things can happen. There will either be a vertical asymptote at x=k, or there will be a
hole at x=k.

Let's look at what will happen in each of these cases.

 34. There are more (x-k) factors in the denominator. After dividing out all duplicate
factors, the (x-k) is still in the denominator. Factors in the denominator result in
vertical asymptotes. Therefore, there will be a vertical asymptote at x=k.
35. There are more (x-k) factors in the numerator. After dividing out all the duplicate
factors, the (x-k) is still in the numerator. Factors in the numerator result in x-
intercepts. But, because you can't use x=k, there will be a hole in the graph on
the x-axis.
36. There are equal numbers of (x-k) factors in the numerator and denominator. After
dividing out all the factors (because there are equal amounts), there is no (x-k)
left at all. Because there is no (x-k) in the denominator, there is no vertical
asymptote at x=k. Because there is no (x-k) in the numerator, there is no x-
intercept at x=k. There is just a hole in the graph, someplace other than on the x-
axis. To find the exact location, plug in x=k into the reduced function (you can't
plug it into the original, it's undefined, there), and see what y-value you get.

Oblique Asymptotes
When the degree of the numerator is exactly one more than the degree of the
denominator, the graph of the rational function will have an oblique asymptote. Another
name for an oblique asymptote is a slant asymptote.

To find the equation of the oblique asymptote, perform long division (synthetic if it will
work) by dividing the denominator into the numerator. As x gets very large (this is the far
left or far right that I was talking about), the remainder portion becomes very small,
almost zero. So, to find the equation of the oblique asymptote, perform the long division
and discard the remainder.

3.6 - Graphs of Rational Functions

Let f(x) = p(x) / q(x) where p(x) and q(x) have no common factors.

If p(x) and q(x) have a common factor, then divide out the extra factors so that it is only
left in the numerator, or denominator, or not at all. Then look at the section on holes in
the lecture notes for section 3.5.

 The y-intercept is the value of f(0). That is, substitute 0 in for x in both the
numerator and denominator.
 The x-intercepts are the zeros of p(x).
 The vertical asymptotes are the zeros of q(x).
 The horizontal asymptote is that value that f(x) approaches as x increases or
decreases without bound. Look at the previous section for specifics.
 Determine the behavior between each vertical asymptote or x-intercept based on
the Odd Changes, Even stays the Same principle.
When graphing a rational function, do the following (in pretty much this order)

37. Simplify the function by dividing out any common factors. Be sure that if
something is no longer in the implied domain, that you state the restriction.
38. Identify and graph the x-intercepts. Make a note (possibly mental) of whether the
graph crosses (odd exponent) or touches (even exponent) at each intercept.
39. Identify and draw the vertical asymptotes. Make a note (possibly mental) of
whether the graph is asymptotic in the same direction (even exponent) or
different directions (odd exponent).
40. Identify and draw the horizontal or oblique asymptote(s).
41. Start on the far right of the graph close to the horizontal asymptote.
42. Move from right to left.
1. At each x-intercept encountered, touch or cross as noted in step 2.
2. At each vertical asymptote, you must either go up or go down. The
direction you go is determined by which side of the x-axis your on when
you get to the vertical asymptote. When picking back up on the left side of
the vertical asymptote, use the same or different side of the x-axis based
on your observations in step 3.
3. Watch out for holes.

4.1 - Exponential Functions and Their

Graphs
Exponential Functions
So far, we have been dealing with algebraic functions. Algebraic functions are functions
which can be expressed using arithmetic operations and whose values are either
rational or a root of a rational number. Now, we will be dealing with transcendental
functions. Transcendental functions return values which may not be expressible as
rational numbers or roots of rational numbers.

Algebraic equations can be solved most of the time by hand. Transcendental functions
can often be solved by hand with a calculator necessary if you want a decimal
approximation. However when transcendental and algebraic functions are mixed in an
equation, graphical or numerical techniques are sometimes the only way to find the
solution.

The simplest exponential function is: f(x) = ax, a>0, a≠1

The reasons for the restrictions are simple. If a≤0, then when you raise it to a rational
power, you may not get a real number. Example: If a=-2, then (-2) 0.5 = sqrt(-2) which
isn't real. If a=1, then no matter what x is, the value of f(x) is 1. That is a pretty boring
function, and it is certainly not one-to-one.
Recall that one-to-one functions had several properties that make them desirable. They
have inverses that are also functions. They can be applied to both sides of an equation.

Graphs of Exponential Functions

The graph of y=2x is shown to the right. Here are some

properties of the exponential function when the base is greater than 1.

 The graph passes through the point (0,1)

 The domain is all real numbers
 The range is y>0.
 The graph is increasing
 The graph is asymptotic to the x-axis as x approaches negative infinity
 The graph increases without bound as x approaches positive infinity
 The graph is continuous
 The graph is smooth

What would the translation be if you replaced every x with -x? It would be a reflection
about the y-axis. We also know that when we raise a base to a negative power, the one
result is that the reciprocal of the number is taken. So, if we were to graph y=2 -x, the
graph would be a reflection about the y-axis of y=2 x and the function would be
equivalent to y=(1/2)x.
 The graph of y=2-x is shown to the right. Properties of
exponential function and its graph when the base is between 0 and 1 are given.

43. The graph passes through the point (0,1)

44. The domain is all real numbers
45. The range is y>0.
46. The graph is decreasing
47. The graph is asymptotic to the x-axis as x approaches positive infinity
48. The graph increases without bound as x approaches negative infinity
49. The graph is continuous
50. The graph is smooth

Notice the only differences regard whether the function is increasing or decreasing, and
the behavior at the left hand and right hand ends.

Translations of Exponential Graphs

You can apply what you know about translations (from section 1.5) to help you sketch
the graph of the exponential functions.

A horizontal translation may affect the increasing / decreasing (if multiplied by a

negative), the left hand / right hand behavior of the graph, and the y-intercept, but it
won't change the location of the horizontal asymptote.

A vertical translation may affect the increasing / decreasing (if multiplied by a negative),
the y-intercept, and the location of the horizontal asymptote. It will not change whether
the graph goes without bound or is asymptotic (although it may change where it is
asymptotic) to the left or right.

By knowing the features of the basic graphs, you can apply those translations to easily
sketch the new function.
You should now add the exponential graph from the front cover of the text to the list of
those you know.

The natural base e

As x increases without bound, the quantity (1+1/x)^x will approach the transcendental
number e.

The limit notation shown is from calculus. The limit notation is a way of asking what
happens to the expression as x approaches the value shown. The limit is the dividing
line between calculus and algebra. Calculus is algebra with the concept of limit. People
always have this dread of calculus that I can't understand. The calculus itself is easy.
The reason people don't do well in calculus is not because of the calculus, but because
of they are poor at algebra.

The value for e is approximately 2.718281828. Here is a slightly more accurate, but no
more useful, approximation.

2.71828 18284 59045 23536 02874 71352 66249 77572 47093 69995 95749 66967
62772 40766 30353 54759 45716 82178 52516 64274 27466 39193 20030 59921
81741 35966 29043 57290 03342 95260 59563 07381 32328 62794 34907 63233
82988 07531 95251 01901 15738 34187 93070 21540 89149 93488 41675 09244
76146 06680 82264 80016 84774 11853 74234 54424 37107 53907 77449 92069
55170 27618 38606 26133

When the base is e used, the exponential function becomes f(x) = ex. There is a key on
your calculator labeled e^x. On the TI-8x calculators, it is on the left side as a [2 nd]

4.2 - Logarithmic Functions and Their

Graphs
Inverse of Exponential Functions
 We stated in the section on exponential
functions, that exponential functions were one-to-one. One-to-one functions had the
special property that they have inverses that are also functions. And, as many of you
said in class, and I'm so glad you remember, one-to-one functions can be applied to
both sides of an equation. They also pass a horizontal line test.

This section is about the inverse of the exponential function. The inverse of an
exponential function is a logarithmic function. Remember that the inverse of a function is
obtained by switching the x and y coordinates. This reflects the graph about the line
y=x. As you can tell from the graph to the right, the logarithmic curve is a reflection of
the exponential curve.

The table below demonstrates how the x and y values of the points on the expontential
curve can be switched to find the coordinates of the points on the logarithmic curve.

Point on Corresponding point

exponential curve
on logarithmic curve

(-3, 1/8) (1/8, -3)

(-2, 1/4) (1/4, -2)

(-1, 1/2) (1/2, -1)

(0, 1) (1, 0)

(1, 2) (2, 1)

(2, 4) (4, 2)
 (3, 8) (8, 3)

Comparison of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Let's look at some of the properties of the two functions.

The standard form for a logarithmic function is: y = log a x

Note, if the "a" in the expression above is not a subscript (lower than the "log"), then you
need to update your web browser.

  Exponential Logarithmic

Function y=ax, a>0, a≠1 y=loga x, a>0, a≠1

Domain all reals x>0

Range y>0 all reals

intercept y=1 x=1

increasing when a > 1 when a > 1

decreasing when 0 < a < 1 when 0 < a < 1

asymptote y-axis x-axis

continuous yes yes

smooth yes yes

Working Definition of Logarithm

In the exponential function, the x was the exponent. The purpose of the inverse of a
function is to tell you what x value was used when you already know the y value. So, the
purpose of the logarithm is to tell you the exponent.

Thus, our simple definition of a logarithm is that it is an exponent.

Another way of looking at the expression "log a x" is "to what power (exponent) must a
be raised to get x?"

Equivalent Forms
The logarithmic form of the equation y=loga x is equivalent to the exponential form x=ay.

To rewrite one form in the other, keep the base the same, and switch sides with the
other two values.

Properties of Logarithms
loga 1 = 0 because a0 = 1

No matter what the base is, as long as it is legal, the log of 1 is always 0. That's because
logarithmic curves always pass through (1,0)

loga a = 1 because a1 = a

Any value raised to the first power is that same value.

loga ax = x

The log base a of x and a to the x power are inverse functions. Whenever inverse
functions are applied to each other, they inverse out, and you're left with the argument,
in this case, x.

loga x = loga y implies that x = y

If two logs with the same base are equal, then the arguments must be equal.

loga x = logb x implies that a = b

If two logarithms with the same argument are equal, then the bases must be equal.

Common Logs and Natural Logs

There are two logarithm buttons on your calculator. One is marked "log" and the other is
marked "ln". Neither one of these has the base written in. The base can be determined,
however, by looking at the inverse function, which is written above the key and
accessed by the 2nd key.

Common Logarithm (base 10)

When you see "log" written, with no base, assume the base is 10.
That is: log x = log10 x.
Some of the applications that use common logarithms are in pH (to measure acidity),
decibels (sound intensity), the Richter scale (earthquakes).

An interesting (possibly) side note about pH. "Chapter 50: Sewers" of the Village of
Forsyth Code requires forbids the discharge of waste with a pH of less than 5.5 or
higher than 10.5 (section 50.07).

Common logs also serve another purpose. Every increase of 1 in a common logarithm
is the result of 10 times the argument. That is, an earthquake of 6.3 has 10 times the
magnitude of a 5.3 earthquake. The decibel level of loud rock music or a chainsaw (115
decibels = 11.5 bels) is 10 times louder than chickens inside a building (105 decibels =
10.5 bels)

Natural Logarithms (base e)

Remember that number e, that we had from the previous section? You know, the one
that was approximately 2.718281828 (but doesn't repeat or terminate). That is the base
for the natural logarithm.

When you see "ln" written, the base is e.

That is: ln x = loge x

Exponential growth and decay models are one application that use natural logarithms.
This includes continuous compounding, radioactive decay (half-life), population growth.
Typically applications where a process is continually happening. Now, these
applications were first mentioned in the exponential section, but you will be able to solve
for the other variables involved (after section 4) using logarithms.

In higher level mathematics, the natural logarithm is the logarithm of choice. There are
several special properties of the natural logarithm function, and it's inverse function, that
make life much easier in calculus.

Since "ln x" and "ex" are inverse functions of each other, any time an "ln" and "e" appear
right next to each other, with absolutely nothing in between them (that is, when they are
composed with each other), then they inverse out, and you're left with the argument.

4.3 - Properties of Logarithms

Change of Base Formula
One dilemma is that your calculator only has logarithms for two bases on it. Base 10
(log) and base e (ln). What is to happen if you want to know the logarithm for some
other base? Are you out of luck?
No. There is a change of base formula for converting between different bases. To find
the log base a, where a is presumably some number other than 10 or e, otherwise you
would just use the calculator,

Take the log of the argument divided by the log of the base.

loga x = ( logb x ) / ( logb a )

There is no need that either base 10 or base e be used, but since those are the two you
have on your calculator, those are probably the two that you're going to use the most. I
prefer the natural log (ln is only 2 letters while log is 3, plus there's the extra benefit that
I know about from calculus). The base that you use doesn't matter, only that you use the
same base for both the numerator and the denominator.

loga x = ( log x ) / ( log a ) = ( ln x ) / ( ln a )

Example: log3 7 = ( ln 7 ) / ( ln 3 )

Logarithms are Exponents

Remember that logarithms are exponents, so the properties of exponents are the
properties of logarithms.

Multiplication

What is the rule when you multiply two values with the same base together (x 2 * x3)?
The rule is that you keep the base and add the exponents. Well, remember that
logarithms are exponents, and when you multiply, you're going to add the logarithms.

The log of a product is the sum of the logs.

loga xy = loga x + loga y

Division

The rule when you divide two values with the same base is to subtract the exponents.
Therefore, the rule for division is to subtract the logarithms.

The log of a quotient is the difference of the logs.

loga (x/y) = loga x - loga y

Raising to a Power
When you raise a quantity to a power, the rule is that you multiply the exponents
together. In this case, one of the exponents will be the log, and the other exponent will
be the power you're raising the quantity to.

The exponent on the argument is the coefficient of the log.

loga xr = r * loga x

Melodic Mathematics
Some of the statements above are very melodious. That is, they sound good. It may
help you to memorize the melodic mathematics, rather than the formula.

 The log of a product is the sum of the logs

 The sum of the logs is the log of the products
 The log of a quotient is the difference of the logs
 The difference of the logs is the log of the quotient
 The exponent on the argument is the coefficient of the log
 The coefficient of the log is the exponent on the argument

Okay, so the last two aren't so melodic.

Common Mistakes
I almost hesitate to put this section in here. It seems when I try to point out a mistake
that people are going to make, that more people make it.

51. The log of a sum is NOT the sum of the logs. The sum of the logs is the log of the
product. The log of a sum cannot be simplified.
loga (x + y) ≠ loga x + loga y
52. The log of a difference is NOT the difference of the logs. The difference of the
logs is the log of the quotient. The log of a difference cannot be simplified.
loga (x - y) ≠ loga x - loga y
53. An exponent on the log is NOT the coefficient of the log. Only when the argument
is raised to a power can the exponent be turned into the coefficient. When the
entire logarithm is raised to a power, then it can not be simplified.
(loga x)r ≠ r * loga x
54. The log of a quotient is not the quotient of the logs. The quotient of the logs is
from the change of base formula. The log of a quotient is the difference of the
logs.
loga (x / y) ≠ ( loga x ) / ( loga y )
4.4 - Solving Exponential and Logarithm
Equations
Inverses
Remember that exponential and logarithmic functions are one-to-one functions. That
means that they have inverses. Also recall that when inverses are composed with each
other, they inverse out and only the argument is returned. We're going to use that to our
benefit to help solve logarithmic and exponential equations.

Please recall the following facts:

 loga ax = x
 log 10x = x
 ln ex = x
 a loga x = x
 10log x = x
 eln x = x

Solving Exponential Equations Algebraically

55. Isolate the exponential expression on one side.
56. Take the logarithm of both sides. The base for the logarithm should be the same
as the base in the exponential expression. Alternatively, if you are only interested
in a decimal approximation, you may take the natural log or common log of both
sides (in effect using the change of base formula)
57. Solve for the variable.
58. Check your answer. It may be possible to get answers which don't check.
Usually, the answer will involve complex numbers when this happens, because
the domain of an exponential function is all reals.

Solving Logarithmic Equations Algebraically

 Use properties of logarithms to combine the sum, difference, and/or constant
multiples of logarithms into a single logarithm.
 Apply an exponential function to both sides. The base used in the exponential
function should be the same as the base in the logarithmic function. Another way
of performing this task is to write the logarithmic equation in exponential form.
 Solve for the variable.
 Check your answer. It may be possible to introduce extraneous solutions. Make
sure that when you plug your answer back into the arguments of the logarithms
 in the original equation, that the arguments are all positive. Remember, you can
only take the log of a positive number.

Solving Equations Graphically

Sometimes, it is impossible to solve an equation involving logarithms or exponential
functions algebraically. This is especially true when the equation involves
transcendental (logs and/or exponentials) and algebraic components. In cases like
these, it may be necessary to use the graphing calculator to help find the solution to the
equation.

 Rewrite the equation so that all the terms are on one side
 Graph the expression
 Use the Root or Zero function under the Calc menu.

4.5 - Exponential and Logarithmic

Models
Exponential Growth

Function

y = C ekt, k > 0

Features

 Asymptotic to y = 0 to left
 Passes through (0,C)
  C is the initial value
 Increases without bound to right

Notes

Some of the things that exponential growth is used to model include population growth,
bacterial growth, and compound interest.

If you are lucky enough to be given the initial value, that is the value when x = 0, then
you already know the value of the constant C. The only thing necessary to complete the
model is to have one additional point on the graph. Plug in the values for x, y, and C,
and solve for k.

Alternatively, almost like cheating, you can put the x-values into List 1, the y-values into
List 2, and choose the ExpReg option on the TI-82 calculator.

Exponential Decay (decreasing form)

Function

y = C e-kt, k > 0

Features

59. Asymptotic to y = 0 to right

60. Passes through (0,C)
61. C is the initial value
62. Decreasing, but bounded below by y=0

Notes
Exponential decay and be used to model radioactive decay and depreciation.

Exponential decay models decrease very rapidly, and then level off to become
asymptotic towards the x-axis.

Like the exponential growth model, if you know the initial value then the rest of the
model is fairly easy to complete.

Exponential Decay (increasing form)

Function

y = C ( 1 - e-kt ), k > 0

Features

 Asymptotic to y = C to right
 Passes through (0,0)
 C is the upper limit
 Increasing, but bounded above by y=C

Notes

Exponential decay models of this form can model sales or learning curves where there
is an upper limit. This is done by subtracting the exponential expression from one and
multiplying by the upper limit.

Exponential decay models of this form will increase very rapidly at first, and then level
off to become asymptotic to the upper limit.
Like the other exponential models, if you know upper limit, then the rest of the model is
fairly easy to complete.

The calculator will not fit the increasing model involving exponential decay directly.

Gaussian Model

Function

y = a exp (-(x-c) / b)2

exp(x) is another way of writing ex

Features

 Asymptotic to x axis to the left and right

 Passes through (0,a)
 a controls the height of the curve
 Centered about x=c
 b controls the spread
 bell shaped

Notes

The Gaussian model is used quite a bit in Statistics to model the distribution of scores.

The Gaussian model is named after the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss.
This is the same Gauss who developed the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. It is
symmetric about its mean, x = c. To the right of the origin, it decreases slowly at first,
then more rapidly, and then levels off and become asymptotic to the x-axis.
Like the Exponential Decay model, the Gaussian model can be turned into an
increasing function by subtracting the exponential expression from one and then
multiplying by the upper limit.

Logisitics Growth Model

Function

y = a / (1 + b e-kx ), k > 0

Features

 Asymptotic to y = a to right,
 Asymptotic to y = 0 to left,
 Passes through (0, a/(1+b) )
 Slow growth, followed by moderate growth, followed by slow growth

Notes

My personal favorite, the logistics model begins with a slow growth, followed by a period
of moderate growth, and then back to a period of slow growth. It has an upper limit that
cannot be exceeded.

The Logistics model can be used to approximate sales and advertising (a little
advertising generates a little growth in sales, more advertising generates moderate
growth in sales, and finally there reaches a point of saturation where additional
advertising benefits little in terms of sales) or population growth where there is not the
capacity for unlimited growth (use the exponential growth model if you need that).

Logarithmic Model
 Function

y = a + b ln x

Features

22. Increases without bound to right

23. Passes through (1,a),
24. Very rapid growth, followed by slower growth,
25. Common log will grow slower than natural log
26. b controls the rate of growth

The logarithmic model has a period of rapid increase, followed by a period where the
growth slows, but the growth continues to increase without bound. This makes the
model inappropriate where there needs to be an upper bound. The main difference
between this model and the exponential growth model is that the exponential growth
model begins slowly and then increases very rapidly as time increases.

Several physical applications have logarithmic models. The magnitude of earthquakes,

the intensity of sound, the acidity of a solution.

Earthquakes

R = log I

The Richter scale is used to measure the intensity of an earthquake. The actual model
is a little more complex, but it simplifies to the equation shown. R is the magnitude on
the Richter scale of the earthquake. I is the intensity of the earthquake measured
relative to a reference value. That reference value is the smallest seismic activity that
can be measured, and has the value I 0 = 1.
Every increase of 1 in the Richter scale means the magnitude of the earthquake is 10
times greater.

Sound Intensity

β = 10 log ( I / I0 )

The sound level, measured in decibels, is given by the formula shown. The reference
value, I0 is the smallest sound intensity which can be heard by the human ear and is
roughly equal to 1x10-16 watts per square centimeter.

There are 10 decibels to a bel. While bel is the actual unit, like meter, liter, or gram, we
use decibel for all practical purposes. An increase of 10 decibels is equivalent to a
sound that is 10 times as strong in intensity. An increase of 20 decibels is equivalent to
a sound intensity that is 100 times greater.

Acidity

pH = - log [ H+ ]

pH is a measure of the acidity of a substance. It ranges from 0 to 14, with acids ranging
from 0 to 7, 7 being neutral, and bases ranging from 7 to 14. The [H +] is the
concentration of hydrogen ions, and is measured in moles per liter. The more hydrogen
ions, then smaller the pH (notice the negative sign in front of the log) and the more
acidity the solution is.

Upper Bounds
Notice that the Exponential Growth and Logarithmic models increase without bound to
the right. The Gaussian and Exponential Decay models both approach the x-axis to the
right. Only the Logistics Growth model gives you an upper bound to the right. The
Exponential Decay and Gaussian models can be made to have an upper bound by
subtracting the exponential expression (thus making it decreasing instead of increasing)
from one and multiplying by the upper bound

4.6 - Exploring Data: Nonlinear Models

This section is a continuation of section 2.6, Exploring Data: Linear Models and Scatter
Plots. Please see that section for the introductory information on how to enter data into
your calculator, create scatter plots, and perform regression.

TI-82 / TI-83 Models

 Model Calculator Equation
Command
Linear LinReg(ax+b) L1, L2 y = ax + b
Quadratic,
At least 3 points QuadReg L1, L2 y = ax2 + bx + c
required
Cubic,
At least 4 points CubicReg L1, L2 y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
required
Quartic,
At least 5 points QuartReg L1, L2 y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e
required
Logarithmic LnReg L1, L2 y = a + b ln x
Exponential ExpReg L1, L2 y = a bx
Power PwrReg L1, L2 y = a xb
Logistic (TI83 only) Logistic L1, L2 y = c / ( 1 + a e-bx )
Sinusoidal (TI83 only),
At least 4 points SinReg L1, L2 y = a sin (bx + c) + d
required

With the TI-83, you may store the regression equation directly into a y-variable by
specifying the y-variable after the lists where your data is stored. Example: "LnReg L 1,
L2, y1" would compute the logarithmic model and save the result into y 1.

TI-85 Models
Model Calculator Equation
Command
Linear LINR y = a + bx
Quadratic, You are given a list of coefficients. These
At least 3 coefficients are in standard form, so the first
P2REG
points coefficient will be the leading cofficent, and the last
required coefficient in the list will be the constant.
Cubic, P3REG
At least 4
points
required
 Quartic,
At least 5
P4REG
points
required
Logarithmic LNR y = a + b ln x
Exponential EXPR y = a bx
Power PWRR y = a xb

Notice that things are a little different for the TI-85 when it comes to polynomial
regression. The results are not given in equation form with individual coefficients, but
are given as a list of coefficients and stored in the variable PRegC. If PRegC = { 3, 2, -1,
5 }, then the regression equation would be y = 3x 3 + 2x2 - x + 5. DRREG will correctly
draw the regression equation even if polynomial regression is used.

Least Squares Regression Model

The concept behind fitting a model to data is to find the model that has the smallest
deviation from the actual data. This deviation is the predicted (estimated by the model)
y-value minus the actual y-value. These deviations are all squared to make sure they
don't cancel each other out, and then added. We're then looking for the smallest sum of
the squared deviations, that is the "Least Squares" model.

TI-82 / TI-83

Note problems 35 and 36 will be much easier if you follow the instructions here than the
instructions in the book.

Assume that you have entered the x-values into list 1 and the y-values into list 2. You
have computed whichever model you're working with and have saved the resulting
equation into y1.

The predicted y-values can be found by evaluating y 1 at each x-value (list 1): y1(L1)

The sum of the squared deviations can be found using the following command:

sum ( ( L2 - y1(L1) )2 )

 The "sum" command can be found under the LIST key. After hitting 2 nd Stat to get
the List menu, arrow right to Math, and choose sum.
 The L1 and L2 commands can be obtained by hitting 2nd 1 and 2nd 2.
 The y-variables like y1 can be found on the TI-82 under the Y-VARS key (2 nd
VARS), and on the TI-83 under the VARS key, and then arrow right to the Y-Vars
option.
The model with the smallest sum of the squared deviations is the best model.

TI-85

With the TI-85, this is a much harder task to accomplish. Calculate the regression
equation as normal, then enter the following expression to find the sum of the squares
(extra spaces inserted for readability).

sum seq( ( yStat(x) - fcsty xStat(x) )2, x, 1, dimL xStat, 1)

63. sum, seq, and dimL can be found under the LIST key, and the OPS sub menu.
64. The xStat and yStat can be found under the LIST key, and the NAMES sub
menu. They can also be found under the STAT key and the VARS sub menu, but
it is probably easier from list since that's where the rest of the commands are.
65. The fcsty can be found under the CATALOG by pressing the Alpha and then F
keys.

If someone can find an easier way on the TI-85, then please let me know. You may
want to write a short program with that command in it.

Correlation Coefficient
We mentioned the correlation coefficient, r, back in section 2.6. Back then, it was only
for linear models. We can also compute (well, we'll let the calculator compute) the value
for r and r2 for nonlinear models also.

Back in section 2.6, we said that the closer the value of r was to 1 or -1, the better the
model fit the data. For nonlinear models, we often ignore the value of r and look at the
value of r2. The value of r2 can be found by simply squaring r.

There is always variation in your data. That is, never (almost) is all of the data exactly
the same. The interpretation of r2, from a statistical point of view is the percent of the
variation that can be explained by the model. The higher the value of r-squared, the
better the model explains the data.

The TI-85 does not calculate the value of r2 for polynomial (quadratic, cubic, or quartic
models). For the other models, you may have to square the correlation (corr variable).
The variables necessary to easily compute the value the correlation coefficient aren't
computed when doing polynomial regression, so finding r or r 2 for polynomial regression
are going to be extremely difficult for the TI-85 users. I suggest you find a TI-82 or TI-83
and borrow it long enough to do that particular regression model.

The model with the highest value for r2 is the best model.

5.1 - Solving Systems of Equations

Up until this point, we have been dealing with only one equation at a time. Now, we will
work with more than variable and more than one equation. These are called systems of
equations. When answering a system of equations, you need to give the value for each
variable.

Solving Systems of Linear Equations

When we're through covering the two chapters on solving systems of equations, there
will be six ways that we can use to solve a system of linear equations

Graphically
Graph both equations and find the intersection point.
Inaccurate by hand.
Useful when using technology.
More appropriate for non-linear systems.
Must solve for the equation for y first.
Substitution
Solve one equation for one variable and then substitute that into the other
equation.
Best algebraic technique for non-linear systems.
Works well when a variable can be solved for easily, has a coefficient of one.
Works better when fractions and roots aren't involved.
Addition / Elimination
Multiply one or more equations by a constant and then add the two equations
together to eliminate one variable.
Works well for a linear system when there is no variable with a coefficient of one.
Works well for 2x2 (2 equations with 2 variables) systems of equations, but
becomes tedious and labor intensive for larger systems.
Gaussian Elimination / Gauss Jordan Elimination
Uses elementary operations to produce equivalent equations.
Works for non-square systems of linear equations.
Built upon the concepts of addition elimination, but instead of obtaining new
equations, the old equation is replaced with an equivalent equation.
When applied with matrices from chapter 6, probably the fastest way to solve a
large system of linear equations by hand. Certainly the instructor's favorite
method.
Cramer's Rule
Uses determinants of a matrix to find the solution.
Works only for square systems of linear equations where the determinant of the
coefficient matrix isn't zero.
Good for a computer or calculator where there is a determinant program.
Slow by hand.
Slow on the calculator without a program since every determinant must be
entered manually.
Can be used when you need to find just one of the variables.
Matrix Algebra / Matrix Inverses
 Uses the inverse of a matrix to find the solution.
Works only for square systems of linear equations where the determinant of the
coefficient matrix isn't zero.
Good for a computer or calculator where there is a matrix inverse function.
Slow by hand.
Quick to do on the calculator.
Will return decimal answers, but you can use the fraction key to convert it to
integers.

Substitution
The method of substitution will work with non-linear as well as linear equations.

 Solve one of the equations for one of the variables.

 Substitute that expression in for the variable in the other equation.
 Solve the equation for the remaining variable
 Back-substitute the value for the variable to find the other variable.
 Check

The process of back-substitution involves taking the value of the variable found in step 3
and substituting it back into the expression obtained in step 1 (or the original problem)
to find the remaining variable.

It is important that both variables be given when solving a system of equations. A

common mistake students make is to find one variable and stop there. You need to
include a value for all the variables.

It is a good idea to check your answer into the both equations, but is probably sufficient
to check in the equation you didn't isolate a variable in the first step. That is, if you
solved for y in the first equation in step 1, use the second equation to check the answer.

Graphical Approach
The graphical approach works well with a graphing calculator, but is inaccurate by hand
(did those points intersect at 1/6 or 1/7?) unless the graph happens to fall exactly on the
grid lines.

66. Solve each equation for y. This may involve a plus and minus if there is a y 2 term.
If you're not graphing with a calculator or computer, you can skip this step.
67. Graph each equation.
68. Find the points of intersection.
69. Check!

It is important to check your answers to make sure that you have read the intersection
point correctly.
Sometimes the calculator will fail to give an intersection point using the intersect
command. You may need to use the trace feature of the calculator to find the
intersection point. You may use your calculator to check the answer.

Try to convert your answer to fractional form if possible.

The graphical approach can save a lot of time when you're working with a non-linear
system of equations.

5.2 - Systems of Linear Equations in Two

Variables
Addition / Elimination
The idea behind the addition / elimination method is to multiple one or more equations
by a constant so when they are added together, one of the variables eliminates. Then
you have one equation with one variable and you can solve for that variable.

 Choose a variable to eliminate. Usually the variable that can be eliminated by

multiplying by smaller numbers is the better choice.
 Multiply one or both equations by a constant so that the least common multiple of
the coefficients on the variable to be eliminated is obtained. Care should be
taken so that one coefficient becomes negative and the other is positive.
 Add the two equations together so the variable is eliminated.
 Solve the resulting equation for the remaining variable.
 Back-substitute that value into the one of the two original equations to find the
remaining variable.
 Check your answer into the other equation.

As an alternative to step 5, and this is extremely helpful when the answer is a fraction or
decimal value and not pleasant to work with (I know, I really should stop talking bad
about my friends), you can go through the elimination process again with the other
variable, and then you don't have to work with the fractions until the check process.

Graphical Interpretation of Solutions

You may have either no solution, one unique solution, or many solutions when solving a
2x2 system of linear equations.

Exactly One Solution

70. Intersecting lines

 71. Consistent System (consistent means there is a solution, there is no
contradiction).
72. Independent System (the value for y doesn't depend on what x is).

Write your answer as the set containing the ordered pair {(x,y)} (replace the x and y with
the actual values).

This would be analogous to a conditional system from section 2.1, certain values of x
and y make it true, while others don't.

Consider the system of linear equations 3x + 2y = 17 and 2x - y = 2. The solution is x =

3 and y = 4, so you write the answer as { ( 3, 4 ) }.

No Solution

 Parallel lines
 Inconsistent System (contradiction)
 Independent / Dependent doesn't apply since there is no solution.

Write your answer as "no solution", the symbol for the empty or null set, Ø, or the empty
set { }, but do not write it as the set containing the null set {Ø}. Be careful if you're a
person who slashes their zeros. Make sure I can tell a zero apart from the null set.

This case occurs when both variables eliminate, and you are left with a false statement.

This would be analogous to a contradiction from section 2.1.

Consider the system of linear equations 3x - 2y = 3 and -3x + 2y = 2. When you add
them together, you get 0 = 5, which is a contradiction. Therefore, the answer is "no
solution", { }, or Ø

Many Solutions

 Coincident lines (same line)

 Consistent System (identity)
 Dependent System (the value for y will depend on what x is, it's not always the
same value).

Write your answer as one of the two equations. Do NOT say "many solutions" or "all
real numbers". All real numbers will not work. First of all, it the solutions are ordered
pairs, not individual x or y coordinates. Second, not every point works, only those on the
line work.

You may also write your answer in parametric form. This will be the preferred method
for higher ordered systems, so you might as well learn it now.
This case occurs when both variables eliminate, and you are left with a true statement.

This would be analogous to an identity from section 2.1.

Consider the system of linear equations 3x - 2y = 3 and -3x + 2y = -3. When you add
them together, you get 0 = 0, which is always true. Therefore, any values of x and y that
satisfy the equation are solutions. You would write your solution as

 3x - 2y = 3
 { ( x, y ) | 3x - 2y = 3 }
 x = t, y = 3/2 t - 3/2 (this is known as parametric form and is covered in section
8.3)

Making "nice" problems

Ever wonder why most all of the problems in an algebra textbook come out with nice
integer answers? Is it because life is that way? Certainly not, it is because the problems
are contrived to have nice answers.

How do you get a made up problem to have nice answers? The answer is that you
don't. You start with the answer and work backwards.

Let's say that we want the answer to be (3,-2).

Make up anything for the left side of the equation, say 2x-5y. Then, plug in x=3 and y=-
2, so 2(3) - 5(-2) = 6 + 10 = 16. The first equation is 2x-5y=16.

Now, repeat the process again with a different left side, say 3x+2y. Well, 3(3) + 2(-2) = 9
- 4 = 5, so 3x+2y=5.

Your system of linear equations is 2x-5y=16 and 3x+2y=5.

You can make up anything for the left hand side, just make sure the right hand side is
what you get when you plug those values in. You will also need to have two equations if
there are two variables, one equation if there is only one variable, three equations if
there are three variables, etc.

Least Squares Regression Model

Up until this point, when we have found the linear regression model, we have just used
the functions on the calculator to obtain the results, and it has been fairly easy and
painless. Now we learn that the calculator is actually solving a system of linear
equations to obtain the model.

Summation notation
The capital Greek letter sigma stands for sum. Normally, there is an index with a
starting point (k=1) written below the sigma and an ending point (n, meaning k=n)
written above the sigma. Then, each variable will have a subscript to let you know that it
is a function or sequence that depends on the value of the index, k.

Confused? Well, maybe you should be. The book doesn't discuss sequences and series
until chapter 7, and here you are in chapter 5 and they expect you to know how to do it.

I'm going to use a short hand notation to keep things simpler and easier to remember.
Instead of writing it the way the book does, I'll just use a sigma symbol and then what I
want to total.

Remember that sigma means sum, so sigma x means add up all the x's.

In statistics, we like to simplify things, and get a little sloppy, and drop all the index stuff
and just know that it applies to all the points. In the notation above, I will use the form on
the right. ∑x just means add up all the x values. Not too bad when you look at it that
way.

Linear Regression

Consider the linear model y = ax + b. The values for a and b can be found by solving
this system of linear equations.

b∑1 + a∑x = ∑y
b∑x + a∑x2 = ∑xy

Notice each term in the second equation has one more x in it than the corresponding
term in the first equation. This pattern will repeat when we do quadratic regression (see
problems 105-108 in section 5.3 or Appendix B.3 for an explanation), or cubic, or quartic,
or ...

You will add up each variable in the summation for each different point. The first
summation is the sum of 1. So, if you add 1 for each point, you will simply have the
number of points. The other values are the sum of the x's, the sum of the y's, the sum of
the squares of the x's, and the sum of the products of the x's and y's.

Writing these ordered pairs in a columnar table, and then adding columns for the x 2 and
xy will help. After you solve the system of linear equations, substitute the values for a
and b into the equation y = ax + b to get the model.
Find the equation of the linear model that best fits the points (2,3), (5,2), (6,1), and (8,-
1).

Set up a table with columns for x, y, x2, and xy.

x y x2 xy
2 3 4 6
5 2 25 10
6 1 36 6
8 -1 64 -8
21 5 129 14

The numbers in the bottom row represent the sums that go into the system. Since there
are 4 points, the ∑1 = 4.

The system of linear equations to solve is 4b + 21a = 5 and 21b + 129a = 14. When you
solve that, you get a = -49/75 and b = 117/25.

When you stick those back into the model, you get the y = -49/75 x + 117/25.

5.3 - Multivariable Linear Systems

Row-Echelon Form
Row-echelon form is basically a stair-step pattern with leading coefficients of one. When
a system is placed into row-echelon form, back substitution is very easy. The bottom
row gives the answer for z. That answer is back-substituted into the second equation
and y is found. Then both y and z are substituted into the first equation and x is found.

Example: Use back substitution to solve the following system.

x - y + 2z = 5
y - z = -1
z = 3

 The bottom equation gives us that z = 3.

 Plugging z = 3 into the second equation gives y - 3 = -1 or y = 2.
 Plugging y = 2 and z = 3 into the first equation gives x - 2 + 2(3) = 5.
 Solving for x gives 1, so the solution is { ( 1, 2, 3 ) }.

Gaussian Elimination
Gaussian Elimination is named after Carl Friedrich Gauss, the German mathematician
who proved the fundamental theorem of algebra.

Two systems of equations are equivalent if they have the same solution set.

Elementary Operations

There are three basic operations, called elementary operations, that can be performed
and that will render an equivalent system.

73. Interchange two equations.

74. Multiply one equation by a non-zero constant.
75. Multiply an equation by a non-zero constant and add it to another equation,
replacing that equation.

The addition / elimination technique that we discussed in section 5.2 uses these
operations, they just weren't formalized. In the elimination technique, we could switch
the two equations around and it wouldn't affect the solution set. We could multiply one
or both equations by a non-zero constant and then add them together. There is nothing
wrong with multiplying both equations by a non-zero constant, just that what's given
here is the elementary or basic operations and multiplying both by a non-zero constant
and adding would be a combination of these.

The number of solutions to a linear system

Just like with a 2×2 system of linear equations, a larger system can have one, none, or
many solutions.

Unique Solution

A consistent and independent system. The solution is given as an ordered triplet.

No Solution

An inconsistent system. There is no solution, and the answer should be written as the
null set or the empty set, but not the set containing the null set. This results if at any
point while trying to solve the system, an equivalent form has a contradiction (variables
eliminate and the statement is false).

Many Solutions

A consistent and dependent system. The solution is given in parametric form. This case
results when there are less equations than variables and no contradictions.

Example: Solve the following system of linear equations.

3x - 2y + z = 1
y + 2z = 3

 Take the second equation and solve for y to get y = 3 - 2z.

 Substitute y = 3 - 2z into the first equation for y. This gives you 3x - 2( 3 - 2z ) + z
= 1, which is an equation with two variables, x and z. A little bit of simplification
givs 3x - 6 + 4z + z = 1 or 3x + 5z = 7.
 Since you earlier solved for y in terms of z, we now solve for x in terms of z. It is
important that we solve all other variables in terms of the same variable. Solving
3x + 5z = 7 for x gives x = ( 7 - 5z ) / 3
 Give the solution. Since x and y are both in terms of a third variable, z, we let z =
t and get:
o x = 1/3 ( 7 - 5t )
o y = 3 - 2t
o z=t

Mathematical Models
If you have the right number of ordered pairs, you can fit a model by solving a system a
system of linear equations. To have an unique solution, you need as many points as
constants.

Linear Model: y=Ax+B

There are two values that need to be found, A and B. Therefore, it takes two points to
determine a the equation of a line.

Let's say the line passes through the points (2,3) and (5,7). The resulting system of
linear equations, obtained by substituting the values in for x and y is shown. Simply
solve the system of linear equations, plug in the values for A and B, and you have the
model.

3 = 2A + B
7 = 5A + B

Solving that gives A = 4/3 and B = 1/3. The equation of the line passing through the
given points is y = 4/3 x + 1/3.

Quadratic Model: y=Ax2 + Bx + C

This time, there are three variables, A, B, and C. Therefore, it takes three non-collinear
points to determine a equation of a parabola.

Let's say the parabola passes through the points (2,3), (5,7), and (8,4). Substitute the
values in for x and y and the three linear equations that result is the system that needs
to be solved to find A, B, and C.
3 = 4A + 2B + C
7 = 25A + 5B + C
4 = 64A + 8B + C

If you're wondering where there 4, 25, and 64 came from, they are the values of x 2 when
x = 2, x = 5, and x = 8.

Solving the system gives A = -7/18, B = 73/18, and C = -32/9. The equation is y = -7/18
x2 + 73/18 x - 32/9.

This procedure could be extended to find the equation of a cubic passing through four
points or a quartic equation passing through five points.

Circle: x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

You have three variables, D, E, and F. Therefore, it takes three non-collinear points to
determine the equation of a circle.

Let's say the circle passes through the points (2,3), (5,7), and (8,4). Substitute the
values in for x and y and the equations that result give you the system of linear
equations that can give the coefficients that define the circle. You may find it easier to
move the constant to the other side.

4 + 9 + 2D + 3E + F = 0 becomes 2D + 3E + F = -13
25 + 49 + 5D + 7E + F = 0 becomes 5D + 7E + F = -74
64 + 16 + 8D + 4E + F = 0 becomes 8D + 4E + F = -80

If you solve that system, you get D = -69/7, E = -55/7, and F = 212/7.

Substituting into the original model gives x 2 + y2 -69/7 x - 55/7 y + 212/7 = 0.

If you were so inclined (this is a pretty ugly problem), you could complete the square to
find the center and radius of the circle.

Least Squares Regression Parabola

If you have exactly three non-collinear points, then the parabola will pass through the
points exactly. If there are more than three points, then you must fit a quadratic model to
the data, but it won't necessarily pass through all of the points. Recall the least squares
regression line that we discussed in the last section that went with the model y = ax + b.

b∑1 + a∑x = ∑y
b∑x + a∑x2 = ∑xy

Now, we are going to find a system of equations that will fit the model y = ax 2 + bx + c. It
is an extension of the previous model. Notice it has the same pattern as before. As you
work from left to right on the left hand side, each summation has one additional x in it.
As you work from top to bottom, each term has one more x than the corresponding term
in the previous equation.

c∑1 + b∑x + a∑x2 = ∑y

c∑x + b∑x2 + a∑x3 = ∑xy
c∑x2 + b∑x3 + a∑x4 = ∑x2y

If you wanted to find a least squares regression cubic, then you would need four
variables and at least five points (four points would exactly fit the model). Follow the
same pattern as before, adding one more variable (for d) and one more row.

5.4 - Partial Fractions

Addition of Rational Expressions
In arithmetic, you learned how to add fractions. You found the least common
denominator, and then multiplied both the numerator and denominator of each term by
what was needed to complete the common denominator.

In algebra, you have carried that

process on to addition of rational expressions. You once again multiplied the numerator
and denominator of each term by what was missing from the denominator of that term.

With Partial Fraction Decomposition, we're going to reverse the process and
decompose a rational expression into two or more simpler proper rational expressions
that were added together.

Partial Fraction Decomposition

Partial Fraction Decomposition only works for proper rational expressions, that is, the
degree of the numerator must be less than the degree of the denominator. If it is not,
then you must perform long division first, and then perform the partial fraction
decomposition on the rational part (the remainder over the divisor). After you've done
the partial fraction decomposition, just add back in the quotient part from the long
division.
When discussing polynomials in section 3.4, we learned that every polynomial with real
coefficients can be factored using only linear and irreducible quadratic factors. This
means that there are only two types of factors that we have to worry about.

Linear Factors

If the partial fractions we're decomposing the rational expression into must be proper,
then the only thing that can be over a linear factor is a constant. So, for every linear
factor in the denominator, you will need a constant in over that in the numerator.

Irreducible Quadratic factors.

If the partial fractions we're decomposing the rational expression into must be proper,
then an irreducible quadratic factor could have a linear term and/or a constant term in
the numerator. So, for every irreducible quadratic factor in the denominator, you will
need a linear term and a constant term in the numerator.

Repeated Factors

Consider a fraction in which the denominator is 8. Does that mean that the denominator
of each term being added together had to be an 8? No, the denominators could have
been 2, 4, or 8 because the common denominator between 2, 4, and 8 is 8. The
implications of this for partial fraction decomposition are that when you have a repeated
factor (a factor with a multiplicity other than one), you need to include a factor in the
expansion for each power possible.

For example, if you have an (x-2)3, you will need to include an (x-2), an (x-2)2, and an
(x-2)3.

The exponents of 2 or 3 does not change whether the factor is linear or quadratic, only
how many times the factor is there. Each of those (x-2) factors would receive a constant
term in the numerator because x-2 is linear, no matter what power it is raised to.

Improper Fractions

A proper fraction is a fraction where the numerator is less than the denominator. For
rational expressions, that means the degree in the numerator is less than the degree in
the denominator. If you have an improper fraction, you first have to perform long division
to get a quotient and a remainder.

Leave the quotient part alone, but perform the partial fraction decomposition on the
fraction that remained.

The Basic Equation

After setting up the partial fraction equation, you multiply both sides of the equation by
the least common denominator to get rid of the fractions. The resulting equation, without
the fractions, is called the Basic Equation.

Technique 1 - Pick Values for x

When there are linear factors, the easiest way to do the

decomposition is probably to pick nice values for x.

In the example to the right, we take each factor in the denominator and give it its own
term on the right side. Since each factor in the denominator is linear and the rational
expressions need to be proper, a constant term was placed in each numerator of each
term. We multiply through by the least common denominator to arrive at the equation
without the fractions. This equation is called the Basic Equation and is ...

x+2=A(x-4)+Bx

"Nice" values for x are those that cause each linear factor to be zero. In this case, x=4
and x=0 are nice. "Nice" values will cause every term except for one to drop out of the
equation, and so you will be able to find the value of a variable very quickly.

When you let x = 0, the B term drops out and you get ...

0 + 2 = A ( 0 - 4 ) or 2 = -4A. Solving that gives A = -1/2.

When you let x = 4, the A term drops out and you get ...

4 + 2 = B ( 4 ) or 6 = 4B. Solving that gives B = 3/2.

After you have found the values of each constant, it is

important that you plug those values back into the decomposition. Don't just stop with
A=-1/2, B=3/2 because someone else may have defined A and B differently. The correct
answer is to place them back into the decomposition and simplify if necessary. The
simplification would be to reduce the number of signs (don't have the first term negative
if possible) and to eliminate the compound fractions by factoring out the least common
denominator of the numerators.

Note: There are only as many nice values as there are distinct (different) linear factors.
If there are repeated linear factors or irreducible quadratic factors (repeated or not), you
will not have enough "nice" values to pick. In cases like that, you will have to pick
convenient but not-so-nice values and then substitute the known constants into the
equation to find the other constants. Plug in easy numbers like x=0, x=1, etc.

You will need to pick as many values for x as there are constants to be found.

Technique 2 - Creating a System of Linear Equations

The first technique of picking values for x works extremely well when all the factors are
distinct linear factors. If there are any linear factors, then first method is still probably the
better technique to use. However, if there are only irreducible quadratic factors, then the
method of picking values for x can become messy.

There is another way to do these problems (actually,

this technique will work when there are linear factors, just that the other is easier and
faster).

The first part of the process is the same. Go ahead and write out the decomposition,
including constant terms over linear factors and linear and constant terms over the
irreducible quadratic factors. Then, multiply through by the least common denominator
to find the basic equation. That much is the same. The basic equation is ...

2x2 + x + 8 = Ax (x2 + 4) + B (x2+4) + Cx + D

Now the difference comes.

Go ahead and expand (multiply out) the basic equation ...

2x2 + x + 8 = Ax3 + 4Ax + Bx2+ 4B + Cx + D

and regroup the terms by common powers of the variable x.

2x2 + x + 8 = Ax3 + Bx2 + 4Ax + Cx + 4B + D

Now factor out the x's by power.

2x2 + x + 8 = ( A ) x3 + ( B ) x2 + ( 4A + C ) x + ( 4B + D ) (1)

The next part works because if two polynomials are going to be equal, they must have
the same number of similar terms on both sides. So the trick here is to equate both
sides of the equation together by equating similar terms.
Set the x3 terms on the left (of which there are none) equal to the x 3 terms on the right
(of which there are A) to arrive at the first equation 0=A. Well, that was pretty easy, and
already you have the value for A.

Set the x2 terms on the left (of which there are 2) equal to the x 2 terms on the right (of
which there are B) to arrive at the second eqation of 2=B. Now you know B.

For the x's, there is 1 on the left and 4A+C on the right, so 1=4A+C.

For the constants, there are 8 on the left and 4B+D on the right, so 8=4B+D.

You may have to solve a system of linear equations, but that's why this section on
partial fractions is in this chapter. We just refreshed our memories on how to solve a
system of linear equations in the last section.

After some solving, we arrive at A=0, B=2, C=1, and

D=0 and we are ready to plug those values back into the original decomposition to
arrive at the final answer.

Be sure and simplify the answer if necessary.

This example was actually pretty easy because you were able to find A and B right off
the bat. Many times, you will need to solve a much larger system of equations to find
the values.

5.5 - Systems of Inequalities

Graph of an Inequality
When we were dealing with one variable, the graph of an inequality was some interval
on the real number line. Now we are dealing with two variables, and the graph of an
inequality is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) that satisfy the inequality. Typically, this
will be represented by a half-plane.

Sketching an Inequality in Two Variables

  Replace the inequality with an equal sign and sketch the resulting equation. Use
a solid line if the equal to is included (<= or >=) and a dashed line of the
inequality is strict (< or >).
 Pick a test point not on the graph of the equation. If that test point satisfies the
inequality, then shade every point on the side of the inequality that includes your
test point. If the test point doesn't satisfy the inequality, then shade the other side
of the inequality.

Solving a System of Inequalities

The solution to a system of inequalities is the set

of all ordered pairs (x, y) that satisfy all the inequalities simultaneously.

The solution to the system of linear inequalities given is sketched to the right.

( x - 3)2 + ( y - 3)2 < 4

x + y <= 5
2x + 3y <= 12

Notice the circle is dotted (dashed) instead of solid. This is because there is a strict
inequality (< or >), that is, the equal to is not included.

Now, one misleading thing about generating the output on a computer is that it looks
very easy to sketch the system. In reality, there are four ways you can sketch the
solution to a system of linear inequalities

76. Draw all the lines and curves. Pick a test point in each region (there will be many
regions - there are 8 in the figure shown). Drawback - way too much work.
77. Shade each inequality as it is encountered. Whatever is shaded for each
inequality is the solution. If there are three inequalities, whatever is shaded three
times is the solution. If there are five inequalities, then whatever is shaded five
times is the solution. Drawback - if you do a good job of shading, and you should,
 it becomes difficult to tell what is shaded three times as opposed to what is
shaded four times.
78. Shade each inequality as it is encountered, but shade the false part in each case.
The contrapositive of "if doesn't work, then shaded" is "if not shaded, then
works". In other words, whatever is left unshaded will be the part that is the
solution. Drawback - your answers will be unshaded where the books will be
shaded.
79. Shade just the correct edge of each inequality. Then you can extend those to see
which regions are shaded on all sides.

Whichever technique you use, right the word "yes" or something similar in the solution
region.

Determining the System from the Graph.

 Write the equation for each boundary on the graph.
 Pick a test point in the solution region and substitute it into the equation.
 Replace the equal sign by whichever inequality is needed to make the statement
true. Include the equal sign if it is a solid line and don't include the equal sign in
the inequality if it is a dashed line.

5.6 - Linear Programming

In business, it is often desirable to find the production levels that will produce the
maximum profit or the minimum cost. The production process can often be described
with a set of linear inequalities called constraints. The profit or cost function to be
maximized or minimized is called the objective function. The process of finding the
optimal levels with the system of linear inequalities is called linear programming (as
opposed to non-linear programming).

Definitions
Objective Function
The linear function (equal sign) representing cost, profit, or some other quantity
to be maximized of minimized subject to the constraints.
Constraints
A system of linear inequalities.
Problem Constraints
The linear inequalities that are derived from the application. For example, there
may be only 40 hours a machine can be used in a week, so the total time it is
used would have to be <= 40. The problem constraints are usually stated in the
story problem.
Non-Negativity Constraints
 The linear inequalities x>=0 and y>=0. These are included because x and y are
usually the number of items produced and you cannot produce a negative
number of items, the smallest number of items you could produce is zero. These
are not (usually) stated, they are implied.
Feasible Region
The solution to the system of linear inequalities. That is, the set of all points that
satisfy all the constraints. Only points in the feasible region can be used.
Corner Point
A vertex of the feasible region. Not every intersection of lines is a corner point.
The corner points only occur at a vertex of the feasible region. If there is going to
be an optimal solution to a linear programming problem, it will occur at one or
more corner points, or on a line segment between two corner points.
Bounded Region
A feasible region that can be enclosed in a circle. A bounded region will have
both a maximum and minimum values.
Unbounded Region
A feasible region that can not be enclosed in a circle.

Fundamental Theorem of Linear Programming

Recall that almost every area of mathematics has its fundamental theorem.

Here are some of the fundamental theorems or principles that occur in your text.

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (pg 8)

Every integer greater than one is either prime or can be expressed as an unique
product of prime numbers.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (pg 264)
Every polynomial in one variable of degree n > 0 has at least one real or complex
zero.
Fundamental Counting Principle (pg 543)
If there are m ways to do one thing, and n ways to do another, then there are
m*n ways of doing both.

Fundamental Theorem of Linear Programming

If there is a solution to a linear programming problem, then it will occur at a

corner point, or on a line segment between two corner points.

The Fundamental Theorem of Linear Programming is a great help. Instead of testing all
of the infinite number of points in the feasible region, you only have to test the corner
points. Whichever corner point yields the largest value for the objective function is the
maximum and whichever corner point yields the smallest value for the objective function
is the minimum.
Solving a Linear Programming Problem
If the problem is not a story problem, skip to step 3.

 Define the variables. Usually, a good choice for the definition is the quantity they
asked you to find in the problem.
 Write the problem by defining the objective function and the system of linear
inequalities. Don't forget about the non-negativity constraints where necessary.
 Sketch the system of linear inequalities to obtain the feasible region.
 Identify each corner point of the feasible region. You can find the corner points by
forming a 2x2 system of linear equations from the two lines that intersect at that
point and solving that system.
 Evaluate the objective function at each corner point.
 Choose the point yielding the largest value or smallest value depending on
whether the problem is a maximization or minimization problem.

Be careful how you give the answer. The answer should give not only the maximum or
minimum value (the value of the objective function), but it should also give the location
where that extremum occurs. Example: The maximum value is 9 when x=2 and y=3. If it
is a story problem, then give the answer in terms of the original definitions of x and y.

Geometric Approach

If the slope of the objective function is negative and you take a line with that slope
passing through the origin and move it to the right through the feasible region, the last
corner point hit by that moving line will be the maximum value.

In the example shown, the last line with slope m=-4/3 that touches the feasible region
touches at the corner point (6,3).

Since z=4(6)+3(3)=24+9=33, the maximum value is 33 when x=6 and y=3.

Algebraic Approach

Now, to verify the solution non-geometrically. Since we know the optimal solution has to
occur at one or more corner points, we make a table listing all the corner points and
evaluate the objective function at those points.

Corner
x y z = 4x + 3y
Point
A 0 0 0
B 0 4 12
C 4 5 31
D 6 3 33
E 5 0 20

As you can see, the corner point with the maximum value is at (6,3).

We can also determine the minimum value from that table. A suitable answer, assuming
the problem had asked for both the maximum and minimum is ...

The minimum value is 0 when x=0 and y=0.

The maximum value is 33 when x=6 and y=3.

6.1 - Matrices and Systems of Equations

Definition of a Matrix
 Rectangular array of real numbers
 m rows by n columns
 Named using capital letters
 First subscript is row, second subscript is column

Terminology
 A matrix with m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m x n.
 A square matrix is a matrix with an equal number of rows and columns. Since the
number of rows and columns are the same, it is said to have order n.
  The main diagonal of a square matrix are the elements from the upper left to the lower
right of the matrix.
 A row matrix is a matrix that has only one row.
 A column matrix is a matrix that has only one column.
 A matrix with only one row or one column is called a vector.

Converting Systems of Linear Equations to Matrices

Each equation in the system becomes a row. Each variable in the system becomes a
column. The variables are dropped and the coefficients are placed into a matrix. If the
right hand side is included, it's called an augmented matrix. If the right hand side isn't
included, it's called a coefficient matrix.

The system of linear equations ...

x + y - z = 1
3x - 2y + z = 3
4x + y - 2z = 9

becomes the augmented matrix ...

  x y z rhs  

  1 1 -1 1  

  3 - 1 3  
2

  4 1 -2 9  

Elementary Row Operations

Elementary Row Operations are operations that can be performed on a matrix that will
produce a row-equivalent matrix. If the matrix is an augmented matrix, constructed from
a system of linear equations, then the row-equivalent matrix will have the same solution
set as the original matrix.

When working with systems of linear equations, there were three operations you could
perform which would not change the solution set.

1. Interchange two equations.

2. Multiply an equation by a non-zero constant.
3. Multiply an equation by a non-zero constant and add it to another equation, replacing
that equation.
When a system of linear equations is converted to an augmented matrix, each equation
becomes a row. So, there are now three elementary row operations which will produce
a row-equivalent matrix.

1. Interchange two rows

2. Multiply a row by a non-zero constant
3. Multiply a row by a non-zero constant and add it to another row, replacing that row.

Row-Echelon and Reduced Row-Echelon Forms

These are Row-equivalent forms of a matrix. One can easily solve a system of linear
equations when matrices are in one of these forms.

Row-Echelon Form

A matrix is in row-echelon form when the following conditions are met.

1. If there is a row of all zeros, then it is at the bottom of the matrix.

2. The first non-zero element of any row is a one. That element is called the leading one.
3. The leading one of any row is to the right of the leading one of the previous row.

Notes

 The leading one of a row does not have to be to the immediate right of the leading one
of the previous row.
 A matrix in row-echelon form will have zeros below the leading ones.
 Gaussian Elimination places a matrix into row-echelon form, and then back substitution
is required to finish finding the solutions to the system.
 The row-echelon form of a matrix is not necessarily unique.

Reduced Row-Echelon Form

A matrix is in reduced row-echelon form when all of the conditions of row-echelon form
are met and all elements above, as well as below, the leading ones are zero.

1. If there is a row of all zeros, then it is at the bottom of the matrix.

2. The first non-zero element of any row is a one. That element is called the leading one.
3. The leading one of any row is to the right of the leading one of the previous row.
4. All elements above and below a leading one are zero.

Notes

 The leading one of a row does not have to be to the immediate right of the leading one
of the previous row.
 A matrix in row-echelon form will have zeros both above and below the leading ones.
 Gauss-Jordan Elimination places a matrix into reduced row-echelon form.
 No back substitution is required to finish finding the solutions to the system.
  The reduced row-echelon form of a matrix is unique.

Gaussian Elimination
 Write a system of linear equations as an augmented matrix
 Perform the elementary row operations to put the matrix into row-echelon form
 Convert the matrix back into a system of linear equations
 Use back substitution to obtain all the answers

Gauss-Jordan Elimination

 Write a system of linear equations as an augmented matrix

 Perform the elementary row operations to put the matrix into reduced row-echelon form
 Convert the matrix back into a system of linear equations
 No back substitution is necessary

Pivoting

 Pivoting is a process which automates the row operations necessary to place a matrix
into row-echelon or reduced row-echelon form
 In particular, pivoting makes the elements above or below a leading one into zeros

Types of Solutions
There are three types of solutions which are possible when solving a system of linear
equations

Independent

 Consistent
 Unique Solution
 A row-reduced matrix has the same number of non-zero rows as variables
 The left hand side is usually the identity matrix, but not necessarily
 There must be at least as many equations as variables to get an independent solution.

  x y z rhs  

  1 0 0 3  

  0 1 0 1  

  0 0 1 2  

When you convert the augmented matrix back into equation form, you get x=3, y=1, and
z=2.
Dependent

 Consistent
 Many solutions
 Write answer in parametric form
 A row-reduced matrix has more variables than non-zero rows
 There doesn't have to be a row of zeros, but there usually is.
 This could also happen when there are less equations than variables.

  x y z rhs  

  1 0 3 4  

  0 1 -2 3  

  0 0 0 0  

The first equation will be x + 3z = 4. Solving for x gives x = 4 - 3z.

The second equation will be y - 2z = 3. Solving for y gives y = 3 + 2z.
The z column is not cleared out (all zeros except for one number) so the other variables
will be defined in terms of z. Therefore, z will be the parameter t and the solution is ...

x = 4 - 3t, y = 3 + 2t, z = t

Inconsistent

 No Solution
 A row-reduced matrix has a row of zeros on the left side, but the right hand side isn't
zero.

  x y z rhs  

  1 0 3 4  

  0 1 -2 3  

  0 0 0 2  

There is no solution here. You can write that as the null set Ø, the empty set {}, or no
solution.

6.2 - Operations with Matrices

Equality
Two matrices are equal if and only if

 The order of the matrices are the same

 The corresponding elements of the matrices are the same

Addition
80. Order of the matrices must be the same
81. Add corresponding elements together
82. Matrix addition is commutative
83. Matrix addition is associative

Subtraction
 The order of the matrices must be the same
 Subtract corresponding elements
 Matrix subtraction is not commutative (neither is subtraction of real numbers)
 Matrix subtraction is not associative (neither is subtraction of real numbers)

Scalar Multiplication
A scalar is a number, not a matrix.

 The matrix can be any order

 Multiply all elements in the matrix by the scalar
 Scalar multiplication is commutative
 Scalar multiplication is associative

Zero Matrix
 Matrix of any order
 Consists of all zeros
 Denoted by capital O
 Additive Identity for matrices
 Any matrix plus the zero matrix is the original matrix

Matrix Multiplication
Am×n × Bn×p = Cm×p
 27. The number of columns in the first matrix must be equal to the number of rows in
the second matrix. That is, the inner dimensions must be the same.
28. The order of the product is the number of rows in the first matrix by the number of
columns in the second matrix. That is, the dimensions of the product are the
outer dimensions.
29. Since the number of columns in the first matrix is equal to the number of rows in
the second matrix, you can pair up entries.
30. Each element in row i from the first matrix is paired up with an element in column
j from the second matrix.
31. The element in row i, column j, of the product is formed by multiplying these
paired elements and summing them.
32. Each element in the product is the sum of the products of the elements from row
i of the first matrix and column j of the second matrix.
33. There will be n products which are summed for each element in the product.

See a complete example of matrix multiplication.

Matrix multiplication is not commutative

20. Multiplication of real numbers is.

21. The inner dimensions may not agree if the order of the matrices is changed.

Do not simply multiply corresponding elements together

 Since the order (dimensions) of the matrices don't have to be the same, there
may not be corresponding elements to multiply together.
 Multiply the rows of the first by the columns of the second and add.

There is no matrix division

 There is no defined process for dividing a matrix by another matrix.

 A matrix may be divided by a scalar.

Identity Matrix
 Square matrix
 Ones on the main diagonal
 Zeros everywhere else
 Denoted by I. If a subscript is included, it is the order of the identity matrix.
 I is the multiplicative identity for matrices
 Any matrix times the identity matrix is the original matrix.
 Multiplication by the identity matrix is commutative, although the order of the
identity may change

Identity matrix of size 2

   1 0  
I2 =
  0 1  

Identity matrix of size 3

  1 0 0  

I3 =   0 1 0  

  0 0 1  

Properties of Matrices

Property Example

Commutativity of Addition A+B=B+A

Associativity of Addition A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C

Associativity of Scalar (cd) A = c (dA)

Multiplication

Scalar Identity 1A = A(1) = A

Distributive c (A + B) = cA + cB

Distributive (c + d) A = cA + dA

Additive Identity A+O=O+A=A

Associativity of Multiplication A (BC) = (AB) C

Left Distributive A (B + C) = AB + AC

Right Distributive ( A + B ) C = AC + BC
 Scalar Associativity / Commutativity c (AB) = (cA) B = A (cB) = (AB) c

Multiplicative Identity IA = AI = A

Properties of Real Numbers that aren't Properties of

Matrices
Commutativity of Multiplication

 You can not change the order of a multiplication problem and expect to get the
same product. AB≠BA
 You must be careful when factoring common factors to make sure they are on
the same side. AX+BX = (A+B)X and XA + XB = X(A+B) but AX + XB doesn't
factor.

Zero Product Property

 Just because a product of two matrices is the zero matrix does not mean that
one of them was the zero matrix.

Multiplicative Property of Equality

 If A=B, then AC = BC. This property is still true, but the converse is not
necessarily true. Just because AC = BC does not mean that A = B.
 Because matrix multiplication is not commutative, you must be careful to either
pre-multiply or post-multiply on both sides of the equation. That is, if A=B, then
AC = BC or CA = CB, but AC≠CB.

There is no matrix division

6. You must multiply by the inverse of the matrix

Evaluating a Function using a Matrix

Consider the function f(x) = x2 - 4x + 3 and the matrix A

  1 2  
A=
  3 4  
The initial attempt to evaluate the f(A) would be to replace every x with an A to get f(A) =
A2 - 4A + 3. There is one slight problem, however. The constant 3 is not a matrix, and
you can't add matrices and scalars together. So, we multiply the constant by the Identity
matrix.

f(A) = A2 - 4A + 3I.

Evaluate each term in the function and then add them together.

  1 2     1 2     7 10  
A2 = * =
  3 4     3 4     15 22  

  1 2     -4 -8  
-4 A =
=
-4
  3 4     -12 -16  

  1 0     3 0  
3I =
=
3
  0 1     0 3  

  7 10     -4 -8     3 0     6 2  
f(A)
+ + =
=   15 22     -12 -     0 3     3 9  
16

Factoring Expressions
Some examples of factoring are shown. Simplify and solve like normal, but remember
that matrix multiplication is not commutative and there is no matrix division.

2X + 3X = 5X
AX + BX = (A+B)X
XA + XB = X(A+B)
AX + 5X = (A+5I)X
AX+XB does not factor

Solving Equations
A system of linear equations can be written as AX=B where A is the coefficient matrix, X
is a column vector containing the variables, and B is the right hand side. We'll learn how
to solve this equation in the next section.

If there are more than one system of linear equations with the same coefficient matrix,
then you can expand the B matrix to have more than one column. Put each right hand
side into its own column.

Matrix Multiplication
Matrix multiplication involves summing a product. It is appropriate where you need to
multiply things together and then add. As an example, multiplying the number of units
by the per unit cost will give the total cost.

The units on the product are found by performing unit analysis on the matrices. The
labels for the product are the labels of the rows of the first matrix and the labels of the
columns of the second matrix.

6.3 - The Inverse of a Square Matrix

Real Numbers
When working in the real numbers, the equation ax=b could be solved for x by dividing
both sides of the equation by a to get x=b/a, as long as a wasn't zero. It would therefore
seem logical that when working with matrices, one could take the matrix equation AX=B
and divide both sides by A to get X=B/A.

However, that won't work because ...

There is NO matrix division!

Ok, you say. Subtraction was defined in terms of addition and division was defined in
terms of multiplication. So, instead of dividing, I'll just multiply by the inverse. This is the
way that it has to be done.

The Inverse of a Matrix

So, what is the inverse of a matrix?

Well, in real numbers, the inverse of any real number a was the number a-1, such that a
times a-1 equaled 1. We knew that for a real number, the inverse of the number was the
reciprocal of the number, as long as the number wasn't zero.
The inverse of a square matrix A, denoted by A -1, is the matrix so that the product of A
and A-1 is the Identity matrix. The identity matrix that results will be the same size as the
matrix A. Wow, there's a lot of similarities there between real numbers and matrices.
That's good, right - you don't want it to be something completely different.

A(A-1) = I or A-1(A) = I

There are a couple of exceptions, though. First of all, A -1 does not mean 1/A.
Remember, "There is no Matrix Division!" Secondly, A -1 does not mean take the
reciprocal of every element in the matrix A.

Requirements to have an Inverse

 The matrix must be square (same number of rows and columns).
 The determinant of the matrix must not be zero (determinants are covered in
section 6.4). This is instead of the real number not being zero to have an inverse,
the determinant must not be zero to have an inverse.

A square matrix that has an inverse is called invertible or non-singular. A matrix that
does not have an inverse is called singular.

A matrix does not have to have an inverse, but if it does, the inverse is unique.

Finding the Inverse the Hard Way

The inverse of a matrix A will satisfy the equation A(A -1) = I.

84. Adjoin the identity matrix onto the right of the original matrix, so that you have A
on the left side and the identity matrix on the right side. It will look like this [ A | I ].
85. Row-reduce (I suggest using pivoting) the matrix until the left side is the Identity
matrix. When the left side is the Identity matrix, the right side will be the Inverse
[ I | A-1 ]. If you are unable to obtain the identity matrix on the left side, then the
matrix is singular and has no inverse.
86. Take the augmented matrix from the right side and call that the inverse.

Shortcut to the Finding the Inverse of a 2×2 Matrix

The inverse of a 2×2 matrix can be found by ...

 Switch the elements on the main diagonal

 Take the opposite of the other two elements
 Divide all the values by the determinant of the matrix (since we haven't talked
about the determinant, for a 2×2 system, it is the product of the elements on the
main diagonal minus the product of the other two elements).
Example for the shortcut

Let's go with an original matrix of

  7 -2  
  3 5  

Step 1, switch the elements on the main diagonal would involve switching the 5 and 7.

  5 -2  
  3 7  

Step 2, take the opposite of the other two elements, but leave them where they are.

  5 2  
  - 7  
3

Step 3, find the determinant and divide every element by that. The determinant is the
product of the elements on the main diagonal minus the product of the elements off the
main diagonal. That means the determinant of this matrix is 7(5) - (-3)(2) = 35 + 6 = 41.
We divide every element by 41.

The inverse of the original matrix is ...

  5/41 2/41  
  - 7/41  
3/41

Now, you're saying, wait a minute - you said there was no matrix division. There is no
division by a matrix. You may multiply or divide a matrix by a scalar (real number) and
the determinant is a scalar.

Using the Calculator

Now that you know how to find the identity matrix by hand, let's talk practicality. The
calculator will do it for you.

Entering a Matrix

 Press the Matrix key (right below the X key). On the TI-83+, you will need to hit
2nd Matrix.
  Arrow to the Edit submenu.
 Choose a Matrix to work with. You have five to choose from with the TI-82 and
ten to choose from with the TI-83. Typically, you will use [A]. Try to avoid using
[E] for unspecified reasons that will be specified if you take Finite Mathematics.
 Enter the number of rows, press enter, and then enter the number of columns,
followed by enter.
 You now enter each element in the matrix, reading from left to right and top to
bottom. Press enter after each number. You may use the arrow keys to move
around if you make a mistake.
 Quit (2nd Mode) when you are done entering all the numbers.

Using Matrices

Whenever you need to access a matrix that you have created, just hit the Matrix key
and choose the appropriate matrix. I would suggest that you start using Matrix 1, Matrix
2, etc, instead of Matrix, arrow down, enter. It will go faster, and you will be doing a lot
with these matrices.

Finding the Inverse of a Matrix on a Calculator

Enter the expression [A]-1 by going Matrix 1, and then hitting the x-1 key. It will not work if
you try to raise the matrix to the -1 power as in [A]^(-1).

You may have to use the right or left arrow keys to scroll through the entire matrix to
write it down. Please give exact answers whenever possible.

One way of giving exact answers is to have the calculator convert the decimals to
fractions for you. After all, fractions really are your friends (and I seriously mean that
here). You can have the calculator do a decimal to fraction conversion by hitting Math,
Enter, Enter.

Also, if you get an answer like 1.2E-12, chances are really good that number is zero and
it is because of inaccuracies in the calculator that you are getting that response.
Convert the number to zero.

Why was it we needed an inverse?

I am so glad you asked that.

One of the major uses of inverses is to solve a system of linear equations. You can
write a system in matrix form as AX = B.

Now, pre-multiply both sides by the inverse of A. Make sure you meet these two
conditions.
  You must place the inverse of the matrix adjacent to the matrix. That is because
Inverses need to be next to each other (very loose mathematically, but think back
to functions) in order to undo each other.
 If you multiply by putting something in front of the left side (pre-multiply), it has to
go in front of the right side. If you put something behind (post-multiply) the left
side, it has to go behind the right side.

Matrix Multiplication is NOT Commutative!

A-1(AX) = A-1(B) ... pre-multiply both sides by A-1
(A-1A) X = A-1 B ... use the associative property to regroup factors
I X = A-1 B ... when you multiply inverses together, they become the identity matrix
X = A-1 B ... the identity matrix is like multiplying by 1.

If AX = B, then X = A-1 B
So what you're asking in your normal cynical way is "You've just solved another
equation, what does that have to do with anything?"

Solving Systems of Linear Equations

Consider the system of linear equations

3x + 2y - 5z = 12
x - 3y + 2z = -13
5x - y + 4z = 10

Write the coefficients in an A matrix.

  x y z  
  3 2 -5  
  1 -3 2  
  5 -1 4  

Write the variables in an X matrix.

  x  
  y  
  z  
Write the constants in a B matrix.

  12  
  -13  
  10  

Verify that AX = B

This step isn't really needed, but I wanted to show you that this thing really does work.

AX will be a (3×3) × (3×1) = 3×1 matrix. The B matrix is also a 3×1 matrix, so at least
the dimensions work out right.

Here's A times X.

  3 2 -      x      3x + 2y - 5z  
5
  1 -3 2      y   =   1x - 3y + 2z  
  5 -1 4      z      5x - 1y + 4z  

Notice that turns out to be the left side of the system of equations. The B is the right
hand side, so we have achieved equality. Woohoo! You can write a system of linear
equations as AX = B.

So, if you can write a system of linear equations as AX=B where A is the coefficient
matrix, X is the variable matrix, and B is the right hand side, you can find the solution to
the system by X = A-1 B.

Place the coefficient matrix into [A] on the calculator and the right hand side into [B].

If you asked the calculator to find the inverse of the coefficient matrix, it would give you
this for A-1

  5/44 3/88 1/8  

  - -37/88 1/8  
3/44
  - -13/88 1/8  
7/44

You could do that, and then multiply that by B, but it would be easier just to put the
whole expression into the calculator and get the answer directly. Even what is shown
below is more work than is necessary.
X = A-1 B = ...

  x      5/44 3/88 1/      12      191/8  

8 8
  y   =   -3/44 -37/88 1/      -13   =   519/8  
8 8
  z      -7/44 -13/88 1/      10      111/8  
8 8

There you go, x = 191/88, y = 519/88, and z = 111/88. That would be a real pain to
solve by hand.

This is easy, why don't we always do this?

The main reason is because it doesn't always work.

34. Inverses only exist for square matrices. That means if you don't the same
number of equations as variables, then you can't use this method.
35. Not every square matrix has an inverse. If the coefficient matrix A is singular (has
no inverse), then there may be no solution or there may be many solutions, but
we can't tell what it is.
36. Inverses are a pain to find by hand. If you have a calculator, it's not so bad, but
remember that calculators don't always give you the answer you're looking for.

6.4 - The Determinant of a Square Matrix

A determinant is a real number associated with every square matrix. I have yet to find a
good English definition for what a determinant is. Everything I can find either defines it
in terms of a mathematical formula or suggests some of the uses of it. There's even a
definition of determinant that defines it in terms of itself.

The determinant of a square matrix A is denoted by "det A" or | A |. Now, that last one
looks like the absolute value of A, but you will have to apply context. If the vertical lines
are around a matrix, it means determinant.

The line below shows the two ways to write a determinant.

3 1   3 1  
= det
5 2   5 2  

Determinant of a 2×2 Matrix

The determinant of a 2×2 matrix is found much like a pivot operation. It is the product of
the elements on the main diagonal minus the product of the elements off the main
diagonal.

a b
= ad - bc
c d

Properties of Determinants
 The determinant is a real number, it is not a matrix.
 The determinant can be a negative number.
 It is not associated with absolute value at all except that they both use vertical
lines.
 The determinant only exists for square matrices (2×2, 3×3, ... n×n). The
determinant of a 1×1 matrix is that single value in the determinant.
 The inverse of a matrix will exist only if the determinant is not zero.

Expansion using Minors and Cofactors

The definition of determinant that we have so far is only for a 2×2 matrix. There is a
shortcut for a 3×3 matrix, but I firmly believe you should learn the way that will work for
all sizes, not just a special case for a 3×3 matrix.

The method is called expansion using minors and cofactors. Before we can use them,
we need to define them.

Minors
A minor for any element is the determinant that results when the row and column that
element are in are deleted.

The notation Mij is used to stand for the minor of the element in row i and column j. So
M21 would mean the minor for the element in row 2, column 1.

Consider the 3×3 determinant shown below. I've included headers so that you can keep
the rows and columns straight, but you wouldn't normally include those. We're going to
find some of the minors.

  C1 C2 C3
R1 1 3 2
R2 4 1 3
R3 2 5 2
Finding the Minor for R2C1

The minor is the determinant that remains when you delete the row and column of the
element you're trying to find the minor for. That means we should delete row 2 and
column 1 and then find the determinant.

  C2 C3  
R1 3 2
= 3(2) - 5(2) = 6 - 10 = -4
R3 5 2

As you can see, the minor for row 2 and column 1 is M 21 = -4.

Let's try another one.

Finding the Minor for R3C2

This time, we would delete row 3 and column 2.

  C1 C3  
R1 1 2
= 1(3) - 4(2) = 3 - 8 = -5
R2 4 3

So the minor for row 3, column 2 is M32 = -5.

Matrix of Minors

When you're just trying to find the determinant of a matrix, this is overkill. But there is
one extremely useful application for it and it will give us practice finding minors.

The matrix of minors is the square matrix where each element is the minor for the
number in that position.

Here is a generic matrix of minors for a 3×3 determinant.

    C1 C2 C3  
R1   M11 M12 M13  
R2   M21 M22 M23  
R3   M31 M32 M33  

Let's find the matrix of minors for our original determinant. Here is the determinant.
   C1 C2 C3
R1 1 3 2
R2 4 1 3
R3 2 5 2

Here is the work to find each minor in the matrix of minors.

  C1 C2 C3
R1 1 3 4 3 4 1
5 2 2 2 2 5

= 2 - 15 = -13 =8-6=2 = 20 - 2 = 18
R2 3 2 1 2 1 3
5 2 2 2 2 5

= 6 - 10 = -4 = 2 - 4 = -2 = 5 - 6 = -1
R3 3 2 1 2 1 3
1 3 4 3 4 1

=9-2=7 = 3 - 8 = -5 = 1 - 12 = -11

Finally, here is the matrix of minors. Again, you don't need to put the labels for the row
and columns on there, but it may help you.

    C1 C2 C3  
R1   -13 2 18  
R2   -4 -2 -1  
R3   7 -5 -11  

Cofactors
A cofactor for any element is either the minor or the opposite of the minor, depending on
where the element is in the original determinant. If the row and column of the element
add up to be an even number, then the cofactor is the same as the minor. If the row and
column of the element add up to be an odd number, then the cofactor is the opposite of
the minor.
Ooh - did you get that? Odd changes signs, even is the same sign. Deja Vu. We've
been talking about that ever since section 3.2 on polynomials.

Sign Chart

Rather than adding up the row and column of the element to see whether it is odd or
even, many people prefer to use a sign chart. A sign chart is either a + or - for each
element in the matrix. The first element (row 1, column 1) is always a + and it alternates
from there.

Note: The + does not mean positive and the - negative. The + means the same sign as
the minor and the - means the opposite of the minor. Think of it addition and subtraction
rather than positive or negative.

Here is the sign chart for a 2×2 determinant.

  C1 C2
R1 + -
R2 - +

Here is the sign chart for a 3×3 determinant.

  C1 C2 C3
R1 + - +
R2 - + -
R3 + - +

Matrix of Cofactors

Again, if all you're trying to do is find the determinant, you do not need to go through this
much work.

The matrix of cofactors is the matrix found by replacing each element of a matrix by its
cofactor. This is the matrix of minors with the signs changed on the elements in the -
positions.

    C1 C2 C3  
R1   -13 -2 18  
R2   4 -2 1  
R3   7 5 -11  
Expanding to Find the Determinant
Here are the steps to go through to find the determinant.

87. Pick any row or column in the matrix. It does not matter which row or which
column you use, the answer will be the same for any row. There are some rows
or columns that are easier than others, but we'll get to that later.
88. Multiply every element in that row or column by its cofactor and add. The result is
the determinant.

Let's expand our matrix along the first row.

1 3 2
4 1 3
2 5 2

From the sign chart, we see that 1 is in a positive position, 3 is in a negative position
and 2 is in a positive position. By putting the + or - in front of the element, it takes care
of the sign adjustment when going from the minor to the cofactor.

1 3 4 3 4 1
+1 -3 +2
5 2 2 2 2 5

= 1 ( 2 - 15 ) - 3 ( 8 - 6 ) + 2 ( 20 - 2 )
= 1 ( -13 ) - 3 ( 2 ) + 2 (18)
= -13 - 6 + 36
= 17

The determinant of this matrix is 17.

As I said earlier, it doesn't really matter which row or column you use.

Let's try it again, but this time expand on the second columns. As an effort to save time,
the minors for that column (from the matrix of minors) were 2, -2, and -5. The original
elements were 3, 1, and 5. The 3 and 5 are in negative positions.

determinant = - 3 ( 2 ) + 1 ( -2 ) - 5 ( -5 ) = -6 -2 + 25 = 17

Expand on any row or any column, you'll get 17.

However, you can't do diagonals. If we try the main diagonal, you get

+ 1 ( -13 ) + 1 ( -2 ) + 2 ( -11 ) = -13 -2 - 22 = -37

Some rows or columns are better than others

 Pick the row or column with the most zeros in it.

Since each minor or cofactor is multiplied by the element in the matrix, picking a
row or column with lots of zeros in it means that you will be multiplying by a lot of
zeros. Multiplying by zero doesn't take very long at all. In fact, if the element is
zero, you don't need to even find the minor or cofactor.
 Pick the row or column with the largest numbers (or variables) in it.
The elements in the row or column that you expand along are not used to find the
minors. The only place that they are multiplied is once, in the expansion. If you
pick the row or column with the smallest numbers, then every minor will be the
product of larger numbers.
If you pick a row or column that has variables in it, then you will only have to
multiply by the variables once, during the expansion.

Inverse of a Matrix (revisited)

Let's consider our original determinant as a matrix this time.

  1 3 2  
  4 1 3  
  2 5 2  

Find the matrix of minors as explained above.

  -13 2 18  
  -4 -2 -1  
  7 -5 -11  

Turn it into a matrix of cofactors by changing the signs on the appropriate elements
based on the sign chart.

  -13 -2 18  
  4 -2 1  
  7 5 -11  

Find the adjoint by transposing the matrix of cofactors.

To transpose a matrix, you switch the rows and columns. That is, the rows become
columns and the columns become rows. The Transpose of a matrix can be found using
the TI-82 or TI-83 calculator by entering the name of the matrix and then choosing
Matrix, Math, and then option 2, a superscripted T, like [A] T.

  -13 4 7  
  -2 -2 5  
  18 1 -11  

Finally divide the adjoint of the matrix by the determinant of the matrix. In this problem,
the determinant is 17, so we'll divide every element by 17. The resulting matrix is the
inverse of the original matrix.

  -13/17 4/17 7/17  

  -2/17 - 5/17  
2/17
  18/17 1/17 -11/17  

The inverse of a matrix is found by dividing the adjoint of the matrix by the determinant
of the matrix. Don't try that on your calculator since the calculator won't let you divide a
matrix by a scalar. You will have to multiply by the inverse of the determinant instead.

If you check it with your calculator, you can verify that the inverse actually is the adjoint
divided by the determinant.

Since the inverse is the adjoint divided by the determinant, we can see why the inverse
doesn't exist if the determinant is zero. That would cause division by zero, which is
undefined.

Larger Order Determinants

Let's find the determinant of a 4x4 system.

  C1 C2 C3 C4
R1 3 2 0 1
R2 4 0 1 2
R3 3 0 2 1
R4 9 2 3 1

Pick the row or column with the most zeros in it. In this case, that is the second column.

For each element in the original matrix, its minor will be a 3×3 determinant. We'll have
to expand each of those by using three 2×2 determinants.
This is why we want to expand along the second column. The minors are multiplied by
their elements, so if the element in the original matrix is 0, it doesn't really matter what
the minor is and we can save a lot of time by not having to find it. In the second column,
you won't need to find two of the minors because their corresponding element in the
second column is zero.

4 1 2             3 0 1
- + -
3 2 1   ?     ?   +2 4 1 2
2 0 0
9 3 1             3 2 1

We could actually fill in those middle two minors, but since they're multiplied by 0, it
doesn't really matter what they are. In fact, you could just as easily skip them.

Now, there are two 3x3 determinants left to find.

In the first 3x3 determinant, there are no zeros, so pick the row or column with the
largest numbers. That would be column 1, so expand along the first column.

Notice the 4 is in a positive position. The sign charts begin over with each new
determinant. The position of the number in the original matrix does not matter, only its
position in the current matrix.

4 1 2                    
3 2 1 = +4 2 1 - 1 2 + 1 2
3 9
9 3 1     3 1   3 1   2 1

= 4 ( 2 - 3 ) - 3 ( 1 - 6 ) + 9 ( 1 - 4 ) = 4 ( -1 ) - 3 ( -5 ) + 9 ( -3 ) = -4 + 15 - 27 = -16

Consider the other 3×3 matrix. In this one, there is a 0 in the row 1 and column 2. Either
one of those would be a good pick for expansion, but since row 1 has slightly larger
numbers, we'll expand along the first row.

3 0 1                    
4 1 2 = +3 1 2 - ? ? + 4 1
0 1
3 2 1     2 1   ? ?   3 2

= 3 ( 1 - 4 ) - 0 ( doesn't matter ) + 1 ( 8 - 3 ) = 3 ( -3 ) + 1 ( 5 ) = -9 + 5 = -4
When you go to find the determinant, remember that there were elements from the
original 4×4 matrix that were times each of those 3×3 determinants. The first one was -2
and the second one was +2.

Determinant = -2 ( -16 ) + 2 ( -4 ) = 32 - 8 = 24

Worst case scenario

To find a 3x3 determinant with no zeros, you have to find three 2x2 determinants.

To find a 4x4 determinant with no zeros, you have to find four 3x3 determinants, each of
which then becomes three 2x2 determinants for a total of twelve 2x2 determinants.

To find a 5x5 determinant with no zeros, you have to find five 4x4 determinants, each of
which then becomes four 3x3 determinants, each of those becoming three 2x2
determinants for a total of sixty 2x2 determinants.

Using the Calculator

After that last problem, you've got to be asking yourself if there isn't an easier way. Well,
yes, there is, as long as the determinant doesn't have any variables in it. You can use
the calculator.

The notation that the TI-82 or TI-83 calculator uses is the Det A notation. So, after
entering the matrix into one of the available matrices on the calculator, enter DET by
going Matrix, Math, and choosing option 1. Then put in the name of the matrix that
you're using.

You don't need to use parentheses (unless you have a TI-83), but you can if you want to
find the determinant of a product "det ([A]*[B])" or the determinant of a transpose "det
([A]T)" as opposed to the transpose of the determinant "(det [A]) T". By the way, the
calculator won't find the transpose of a determinant because the determinant is a scalar
(real number) and the calculator only knows how to find the transpose of a matrix. The
transpose of a scalar is that scalar.

Triangular Matrices
You're really going to like finding determinants of these matrices.

Upper Triangular Matrix

A matrix in which all the non-zero elements are either on or above the main
diagonal. That is, all the non-zero values are in the upper triangle. Everything
below the diagonal is a zero.
Lower Triangular Matrix
 A matrix in which all the non-zero elements are either on or below the main
diagonal.
That is, all the non-zero values are in the lower triangle. Everything above the
diagonal is zero.
Diagonal Matrix
A matrix in which all the non-zero elements are on the main diagonal. Everything
off the main diagonal is a zero.

The determinant of a triangular matrix or a diagonal matrix is the product of the

elements on the main diagonal.

Elementary Row Operations

There were three elementary row operations that could be performed that would return
an equivalent system. With determinants, since the determinant of a transpose is the
same as the determinant of the matrix, the elementary row operations can also be
applied to columns.

By performing row-reduction (using pivoting on a 1 if you like), you can place a matrix
into triangular form. Once it's in triangular form, then all you have to do is multiply by the
elements on the main diagonal and you have the determinant.

Let's look at each of the three elementary row operations.

 If you interchange two rows or two columns in a determinant, the resulting

determinant will differ only in sign. That is, if you swap rows or columns, the
resulting determinant is the opposite of the original determinant.
 If you multiply a row or column by a non-zero constant, the determinant is
multiplied by that same non-zero constant.
 If you multiply a row or column by a non-zero constant and add it to another row
or column, replacing that row or column, there is no change in the determinant.

That last operation is equivalent to pivoting on a one!

Warning, if your pivot is a number other than one, then you are multiplying each row
that you change by the pivot element. So, if you pivot on a 3 and you change two rows,
then the resulting determinant will be 3*3 = 9 times as great as the original determinant.

As long as you pivot on a one, you'll be okay.

You do not have to place the matrix into reduced row-echelon form or even row-echelon
form. You are free to stop the reduction at any point and expand using minors and
cofactors. What I suggest is pivot where there is a one, and then expand.

Determinants that are Zero

The determinant of a matrix will be zero if

 An entire row is zero.

 Two rows or columns are equal.
 A row or column is a constant multiple of another row or column.

Remember, that a matrix is invertible, non-singular, if and only if the determinant is not
zero. So, if the determinant is zero, the matrix is singular and does not have an inverse.

6.5 - Applications of Matrices and

Determinants

Area of a Triangle
Consider a triangle with vertices at (x1,y1), (x2,y2), and (x3,y3). If the triangle was a right
triangle, it would be pretty easy to compute the area of the triangle by finding one-half
the product of the base and the height.

However, when the triangle is not a right triangle, there are a couple of other ways that
the area can be found.

Heron's Formula
 If you know the lengths of the three
sides of the triangle, you can use Heron's Formula to find the area of the triangle.

In Heron's formula, s is the semi-perimeter (one-half the perimeter of the triangle).

s = 1/2 ( a + b + c )
Area = sqrt ( s ( s-a) ( s-b) ( s-c) )

Consider the triangle with vertices at (-2,2), (1,5), and (6,1).

Using the distance formulas, we can find that the lengths of the sides (arbitrarily
assigning a, b, and c) are a = 3 sqrt(2), b = sqrt(61), and c = sqrt(73).

Using those values gives us ...

s = 1/2 ( 3 sqrt(2) + sqrt(61) + sqrt(73) )

s - a = 1/2 ( - 3 sqrt(2) + sqrt(61) + sqrt(73) )
s - b = 1/2 ( 3 sqrt(2) - sqrt(61) + sqrt(73) )
s - c = 1/2 ( 3 sqrt(2) + sqrt(61) - sqrt(73) )

s ( s - a ) ( s - b ) ( s - c ) = 1089 / 4

When you take the square root of that, you get 33/2, so the area of that triangle is 16.5.

Problems with Heron's Formula include

 Must know the lengths of the sides of the triangle. If you don't then you have to use the
distance formula to find the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
 You have to compute the semi-perimeter, so chances are you will have fractions to work
with.
 Lots of square roots are involved. For the lengths of the sides of the triangle and for the
area of the triangle.
 It's not the easiest thing in the world to work with.
Geometric Technique

The triangle can be enclosed in a

rectangle. The vertices of the triangle will intersect the rectangle in three places, forming
three right triangles. These triangles are denoted A, B, and C in the picture.

The area of the triangle we desire will be the area of the rectangle minus the areas of
the three triangles.

The legs of the three triangles can be found by simple subtraction of coordinates and
then used to find the area since the area of a triangle is one-half the base times the
height.

Area of triangle A = 3 ( 3 ) / 2 = 9/2.

Area of triangle B = 5 ( 6 ) / 2 = 15.
Area of triangle C = 8 ( 3 ) / 2 = 12.

The sum of the areas of the triangles is 9/2 + 15 + 12 = 63 / 2 or 31.5.

The area of a rectangle is base times height, so the bounding rectangle has area = 8 ( 6
) = 48.

The area of the triangle in the middle is the difference between the rectangle and the
sum of the areas of the three outer triangles.

Area of triangle = 48 - 31.5 = 16.5.

Wow, that was much easier.

Determinants
It turns out that the area of a triangle can also be found using determinants. The
derivation of the formula is kind of long and most of you don't care to see it, so it's on a
separate page.

What you do is form a 3×3 determinant where the first column are the x's for all the
points, the second column are the y's for all the points, and the last column is all ones.

  x y 1

point 1 -2 2 1

point 2 1 5 1

point 3 6 -1 1

Evaluate that determinant. I'll expand on column 1.

-2 2 1                    

1 5 1 = + (- 5 1 - 2 1 +6 2 1
2) 1

6 - 1     -1 1   -1 1   5 1
1

= -2 ( 5 + 1 ) - 1 ( 2 + 1 ) + 6 ( 2 - 5 ) = -2 ( 6 ) - 1 ( 3 ) + 6 ( -3 ) = -12 - 3 - 18 = -33.

It is possible that you will get a negative determinant, like we did here. Don't worry about
that. The sign is determined by the order you put the points in and can be easily
changed just by switching two rows of the determinant. Area, on the other hand, can't
be negative, so if you get a negative, just drop the sign and make it positive. Finally,
divide it by 2 to find the area.

| -33 | = 33
33 / 2 = 16.5, which was the area.

Formula for the area of a triangle using determinants

    x1 y1 1

Area ± 1/2 x2 y2 1
=

    x3 y3 1
The plus/minus in this case is meant to take whichever sign is needed so the answer is
positive (non-negative). Do not say the area is both positive and negative.

Why not use absolute value, you ask? Well, think how confusing it would be to have the
absolute value of a determinant.

Test for Collinear Points

Continue with the idea of finding the area of a triangle. If the area of a triangle was
equal to zero, then there would be no triangle, the points would be collinear (on a line).

We can use that fact to develop a test for collinear points.

If the area of a triangle is zero, the points are collinear.

We can drop the plus/minus and the one-half from the front of the determinant, because
the area will be zero only if the determinant is zero.

Three points are collinear if and only if the determinant found by placing the x-
coordinates in the first column, the y-coordinates in the second column, and one's in the
third column is equal to zero.

  x1 y1 1  

Doe x2 y2 1 equal 0?
s

  x3 y3 1  

You are not setting the determinant equal to zero, you are testing to see if the
determinant is zero.

Equation of a Line
Three points are collinear if and only if that determinant is zero.

You can force three points to be collinear by setting the determinant equal to zero.

Notice this time, that the actual variables x and y are in the determinant. That is
because you have two points on a line given, and the point (x,y) is a generic point on
the line.
When you expand this, I strongly recommend that you expand along the first row. That
way, your multiplications to find the determinants won't involve x or y.

x y 1    

x1 y1 1 = 0

x2 y2 1    

Cramer's Rule
The derivation of Cramer's Rule can be found on another page. Here are the results.

Solve the system of linear equations

3x + 5y = 12
2x - 4y = 9

Let D be the determinant of the coefficient matrix.

  x y  

3 5
D
= - 22
=
2 -4

Let Dx be the determinant of the coefficient matrix where the x column has been
replaced by the constants from the right hand side.

  rhs y  

12 5
Dx = = - 93
9 -4

Let Dy be the determinant of the coefficient matrix where the y column has been
replaced by the constants from the right hand side.

  x rhs  

Dy = 3 12 =3
 2 9

As long as D, the determinant of the coefficient matrix, is not 0, then x = D x / D and y =

Dy / D.

In this case, D = -22, so Cramer's Rule will work and

x = Dx / D = -93 / -22 = 93/22
y = Dy / D = 3 / -22 = - 3/22

Cramer's rule is named after Gabriel Cramer who lived from 1704 - 1752. He is not the
one who developed the technique originally, however, as the Chinese were known to
have used the method before him.

Extending Cramer's Rule to Larger Systems

Cramer's Rule can be extended to larger systems in the same manner. Simply replace
each column in the coefficient matrix by the right hand side, and then divide that
determinant by the determinant of the coefficient matrix.

For a 3×3 system, then let Dz be the determinant of the coefficient matrix where the z
column has been replaced by the constants from the right hand side.

Benefits of Cramer's Rule

 Determinants can be found on a calculator for large systems

 If you need just one variable, you can find it with Cramer's Rule, whereas with the other
techniques you would have to find all of the variables.

Problems with Cramer's Rule

 Takes a long time to re-enter each matrix into the calculator to find the determinant. Best
suited for a computer or calculator program.
 Requires a square system.
 Doesn't always work. If the determinant of the coefficient matrix is zero, the technique
fails and it is either no solution or many solutions.
 If D=0 and Dx=0 and Dy=0 then there are many solutions. You won't be able to tell what
the solutions are from Cramer's Rule, but there are many solutions. This is the
dependent case.
 If D=0, but at least one of the other determinants is not zero, then there is no solution.
This is the inconsistent case.

Cryptography
Cryptography involves encrypting data so that a third party can not intercept and read
the data.
In the early days of satellite television, the video signals weren't encrypted and anyone
with a satellite dish could watch whatever was being shown. Well, this didn't work
because all of the networks using satellites didn't want the satellite dish owners to be
able to receive their satellite feed for no cost while cable subscribers had to pay for the
channel, they were losing money. So, they started encrypting the video signal with a
system called Videocipher (later replaced by Videocipher II).

What the Videocipher encryption system did was to convert the signal into digital form,
encrypt it, and send the data over the satellite. If the satellite dish owner had a
Videocipher box, and paid for the channel, then the box would descramble (unencrypt)
the signal and return it to its original, useful form.

This was done by using a key that was invertible. It was very important that they key be
invertible, or there would be no way to return the encrypted data to its original form.

The same thing can be done using matrices.

Encryption Process

1. Convert the text of the message into a stream of numerical values.

2. Place the data into a matrix.
3. Multiply the data by the encoding matrix.
4. Convert the matrix into a stream of numerical values that contains the encrypted
message.

Example

Consider the message "Red Rum"

A message is converted into numeric form according to some scheme. The easiest
scheme is to let space=0, A=1, B=2, ..., Y=25, and Z=26. For example, the message
"Red Rum" would become 18, 5, 4, 0, 18, 21, 13.

This data was placed into matrix form. The size of the matrix depends on the size of the
encryption key. Let's say that our encryption matrix (encoding matrix) is a 2x2 matrix.
Since I have seven pieces of data, I would place that into a 4x2 matrix and fill the last
spot with a space to make the matrix complete. Let's call the original, unencrypted data
matrix A.

    18 5  

  4 0  
A=
  18 21  

    13 0  
There is an invertible matrix which is called the encryption matrix or the encoding
matrix. We'll call it matrix B. Since this matrix needs to be invertible, it must be square.

This could really be anything, it's up to the person encrypting the matrix. I'll use this
matrix.

  4 -2  
B=
  - 3  
1

The unencrypted data is then multiplied by our encoding matrix. The result of this
multiplication is the matrix containing the encrypted data. We'll call it matrix X.

    67 -21  

  16 -8  
X=AB=
  51 27  

    52 -26  

The message that you would pass on to the other person is the the stream of numbers
67, -21, 16, -8, 51, 27, 52, -26.

Decryption Process

1. Place the encrypted stream of numbers that represents an encrypted message into a
matrix.
2. Multiply by the decoding matrix. The decoding matrix is the inverse of the encoding
matrix.
3. Convert the matrix into a stream of numbers.
4. Conver the numbers into the text of the original message.

Example

The message you need to decipher is in the encrypted data stream 67, -21, 16, -8, 51,
27, 52, -26.

The encryption matrix is not transmitted. It is known by the receiving party so that they
can decrypt the message. Other times, the inverse is known by the receiving party. The
encryption matrix can not be sent with the data, otherwise anyone could grab the data
and decode the information. Also, by not having the decoding matrix, someone
intercepting the message doesn't know what size of matrix to use.

The receiving end gets the encrypted message and places it into matrix form.

    67 -21  

  16 -8  
X=
  51 27  

    52 -26  

The receiver must calculate the inverse of the encryption matrix. This would be the
decryption matrix or the decoding matrix.

  0.3 0.2  
B-1 =
  0.1 0.4  

The receiver then multiplies the encrypted data by the inverse of the encryption matrix.
The result is the original unencrypted matrix.

    18 5  

  4 0  
A = X B-1 =
  18 21  

    13 0  

The receiver then takes the matrix and breaks it apart into values 18, 5, 4, 0, 18, 21, 13,
0 and converts each of those into a character according to the numbering scheme.
18=R, 5=E, 4=D, 0=space, 18=R, 21=U, 13=M, 0=space.

Trailing spaces will be discarded and the message is received as intended: "RED RUM"

7.1 - Sequences and Summation

Notation
A sequence is a function whose domain is the natural numbers. Instead of using the f(x)
notation, however, a sequence is listed using the a n notation. There are infinite
sequences whose domain is the set of all positive integers, and there are finite
sequences whose domain is the set of the first n positive integers.

When you define a sequence, you must write the general term (nth term or a n). There
are sometimes more than one sequence that is possible if just the first few terms are
given.

Defining a Sequence
There are two common ways to define a sequence by specifying the general term.

General Term, an

The first is to use a form that only depends on the number of the term, n. To find the first
five terms when you know the general term, simply substitute the values 1, 2, 3, 4, and
5 into the general form for n and simplify.

Consider the sequence defined by the general term a n = 3n-2

The first five terms are found by plugging in 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 for n.

 3(1) - 2 = 1
 3(2) - 2 = 4
 3(3) - 2 = 7
 3(4) - 2 = 10
 3(5) - 2 = 13

Therefore, the first five terms of the sequence are 1, 4, 7, 10, 13

Now consider the sequence defined by the general term a n = 1 / n.

The first five terms are 1/1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, and 1/5.

Recursive Definition

The second way is to recursively define a sequence. A recursive definition uses the
current and/or previous terms to define the next term. You can think of a k+1 being the
next term, ak being the current term, and ak-1 being the previous term.

Consider the sequence where a1 = 5 and ak+1 = 2 ak - 1.

You can read that last part as "the next term is one less than twice the current term"
The first five terms are:

89. 5 (by definition),

90. 2(5) - 1 = 9 (twice the first term of 5 minus 1),
91. 2(9) - 1 = 17 (twice the second term of 9 minus 1),
92. 2(17) - 1 = 33 (twice the third term of 17 minus 1),
93. 2(33) - 1 = 62 (twice the fourth term of 33 minus 1)

Now consider the sequence defined by a1 = 2, a2 = 1, and ak+2 = 3ak - ak+1

You can read that last part as "the next term is 3 times the last term minus the current
term"

The first five terms are:

 2 (by definition),
 1 (by definition),
 3(2) - 1 = 5 (3 times first term minus second term), Note that when k = 1, the
sequence gets written as a1+2 = 3a1 - a1+1 which becomes a3 = 3a1 - a2. Since a1 =
2 and a2 = 1, this is where the 3(2) - 1 = 5 comes from.
 3(1) - 5 = -2 (3 times second term minus third term),
 3(5) - (-2) = 17 (3 times third term minus fourth term)

Fibonacci Sequence
One famous example of a recursively defined sequence is the Fibonacci Sequence. The
first two terms of the Fibonacci Sequence are 1 by definition. Every term after that is the
sum of the two preceding terms.

The Fibonacci Sequence is 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, ... a n+1 = an + an-1.

Fibonacci sequences occur frequently in nature. For example, take a leaf on a stem of
many plants (like cherry, elm, or pear trees). Count the number of leaves until you reach
one directly in line with the one you selected. The total number of leaves (not including
the first one) is usually a Fibonacci number. If the left and right handed spirals on a pine
cone, sunflower seed heads, or pineapples are counted, the two numbers are often
consecutive Fibonacci numbers.

Factorials - !
The symbol for factorial is ! (an explanation point). The factorial of a positive integer is
the product of all positive integers less than or equal to that number. Zero factorial is a
special case and 0! = 1 by defintion.
1! = 1
2! = 2*1! = 2*1 = 2
3! = 3*2! = 3*2*1 = 6
4! = 4*3! = 4*3*2*1 = 24
5! = 5*4! = 5*4*3*2*1 = 120

n! = n(n-1)! = n*(n-1)*(n-2)*...3*2*1

Notice that there is also a recursive definition in there. Any number factorial is that
number times the factorial of one less than that number.

On the TI-82 and TI-83 calculators, the factorial key can be found under Math,
Probability, menu choice 4.

Simplifying ratios of factorials

Consider 8!/5!. One way to work the problem would be to fully expand the 8! and fully
expand the 5!.

8! 8 * 7 * 6 * 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1
-- = ----------------------------- = 8 * 7 * 6 = 336
5! 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1

Then you notice that there are common factors of 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 in both the numerator
and denominator that divide out. This leaves you with 8*7*6 in the numerator for an
answer of 336.

Another way to work the problem, however is to use the recursive nature of factorials.
Since any number factorial is that number times the factorial of one less than that
number, 8! = 8 * 7!, but 7! = 7 * 6!, and 6! = 6 * 5!. This means that 8! = 8 * 7 * 6 * 5!. So,
8! / 5! Is 8*7*6*5!/5! = 8*7*6 = 336.

The point is that there is no need to multiply the entire thing out when you're just going
to be dividing a bunch of it out anyway.

Here are some steps to simplifying the ratio of two factorials.

 Find the smaller factorial and write it down. It won't change, and it will be the part
that is completely divided out.
 Take the larger factorial and start expanding it by subtracting one until the
smaller number (that you've already written down) is reached.
 When you reach the smaller number, write it as a factorial and divide out the two
equal factorials.

Here's an example with a little bit more complicated ratio. Since 2n-1 is less than 2n+1,
copy the 2n-1 factorial down on the bottom. Now, take 2n+1 times one less than 2n+1.
One less then 2n+1 is 2n+1-1=2n. Take that times one less than 2n, which is 2n-1.
Since that 2n-1 is the same amount on the bottom, call the 2n-1 factorial and then divide
it out, leaving the product of 2n and 2n+1 as the answer.

(2n+1)! (2n+1)*(2n)*(2n-1)!
------- = ------------------- = 2n(2n+1)
(2n-1)! (2n-1)!

Sigma / Summation Notation

Summation is something that is done quite often in mathematics, and there is a symbol
that means summation. That symbol is the capital Greek letter sigma, and so the
notation is sometimes called Sigma Notation instead of Summation Notation.

The k is called the index of summation. k=1 is the lower limit of the summation and k=n
(although the k is only written once) is the upper limit of the summation.

What the summation notation means is to evaluate the argument of the summation for
every value of the index between the lower limit and upper limit (inclusively) and then
add the results together.

Examples:

Substitute each value of k between 1 and 5 into the expression 3k-2 and then add the
results together.

[3(1)-2] + [3(2)-2] + [3(3)-2] + [3(4)-2] + [3(5)-2] = 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 = 35

[ 3(1) + 3(2) + 3(3) + 3(4) + 3(5) ] - 2 = [ 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 + 15 ] - 2 = 45 - 2 = 43

Although these look very similar, the answers are different. The second example is
thrown in there to warn you about notation. Multiplication has a higher order of
operations than addition or subtraction, so no group symbols are needed around the 3k.
But since subtraction has the same precedence as addition, the subtraction of 2 does
not go inside the summation. In other words, be sure to include parentheses around a
sum or difference if you want the summation to apply to more than just the first term.

Properties of Summation
The following properties of summation apply no matter what the lower and upper limits
are for the index. For simplicity sake, I will not write the k=1 and n, but know that your
index of summation is k in the following examples.

You can factor a constant out of a sum.

∑cak = c∑ak

Notice the ak has a subscript of k while the c doesn't. This means that the c is a
constant and the a is function of k. The sum of a constant times a function is the
constant times the sum of the function.

The sum of a sum is the sum of the sums

Ooh, that just sounds good. The summation symbol can be distributed over addition.

∑(ak + bk) = ∑ak + ∑bk

The sum of a difference is the difference of the sums

The summation symbol can be distributed over subtraction.

∑(ak - bk) = ∑ak - ∑bk

Aren't those just beautiful sounding? Those should certainly be placed on a note card to
help you remember them.

7.2 - Arithmetic Sequences

An arithmetic sequence is a sequence in which the difference between consecutive
terms is constant.

Common Difference
Since this difference is common to all consecutive pairs of terms, it is called the
common difference. It is denoted by d. If the difference in consecutive terms is not
constant, then the sequence is not arithmetic. The common difference can be found by
subtracting two consecutive terms of the sequence.
The formula for the common difference of an arithmetic sequence is: d = a n+1 - an

General Term
An arithmetic sequence is a linear function. Instead of y=mx+b, we write a n=dn+c where
d is the common difference and c is a constant (not the first term of the sequence,
however).

A recursive definition, since each term is found by adding the common difference to the
previous term is ak+1=ak+d.

For any term in the sequence, we've added the difference one less time than the
number of the term. For example, for the first term, we haven't added the difference at
all (0 times). For the second term, we've added the difference once. For the third term,
we've added the difference two times.

The formula for the general term of an arithmetic sequence is: a n = a1 + (n-1) d

Partial Sum of an Arithmetic Sequence

A series is a sum of a sequence. We want to find the nth partial sum or the sum of the
first n terms of the sequence. We will denote the n th partial sum as Sn.

Consider the arithmetic series S5 = 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + 14. There is an easy way to

calculate the sum of an arithmetic series.

S5 = 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + 14

The key is to switch the order of the terms. Addition is commutative, so changing the
order doesn't change the sum.

S5 = 14 + 11 + 8 + 5 + 2

Now, add those two equations together.

2*S5 = (2+14) + (5+11) + (8+8) + (11+5) + (14+2)

Notice that each of those sums on the right hand side is 16. Instead of writing 16 (the
sum of the first and last terms) five times, we can write it as 5 * 16 or 5 * (2 + 14)

2*S5 = 5*(2 + 14)

Finally, divide the whole thing by 2 to get the sum and not twice the sum

S5 = 5/2 * (2 + 14)
I've purposely not simplified the 2+14 so that you can see where the numbers come
from. This sum would be 5/2 *(16) = 5(8) = 40.

Now, if we try to figure out where the different parts of that formula come from, we can
conjecture about a formula for the nth partial sum. The 5 is because there were five
terms, n. The 16 is the sum of the first and last terms, a 1 + an. The 2 is because we
added the sum twice and will remain a 2. Therefore, the sum of the first n terms of an
arithmetic sequence is Sn=n/2*(a1+an)

There is another formula that is sometimes used for the n th partial sum of an arithmetic
sequence. It is obtained by substituting the formula for the general term into the above
formula and simplifying. The preferred method is to go ahead and find the n th term, and
then just plug that number into the formula.

Sn = n/2 * ( 2a1 + (n-1) d )

Example

Find the sum from k=3 to 17 of (3k-2).

The first term is found by substituting k=3 into 3k-2 to get 7. The last term is 3(17)-2 =
49. There are 17 - 3 + 1 = 15 terms. So, the sum is 15 / 2 * (7 + 49) = 15 / 2 * 56 = 420.

Note that there are 15 terms there. When the lower limit of the summation is 1, there is
little problem figuring out what the number of terms is. However, when the lower limit is
any other number, it seems to give people difficulty. No one would argue that if you
went from 1 to 10, there are 10 numbers. However, the difference between 10 and 1 is
only 9. So, when you are finding the number of terms, it is the upper limit minus the
lower limit plus one.

7.3 - Geometric Sequences

A geometric sequence is a sequence in which the ratio consecutive terms is constant.

Common Ratio
Since this ratio is common to all consecutive pairs of terms, it is called the common
ratio. It is denoted by r. If the ratio between consecutive terms is not constant, then the
sequence is not geometric.
The formula for the common ratio of a geometric sequence is r = a n+1 / an

General Term
A geometric sequence is an exponential function. Instead of y=a x, we write an=crn where
r is the common ratio and c is a constant (not the first term of the sequence, however).

A recursive definition, since each term is found by multiplying the previous term by the
common ratio, ak+1=ak * r.

The idea here is similar to that of the arithmetic sequence, except each term is
multiplied by an additional factor of r. The exponent on the r will be one less than the
term number. The first term hasn't been multiplied by r at all (exponent on r is 0). The
second term has been multiplied by r once. The third term has been multiplied by r
twice, and so on.

The formula for the general term of a geometric sequence is a n = a1 rn-1

Partial Sum
A series is a sum of a sequence. We want to find the nth partial sum or the sum of the
first n terms of the sequence. We will denote the n th partial sum as Sn.

Consider the geometric series S5 = 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + 162. There is a trick that can be

used to find the sum of the series. In this series, r=3.

S5 = 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + 162

Multiply both sides of the equation by -r = -3

-3 S5 = - 6 - 18 - 54 - 162 - 486

Now add the two equations together. Notice that when you do that, all but the first and
last terms cancel out.

S5 - 3S5 = 2 - 486

You can factor an Sn out of the left hand side and factor a 2 out of the right hand side.

(1-3) S5 = 2 (1 - 243 )

Now divide both sides by 1-3

S5 = 2 ( 1 - 243 ) / ( 1 - 3 )
Yes, I realize I could have simplifed this. If you do, you get 2 ( -242 ) / ( -2) = 242. You're
probably wondering why I didn't go ahead and simplify. Well, when you're trying to make
a conjecture about the general case, it doesn't usually help to simplify and lose the
original values.

Now, if we try to figure out where the different parts of that formula come from, we can
conjecture about a formula for the nth partial sum. The 2 in the numerator is the first
term, a1. The 243 in the numerator is the ratio times the n th term - that makes it the n+1
term, a1*rn. Since both terms in the numerator have an a1 in them, that can be factored
out. The 1 in the denominator is always 1 and the 3 in denominator was the ratio, r.

That makes the sum of the first n terms Sn = a1 (1-rn) / (1-r).

There is an implied domain that r cannot equal 1, but since it is implied, it does not need
to be stated.

The formula for the nth partial sum of a geometric series is Sn = a1 (1-rn) / (1-r)

Infinite Sum
There is another type of geometric series, and infinite geometric series. An infinite
geometric series is the sum of an infinite geometric sequence.

When the ratio has a magnitude greater than 1, the terms in the sequence will get larger
and larger, and the if you add larger and larger numbers forever, you will get infinity for
an answer. So, we don't deal with infinite geometric series when the magnitude of the
ratio is greater than one.

The magnitude of the ratio can't equal one because that the series wouldn't be
geometric and the sum formula would have division by zero.

The only case left, then, is when the magnitude of the ratio is less than one. Consider
r=1/2. A sequence might be 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32, 1/64, 1/128, 1/256, 1/512,
1/1024, 1/2048, 1/4096, 1/8192, 1/16384, 1/32768, 1/65536, .... As the sequence goes
on, the terms are getting smaller and smaller, approaching zero.

I said earlier that a geometric sequence was an exponential function. What happens to
an exponential function when the base is between 0 and 1? It was asymptotic to the x-
axis (y=0) to the right. That is, as x approached infinity, y approached 0. Well, the same
thing happens here, as n approaches infinity, r n approaches 0. So, if you replace rn with
0 in the summation formula, the 1-rn part just becomes 1, and the numerator just
becomes a1.

The formula for the sum of an infinite geometric series is S ∞ = a1 / (1-r ).

7.4 - Mathematical Induction
The need for proof
Most people today are lazy. We watch way too much television and are content to
accept things as true without question.

If we see something that works a few times in a row, we're convinced that it works
forever.

Regions of a Circle

Consider a circle with n points on it. How many regions will the circle be divided into if
each pair of points is connected with a chord?

2 points 3 points 4 points 5 points

2 regions = 21 4 regions = 22 8 regions = 23 16 regions = 24

At this point, probably everyone would be convinced that with 6 points there would be
32 regions, but it's not proved, it's just conjectured. The conjecture is that the number of
regions when n points are connected is 2n -1.

Will finding the number of regions when there are six points on the circle prove the
conjecture? No. If there are indeed 32 regions, all you have done is shown another
example to support your conjecture. If there aren't 32 regions, then you have proved the
conjecture wrong. In fact, if you go ahead and try the circle with six points on it, you'll
find out that there aren't 32 regions.

You can never prove a conjecture is true by example.

You can prove a conjecture is false by finding a counter-example.

To prove a conjecture is true, you need some more formal methods of proof. One of
these methods is the principle of mathematical induction.

Principle of Mathematical Induction (English)

  Show something works the first time.
 Assume that it works for this time,
 Show it will work for the next time.
 Conclusion, it works all the time

Principle of Mathematical Induction (Mathematics)

94. Show true for n = 1
95. Assume true for n = k
96. Show true for n = k + 1
97. Conclusion: Statement is true for all n >= 1

The key word in step 2 is assume. You are not trying to prove it's true for n = k, you're
going to accept on faith that it is, and show it's true for the next number, n = k + 1. If it
later turns out that you get a contradiction, then the assumption was wrong.

Annotated Example of Mathematical Induction

Prove 1 + 4 + 9 + ... + n2 = n (n + 1) (2n + 1) / 6 for all positive integers n.

Another way to write "for every positive integer n" is . This works because Z is
the set of integers, so Z+ is the set of positive integers. The upside down A is the symbol
for "for all" or "for every" or "for each" and the symbol that looks like a weird e is the
"element of" symbol. So technically, the statement is saying "for every n that is an
element of the positive integers", but it's easier to say "for every positive integer n".

Identify the general term and nth partial sum before beginning the problem

The general term, an, is the last term on the left hand side. an = n2
The nth partial sum, Sn, is the right hand side. Sn = n (n + 1) (2n + 1) / 6

Find the next term in the general sequence and the series

The next term in the sequence is ak+1 and is found by replacing n with k+1 in the general
term of the sequence, an.

ak+1 = ( k + 1 )2

The next term in the series is Sk+1 and is found by replacing n with k+1 in the n th partial
sum, Sn. You may wish to simplify the next partial sum, S k+1
Sk+1 = (k+1) [ (k+1) + 1 ] [ 2(k+1) + 1 ] / 6
Sk+1 = ( k + 1 ) ( k + 2 ) ( 2k +3 ) / 6 (This will be our Goal in step 3)

We will use these definitions later in the mathematical induction process. We're now
ready to begin.
1. Show the statement is true for n = 1, that is, Show that a 1 = S1.

a1 is the first term on the left or you can find it by substituting n=1 into the formula for the
general term, an.
S1 is found by substituting n=1 into the formula for the n th partial sum, Sn.

lhs: a1 = 1
rhs: S1 = 1 ( 1+1 ) [ 2(1) + 1 ] / 6 = 1(2)(3) / 6 = 1

So, you can see that the left hand side equals the right hand side for the first term, so
we have established the first condition of mathematical induction.

2. Assume the statement is true for n = k

The left hand side is the sum of the first k terms, so we can write that as S k. The right
hand side is found by substituting n=k into the S n formula.

Assume that Sk = k ( k + 1 ) ( 2k + 1 ) / 6

3. Show the statement is true for n = k+1

What we are trying to show is that Sk+1 = ( k + 1 ) ( k + 2 ) ( 2k +3 ) / 6. This was our goal
from earlier.

We begin with something that we know (assume) is true and add the next term, a k+1, to
both sides.

Sk + ak+1 = k ( k + 1 ) ( 2k + 1 ) / 6 + ak+1

On the left hand side, Sk + ak+1 means the "sum of the first k terms" plus "the k+1 term",
which gives us the sum of the first k+1 terms, Sk+1.

This often gives students difficulties, so lets think about it this way. Assume k=10. Then
Sk would be S10, the sum of the first 10 terms and ak+1 would be a11, the 11th term in the
sequence. S10 + a11 would be the sum of the 10 terms plus the 11 th term which would be
the sum of the first 11 terms.

On the right hand side, replace ak+1 by ( k+1)2, which is what you found it was before
beginning the problem.

Sk+1 = k ( k + 1 ) ( 2k + 1 ) / 6 + ( k + 1 )2

Now, try to turn your right hand side into goal of ( k + 1 ) ( k + 2 ) ( 2k +3 ) / 6.

You need to get a common denominator, so multiply the last term by 6/6.

Sk+1 = k ( k + 1 ) ( 2k + 1 ) / 6 + 6 ( k + 1 )2 / 6
Now simplify. It is almost always easier to factor rather than expand when simplifying.
This is especially aided by the fact that your goal is in factored form. You can use that to
help you factor. You know that you want a (k+1) (k+2) (2k+3) in the final form. We see
right now that there is a (k+1) that is common to both of those, so let's begin by
factoring it out.

Sk+1 = ( k + 1) [ k ( 2k + 1 ) + 6 ( k + 1 ) ] / 6

What's left inside the brackets [ ] doesn't factor, so we expand and combine like terms.

Sk+1 = ( k + 1) ( 2k2 + k + 6k + 6 ) / 6
Sk+1 = ( k + 1) ( 2k2 + 7k + 6 ) / 6

Now, try to factor 2k2 + 7k + 6, keeping in mind that you need a (k+2) and (2k+3) in the
goal that you don't have yet.

Sk+1 = ( k + 1) ( k + 2 ) ( 2k + 3 ) / 6

Hey! That's what our goal was. That's what we were trying to show. That means we did
it!

Conclusion

The conclusion is found by saying "Therefore, by the principle of mathematical

induction" and restating the original claim.

Therefore, by the principle of mathematical induction,

1 + 4 + 9 + ... + n2 = n (n + 1) (2n + 1) / 6 for all positive integers n.

Summations
Earlier in the chapter we had some summation formulas that were very melodious. In
the following examples, c is a constant, and x and y are functions of the index.

You can factor a constant out of a summation

∑cx = c∑x

The sum of a constant times a function is the constant times the sum of a function.

The sum of a sum is the sum of the sums

∑(x+y) = ∑x + ∑y

The summation symbol can distribute over addition.

The sum of a difference is the difference of the sums

∑(x-y) = ∑x - ∑y

The summation symbol can distribute over subtraction.

Sum of the Powers of the Integers

Now, we're going to look at the sum of the whole number powers of the natural
numbers.

Sigma Notation = Closed Form Expanded

1 + 1 + 1 + ... + 1 (n times)

1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n

1 + 4 + 9 + ... + n2

1 + 8 + 27 + ... + n3

1 + 16 + 81 + ... + n4

1 + 32 + 243 + ... + n5

The closed form for a summation is a formula that allows you to find the sum simply by
knowing the number of terms.

Finding Closed Form

Find the sum of : 1 + 8 + 22 + 42 + ... + (3n2-n-2)

The general term is an = 3n2-n-2, so what we're trying to find is ∑(3k2-k-2), where the ∑
is really the sum from k=1 to n, I'm just not writing those here to make it more
accessible.

Take the original, open form of the summation, ∑(3k 2-k-2)

Distribute the summation sign, ∑3k2 - ∑k - ∑2

Factor out any constants, 3∑k2 - ∑k - 2∑1

Replace each summation by the closed form given above. The closed form is a formula
for a sum that doesn't include the summation sign, only n.

Now get a common denominator, in this case, 2.

Remember that the word factor begins with the letter F and anytime you have a choice
of doing something in mathematics that starts with the letter F, that's probably where
you should start. So, do not expand, factor instead.

The common factor is n so we'll factor that out of each term. The whole expression is
over 2.

n [ (n+1)(2n+1) - (n+1) - 4 ] / 2

Now expand inside the brackets [ ].

n [ 2n2 + 3n + 1 - n - 1 - 4 ] / 2

Simplify like terms.

n ( 2n2 + 2n - 4 ) / 2

Notice the common factor of 2 inside the parentheses, let's factor that out.

2 n ( n2 + n - 2 ) / 2

The 2 in the numerator and the 2 in the denominator divide out and we can factor the
rest to get the closed form for the sum.

n ( n + 2 ) ( n - 1)

Isn't that beautiful? At this point, we could write a mathematical induction problem
similar to those in the book for this problem. It would read ...
Prove:

We're not going to prove that statement, but that is how the book came up with many of
the problems that you're asked to prove. You take an open form, find the closed form,
and then put it in the text as a problem for the student to prove.

Pattern Recognition
Sometimes you have to figure out what the general term of a sequence is. Here are
some guidelines.

 Calculate the first several terms of the sequence. Sometimes it helps to write the
term in factored and expanded form.
 Try to find a recognizable pattern. Here are some things to look for
o Linear patterns: an + b (will have a common difference)
o Quadratic pattern: an2 + b (the perfect squares plus/minus a constant)
o Cubic pattern: an3 + b (the perfect cubes plus/minus a constant)
o Exponential patterns: 2n + b, 3n + b (powers of 2 or 3 plus/minus a
constant)
o Factorial patterns: n!, (2n)!, (2n-1)! (factoring these really helps)
 After you have your pattern, then you can use mathematical induction to prove
the conjecture is correct.

Finite Differences
Finite differences can help you find the pattern if you have a polynomial sequence.

The first differences are found by subtracting consecutive terms. If the first differences
are all the same, then the pattern is linear.

The second differences are found by subtracting consecutive first differences. If the
second differences are all the same, then the pattern is quadratic. Remember that you
can find a quadratic model by taking the equation y=ax 2+bx+c with three points. Then
solve the system of equations that results. The analogy here is that you can find
an=an2+bn+c by substituting in three terms in the sequence for an and their
corresponding position in the sequence for n. Then solve the system of linear equations.

This can be extended to third differences by subtracting consecutive second

differences. If the third differences are all the same, the pattern is cubic. You can fit a
cubic model with four points and the model an=an3+bn2+cn+d.

Finite Differences Example:

Find the general term of the sequence 1, -2, -1, 4, 13, 26, 43, 64, 89, ...

The first finite differences are found by subtracting consecutive terms in the original
sequnce. That is, take -2-1=-3, -1-(-2)=1, 4-(-1)=5, 13-4=9, 26-13=13, etc.

The first finite differences are: -3, 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, ...

Since these aren't all the same, your sequence is not a linear (first degree) polynomial.

Move on to the second finite differences. These are the differences in the consecutive
terms of the first finite differences. 1-(-3)=4, 5-1=4, 9-5=4, 13-9=4, 17-13=4, etc.

The second finite differences are 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, ...

Since the second finite differences are all the same, your sequence is that of a second
degree polynomial and you can write the general term as a n = An2 + Bn + C.

Plug in the values 1, 2, 3 (since there are three variables) into the expression.

 When n=1, 1A + 1B + 1C = 1 (the first term is 1)

 When n=2, 4A + 2B + 1C = -2 (the second term is -2)
 When n=3, 9A + 3B + 1C = -1 (the third term is -1)

Now, solve that system of linear equations (I recommend using matrix inverses AX=B,
so X=A-1B). If you need a refresher on how to do that, visit the section on matrix inverses
in chapter 6.

In our case, we get A=2, B=-9, and C=8, so the general term of our sequence is a n=2n2-
9n+8.

If you want to check it, pick any value for n and plug it into the general term. You should
get the nth number in the sequence. For example, if n = 6, then a 6 = 2(6)2 - 9(6) + 8 = 26.
Check the sequence, sure enough, the 6th number is 26.

7.5 - The Binomial Theorem

Binomials raised to a power
A binomial is a polynomial with two terms. We're going to look at the Binomial
Expansion Theorem, a shortcut method of raising a binomial to a power.

(x+y)0 = 1
(x+y)1 = x + y
(x+y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x+y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
(x+y)4 = x4 + 4x3y + 6x2y2 + 4xy3 + y4
(x+y)5 = x5 + 5x4y + 10x3y2 +10x2y3 + 5xy4 + y5

There are several things that you hopefully have noticed after looking at the expansion

 There are n+1 terms in the expansion of (x+y)n

 The degree of each term is n
 The powers on x begin with n and decrease to 0
 The powers on y begin with 0 and increase to n
 The coefficients are symmetric

Pascal's Triangle
Pascal's Triangle, named after the French mathematician Blaise Pascal is an easy way
to find the coefficients of the expansion.

Each row in the triangle begins and ends with 1. Each element in the triangle is the sum
of the two elements immediately above it.

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

Combinations
Combinations will be discussed more fully in section 7.6, but here is a brief summary to
get you going with the Binomial Expansion Theorem.

A combination is an arrangement of objects, without repetition, and order not being

important. Another definition of combination is the number of such arrangements that
are possible.

The n and r in the formula stand for the total number of objects to choose from and the
number of objects in the arrangement, respectively.
The quickest way, if unimaginative, is to use the combination function on your
calculator. On the TI-82 and TI-83, It is found under the Math menu, Probability
submenu, choice 3. Enter the value for n first, then the nCr notation, then the value for r.

Each element in Pascal's Triangle is a combination of n things. The value for r begins
with zero and works its way up to n. Or, because of symmetry, you could say it begins
with n and works its way down to 0.

Let's consider the n=4 row of the triangle.

4 C0 = 1, 4C1 = 4, 4C2 = 6, 4C3 = 4, 4C4 = 1

Notice that the 3rd term is the term with the r=2. That is, we begin counting with 0. This
will come into play later.

Binomial Expansion Theorem

Okay, now we're ready to put it all together.

The Binomial Expansion Theorem can be written in summation notation, where it is very
compact and manageable.

Remember that since the lower limit of the summation begins with 0, the 7 th term of the
sequence is actually the term when k=6.

When you go to use the binomial expansion theorem, it's actually easier to put the
guidelines from the top of this page into practice. The x starts off to the n th power and
goes down by one each time, the y starts off to the 0 th power (not there) and increases
by one each time. The coefficients are combinations.

Binomial Expansion Example:

Expand ( 3x - 2y )5

Start off by figuring out the coefficients. Remember that these are combinations of 5
things, k at a time, where k is either the power on the x or the power on the y
(combinations are symmetric, so it doesn't matter).

C(5,0) = 1; C(5,1) = 5; C(5,2) = 10; C(5,3) = 10; C(5,4) = 5; C(5,5) = 1

Now throw in the 3x and -2y terms.

1(3x)5(-2y)0 + 5(3x)4(-2y)1 + 10(3x)3(-2y)2 + 10(3x)2(-2y)3 + 5(3x)1(-2y)4 + 1(3x)0(-2y)5

Raise the individual factors to their proper powers.

1(243x5)(1) + 5(81x4)(-2y) + 10(27x3)(4y2) + 10(9x2)(-8y3) + 5(3x)(16y4) + 1(1)(-32y5)

Simplify each term to get the final answer.

243x5 - 810x4y + 1080x3y2 - 720x2y3 + 240xy4 - 32y5

Finding the kth term

Find the 9th term in the expansion of (x-2y)13

Since we start counting with 0, the 9th term is actually going to be when k=8. That is,
the power on the x will 13-8=5 and the power on the -2y will be 8. The coefficient is
either C(13,8) or C(13,5), combinations are symmetric, so it doesn't matter.

C(13,8) * (x)5 (-2y)8 = 1287 (x5) (256y8) = 329472x5y8

7.6 - Counting Principles

Each branch of mathematics has its own fundamental theorem(s). If you check out
fundamental in the dictionary, you will see that it relates to the foundation or the base or
is elementary. Fundamental theorems are important foundations for the rest of the
material to follow.

Here are some of the fundamental theorems or principles that occur in your text.

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (pg 8)

Every integer greater than one is either prime or can be expressed as an unique product
of prime numbers.

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (pg 264)

Every polynomial in one variable of degree n>0 has at least one real or complex zero.

Fundamental Theorem of Linear Programming (pg 411)

If there is a solution to a linear programming problem, then it will occur at a corner point,
or on a line segment between two corner points.

Fundamental Counting Principle

If there are m ways to do one thing, and n ways to do another, then there are m*n ways
of doing both.

The Fundamental Counting Principle is the guiding rule for finding the number of ways
to accomplish two tasks.

Examples using the counting principle:

Let's say that you want to flip a coin and roll a die. There are 2 ways that you can flip a
coin and 6 ways that you can roll a die. There are then 2x6=12 ways that you can flip a
coin and roll a die.

If you want to hit one note on a piano and play one string on a banjo, then there are 88 *
5 = 440 ways to do both.

If you want to draw 2 cards from a standard deck of 52 cards without replacing them,
then there are 52 ways to draw the first and 51 ways to draw the second, so there are a
total of 52*51 = 2652 ways to draw the two cards.

Sample Spaces
A listing of all the possible outcomes is called the sample space and is denoted by the
capital letter S.

The sample space for the experiments of flipping a coin and rolling a die are S = { H1,
H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}. Sure enough, there are twelve possible
ways. The fundamental counting principle allows us to figure out that there are twelve
ways without having to list them all out.

Permutations
A permutation is an arrangement of objects, without repetition, and order being
important. Another definition of permutation is the number of such arrangements that
are possible.

Since a permutation is the number of ways you can arrange objects, it will always be a
whole number. The denominator in the formula will always divide evenly into the
numerator.

The n value is the total number of objects to chose from. The r is the number of objects
your actually using.
The two key things to notice about permutations are that there is no repetition of objects
allowed and that order is important.

Examples of permutations:

Example 1: List all permutations of the letters ABCD

ABCD BACD CABD DABC

ABDC BADC CADB DACB
ACBD BCAD CBAD DBAC
ACDB BCDA CBDA DBCA
ADBC BDAC CDAB DCAB
ADCB BDCA CDBA DCBA

Now, if you didn't actually need a listing of all the permutations, you could use the
formula for the number of permutations. There are 4 objects and you're taking 4 at a
time. 4P4 = 4! / (4-4)! = 4! / 0! = 24 / 1 = 24.

This also gives us another definition of permutations. A permutation when you include
all n objects is n!. That is, P(n,n) = n!

Example 2: List all three letter permutations of the letters in the word HAND

HAN AHN NHD DHA

HNA ANH NDH DAH
NAH DAN
HAD AHD NHA DNA
HDA ADH NAD DHN
NDA DNH
HN AND
D ADN
HD
N

Now, if you didn't actually need a listing of all the permutations, you could use the
formula for the number of permutations. There are 4 objects and you're taking 3 at a
time. 4P3 = 4! / (4-3)! = 4! / 1! = 24 / 1 = 24.

Finding Permutations by Hand

By hand, you can plug the values for n and r into the expression involving factorials and
then simplify the ratio of the factorials as discussed in section 7.1.

However, there will always be n-r terms in common between the numerator and the
denominator once the factorials are expanded. Those terms will divide out, leaving you
with the first r terms of the expansion in the numerator. This gives us a shortcut for
finding a permutation by hand.

n Pr = first r factors of n!

Finding Permutations with the Calculator

There is a permutation function on the calculator. On the TI-82 and TI-83, it is found
under the Math menu, the Probability Submenu, and then choice 2. It is shown as nPr.
Enter the value for n first, then the function, and finally the value for r.

Combinations
Combinations were briefly introduced in section 7.5, but we will go into more detail on
them here.

A combination is an arrangement of objects, without repetition, and order not being

important. Another definition of combination is the number of such arrangements that
are possible.

The n and r in the formula stand for the total number of objects to choose from and the
number of objects in the arrangement, respectively.

The key points to a combination are that there is no repetition of objects allowed and the
order isn't important.

List all combinations of the letters ABCD in groups of 3.

There are only four combinations (ABC, ABD, ACD, and BCD). Listed below each of
those combinations are the six permutations that are equivalent as combinations.

ABC ABD ACD BCD

ABC ABD ACD BCD

ACB ADB ADC BDC
BAC BAD CAD CBD
BCA BDA CDA CDB
CAB DAB DAC DBC
CBA DBA DCA DCB
We learned in the last section that combinations were symmetric. That is easy to see
from the formula involving factorials. As an example, C(12,7) = C(12,5). Take whichever
one is easier to find. Is it easier to find C(100,2) or C(100,98)? On the calculator it
doesn't make much difference, by hand it does.

Finding Combinations by Hand

By hand, you can plug the values for n and r into the expression involving factorials and
then simplify the ratio of the factorials as discussed in section 7.1.

To simplify the ratio, you want the larger amount of terms to divide out. For example, if
you need to find C(12,5), you could also find C(12,7). Either way, you're going to have a
12! in the numerator and both a 7! and 5! in the denominator. You would rather divide
out 7! than 5!, because it leaves you less to work with. So, pick whichever r value is
smaller, and then work with that combination.

n Cr = (first r factors of n!) / (last r factors of n!)

It turns out the last r factors of n! is really just r!.

Finding Combinations with the Calculator

There is a permutation function on the calculator. On the TI-82 and TI-83, it is found
under the Math menu, the Probability Submenu, and then choice 3. It is shown as nCr.
Enter the value for n first, then the function, and finally the value for r.

Examples of Combinations

We experienced combinations with Pascal's Triangle, but there are other places they
occur.

The old Illinois Lottery had 54 balls, of these 54 balls, six are chosen. None of the six
can be repeated and the order of the six is not important. That makes it a combination:
C(54,6) = 25,827,165.

I was told that on January 17, 1998, the Illinois Lottery will be changing to 48 balls, six
of which are chosen. Now, the number of possibilities will be C(48,6) = 12,271,512

How many 5 card poker hands are there with 3 clubs and 2 diamonds? Well, there is no
repetition of cards in a hand, and the order doesn't matter, so we have a combination
again. Since there are 13 clubs and we want 3 of them, there are C(13,3) = 286 ways to
get the 3 clubs. Since there are 13 diamonds and we want 2 of them, there are C(13,2)
= 78 ways to get the 2 diamonds. Since we want them both to occur at the same time,
we use the fundamental counting principle and multiply 286 and 78 together to get
22,308 possible hands.
Difference between Permutations and Combinations

The distinguishing feature between Permutations and Combinations is not whether or

not there is repetition. Neither one allows repetition. The difference between the two is
whether or not order is important. If you have a problem where you can repeat objects,
then you must use the Fundamental Counting Principle, you can't use Permutations or
Combinations.

Distinguishable Permutations
Consider all the permutations of the letters in the word BOB.

Since there are three letters, there should be 3! = 6 different permutations. Those
permutations are BOB, BBO, OBB, OBB, BBO, and BOB. Now, while there are six
permutations, some of them are indistinguishable from each other. If you look at the
permutations that are distinguishable, you only have three BOB, OBB, and BBO.

To find the number of distinguishable permutations, take the total number of letters
factorial divide by the frequency of each letter factorial.

where n1 + n2 + ... + nk = N

Basically, the little n's are the frequencies of each different (distinguishable) letter. Big N
is the total number of letters.

Example of distinguishable permutations

Find the number of distinguishable permutations of the letters in the word MISSISSIPPI

Here are the frequencies of the letters. M=1, I=4, S=4, P=2 for a total of 11 letters. Be
sure you put parentheses around the denominator so that you end up dividing by each
of the factorials.

11! / ( 1! * 4! * 4! * 2! ) = 11! / ( 1 * 24 * 24 * 2 ) = 34,650.

You may want to do some simplification by hand first. When you simplify that ratio of
factorials, you get that there are 34,650 distinguishable permutations in the word
MISSISSIPPI. I don't want to list them out, but it's better than listing out all 39,916,800
permutations of the 11 letters in MISSISSIPPI.

7.7 - Probability
If you enjoy this section, take a Finite or Statistics course. Take a Finite or Statistics
course even if you don't enjoy this section, they're loads of fun.

Definitions

Experiment
Any happening whose result is uncertain.
Outcomes
Possible results from an experiment
Sample Space
Set of all possible outcomes
Event
Subset of the sample space. One or more outcomes.
Equally Likely Events
Events which have the same chance of occurring
Probability
Chance that an event will occur. Theoretically for equally likely events, it is the
number of ways an event can occur divided by number of outcomes in the
sample space. Empirically, the long term relative frequency.
Independent Events
Events in which the occurrence of one event does not change the probability of
the occurrence of the other. One does not affect the other.
Dependent Events
Events that are not independent.
Mutually Exclusive Events
Events that can not happen at the same time. Disjoint events.
All Inclusive Events
Events whose union comprises the totality of the sample space.
Complementary Events
Two mutually exclusive events that are all inclusive.

Sample Spaces
The sample space is the set of all the possible outcomes in an experiment and is
denoted by a capital letter S.

If you were to roll a single die, then S = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }, the set of all possible
outcomes.

If you were to roll two dice and look at the sum of the two dice, then S = { 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10, 11, 12 }.

Equally Likely Events

However, not all sample spaces are created equally. In fact, that last example is not.
There is only one way that a sum of 2 can be rolled, a 1 on the first die and a 1 on the
second die. There are four ways that a sum of five can be rolled: 1-4, 2-3, 3-2, 4-1 (don't
be confused here, 1-4 is a 1 on the first die and a 4 on the second and is different than
a 4 on the first and a 1 on the second. If it helps, pretend that you're rolling one die and
a friend is rolling the other).

We want our sample spaces to be equally likely if at all possible.

Classical / Theoretical Probability

If outcomes are equally likely, then the probability of an event occurring is the number in
the event divided by the number in the sample space.

P(E) = n(E) / n(S)

The probability of rolling a six on a single roll of a die is 1/6 because there is only 1 way
to roll a six out of 6 ways it could be rolled.

The probability of getting a sum of 5 when rolling two dice is 4/36 = 1/9 because there
are 4 ways to get a five and there are 36 ways to roll the dice (Fundamental Counting
Principle - 6 ways to roll the first times 6 ways to roll the second).

Do not make the mistake of saying that the probability of rolling a sum of 5 is 1/11
because there is one 5 out of a sample space of 11 sums (2 through 12). When the
sample spaces are not equally likely, do not divide by the number in the sample space.

Properties of Probabilities
 All probabilities are between 0 and 1 inclusive.
 A probability of 0 means an event is impossible, it cannot happen.
 A probability of 1 means an event is certain to happen, it must happen.

Addition Rules
When you want to find the probability of one event OR another occurring, you add their
probabilities together.

This can lead to problems however, if they have something in common.

The probability of one or both of two events occurring is ...

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)

Mutually Exclusive Events

Mutually Exclusive Events have nothing in common. The intersection of the two events
is the empty set. The probability of A and B both occurring is 0 because they can't occur
at the same time.

If two events are mutually exclusive, then the probability of one or the other occurring
is ...

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

Multiplication Rules
When you want to find the probability of two events both occurring, then you need to
apply the Fundamental Counting Principle. This principle can be extended to
probabilities.

Independent Events

Independent Events are events where one occurring doesn't change the probability of
the other occurring. When events are independent, the probability of them both
occurring is ...

P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B)

We don't have time to get into probability very deeply. If we did, we would cover
conditional probability - the probability of dependent events.

Complementary Events
The root word in complementary is "complete". Complementary events complete, or
make whole. Complementary events are mutually exclusive, but when combined make
the entire sample space.

The symbol for the complement of event A is A'. Some books will put a bar over the set
to indicate its complement.

Since complementary events are mutually exclusive, we can use the special addition
rule to find its probability. Furthermore, complementary events are all inclusive, so they
make the sample space when combined, so their probabilities have a sum of 1.

The sum of the probabilities of complementary events is 1.

P(A) + P(A') = 1
P(A') = 1 - P(A)

 
7.7 - Probability
If you enjoy this section, take a Finite or Statistics course. Take a Finite or Statistics
course even if you don't enjoy this section, they're loads of fun.

Definitions

Experiment
Any happening whose result is uncertain.
Outcomes
Possible results from an experiment
Sample Space
Set of all possible outcomes
Event
Subset of the sample space. One or more outcomes.
Equally Likely Events
Events which have the same chance of occurring
Probability
Chance that an event will occur. Theoretically for equally likely events, it is the
number of ways an event can occur divided by number of outcomes in the
sample space. Empirically, the long term relative frequency.
Independent Events
Events in which the occurrence of one event does not change the probability of
the occurrence of the other. One does not affect the other.
Dependent Events
Events that are not independent.
Mutually Exclusive Events
Events that can not happen at the same time. Disjoint events.
All Inclusive Events
Events whose union comprises the totality of the sample space.
Complementary Events
Two mutually exclusive events that are all inclusive.

Sample Spaces
The sample space is the set of all the possible outcomes in an experiment and is
denoted by a capital letter S.

If you were to roll a single die, then S = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }, the set of all possible
outcomes.

If you were to roll two dice and look at the sum of the two dice, then S = { 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10, 11, 12 }.
Equally Likely Events

However, not all sample spaces are created equally. In fact, that last example is not.
There is only one way that a sum of 2 can be rolled, a 1 on the first die and a 1 on the
second die. There are four ways that a sum of five can be rolled: 1-4, 2-3, 3-2, 4-1 (don't
be confused here, 1-4 is a 1 on the first die and a 4 on the second and is different than
a 4 on the first and a 1 on the second. If it helps, pretend that you're rolling one die and
a friend is rolling the other).

We want our sample spaces to be equally likely if at all possible.

Classical / Theoretical Probability

If outcomes are equally likely, then the probability of an event occurring is the number in
the event divided by the number in the sample space.

P(E) = n(E) / n(S)

The probability of rolling a six on a single roll of a die is 1/6 because there is only 1 way
to roll a six out of 6 ways it could be rolled.

The probability of getting a sum of 5 when rolling two dice is 4/36 = 1/9 because there
are 4 ways to get a five and there are 36 ways to roll the dice (Fundamental Counting
Principle - 6 ways to roll the first times 6 ways to roll the second).

Do not make the mistake of saying that the probability of rolling a sum of 5 is 1/11
because there is one 5 out of a sample space of 11 sums (2 through 12). When the
sample spaces are not equally likely, do not divide by the number in the sample space.

Properties of Probabilities
 All probabilities are between 0 and 1 inclusive.
 A probability of 0 means an event is impossible, it cannot happen.
 A probability of 1 means an event is certain to happen, it must happen.

Addition Rules
When you want to find the probability of one event OR another occurring, you add their
probabilities together.

This can lead to problems however, if they have something in common.

The probability of one or both of two events occurring is ...

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)

Mutually Exclusive Events

Mutually Exclusive Events have nothing in common. The intersection of the two events
is the empty set. The probability of A and B both occurring is 0 because they can't occur
at the same time.

If two events are mutually exclusive, then the probability of one or the other occurring
is ...

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

Multiplication Rules
When you want to find the probability of two events both occurring, then you need to
apply the Fundamental Counting Principle. This principle can be extended to
probabilities.

Independent Events

Independent Events are events where one occurring doesn't change the probability of
the other occurring. When events are independent, the probability of them both
occurring is ...

P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B)

We don't have time to get into probability very deeply. If we did, we would cover
conditional probability - the probability of dependent events.

Complementary Events
The root word in complementary is "complete". Complementary events complete, or
make whole. Complementary events are mutually exclusive, but when combined make
the entire sample space.

The symbol for the complement of event A is A'. Some books will put a bar over the set
to indicate its complement.

Since complementary events are mutually exclusive, we can use the special addition
rule to find its probability. Furthermore, complementary events are all inclusive, so they
make the sample space when combined, so their probabilities have a sum of 1.

The sum of the probabilities of complementary events is 1.

P(A) + P(A') = 1
P(A') = 1 - P(A)

8.1 - Conics
The conics get their name from the fact that they can be formed by passing a plane
through a double-napped cone. There are four conic sections, and three degenerate
cases, however, in this class we're going to look at five degenerate cases that can be
formed from the general second degree equation.

The general form of a second degree equation is given by Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey +

F=0

Determining Conic Sections by Inspection

To determine the conic section by inspection, complete any squares that are necessary,
so that the variables are on one side and the constant is on the right hand side. Any
squared variable below could be replaced by a quantity. That is, instead of x 2 + y2 = 1, it
might be (x-2)2 + y2 = 1

Circle
x2 + y2 = 1
Both squared terms are present, both are positive, both have the same
coefficient. The right hand side is positive. If the right hand side is zero, it is a
point. If the right hand side is negative, then there is no graph.
Ellipse
3x2 + 4y2 = 1
Both squared terms are present, both are positive, but they have different
coefficients. The right hand side must be positive. If the right hand side is zero, it
is a point. If the right hand side is negative, then there is no graph.
Hyperbola
x2 - y2 = 1
Both squared terms are present, but one is positive and the other is negative.
The coefficients may or may not be the same, it doesn't matter. The right hand
side isn't zero. If the right hand side is zero, then it's intersecting lines.
Parabola
x2 + y = 1
Both variables are present, but one is squared and the other is linear.
Line
x+y=1
Neither variable is squared.
Point
x2 + y2 = 0
 A circle (or ellipse) with the right hand side being zero.
No Graph
x2 + y2 = -1
A circle (or ellipse) with the right hand side being negative.
Intersecting Lines
x2 - y2 = 0
A hyperbola with the right hand side equal to zero.
Parallel Lines
x2 = 1
One variable is squared and the other variable is missing. The right hand side
must be positive. If the right hand side is zero, then it is a line (x 2 = 0 so x = 0)
and if the right hand side is negative (x2 = -1), then there is no graph.

Parabola
A parabola is "the set of all points in a plane equidistant from a fixed point (focus) and a
fixed line (directrix)".

The distances to any point (x,y) on the parabola from the focus (0,p) and the directrix
y=-p, are equal to each other. This can be used to develop the equation of a parabola.

If you take the definition of a parabola and work out the algebra, you can develop the
equation of a parabola. You can click on the link if you'd like to see the development, but
the short version is that the standard form is x2 = 4py.

 The starting point is the vertex at (h,k)

 There is an axis of symmetry that contains the focus and the vertex and is
perpendicular to the directrix.
 Move p units along the axis of symmetry from the vertex to the focus.
 Move -p units along the axis of symmetry from the vertex to the directrix (which is
a line).
 The focus is within the curve.
The parabola has the property that any signal (light, sound, etc) entering the parabola
parallel to the axis of symmetry will be reflected through the focus (this is why satellite
dishes and those parabolic antennas that the detectives use to eavesdrop on
conversations work). Also, any signal originating at the focus will be reflected out
parallel to the axis of symmetry (this is why flashlights work).

Circle
A circle is "the set of all points in a plane equidistant from a fixed point (center)".

The standard form for a circle, with center at the origin is x 2 + y2 = r2, where r is the
radius of the circle.

Ellipse
An ellipse is "the set of all points in a plane such that the sum of the distances from two
fixed points (foci) is constant".

The sum of the distances to any point on the ellipse (x,y) from the two foci (c,0) and (-
c,0) is a constant. That constant will be 2a.

If we let d1 and d2 bet the distances from the foci to the point, then d 1 + d2 = 2a.

You can use that definition to derive the equation of an ellipse, but I'll give you the short
form below.

The ellipse is a stretched circle. Begin with the unit circle (circle with a radius of 1)
centered at the origin. Stretch the vertex from x=1 to x=a and the point y=1 to y=b. What
you have done is multiplied every x by a and multiplied every y by b.
In translation form, you represent that by x divided by a and y divided by b. So, the
equation of the circle changes from x2 + y2 = 1 to (x/a)2 + (y/b)2 = 1 and that is the
standard equation for an ellipse centered at the origin.

98. The center is the starting point at (h,k).

99. The major axis contains the foci and the vertices.
100. Major axis length = 2a. This is also the constant that the sum of the
distances must add to be.
101. Minor axis length = 2b.
102. Distance between foci = 2c.
103. The foci are within the curve.
104. Since the vertices are the farthest away from the center, a is the largest of
the three lengths, and the Pythagorean relationship is: a 2 = b2 + c2.

Hyperbola
A hyperbola is "the set of all points in a plane such that the difference of the distances
from two fixed points (foci) is constant".

The difference of the distances to any point on the hyperbola (x,y) from the two foci (c,0)
and (-c,0) is a constant. That constant will be 2a.

If we let d1 and d2 bet the distances from the foci to the point, then | d 1 - d2 | = 2a.

The absolute value is around the difference so that it is always positive.

You can use that definition to derive the equation of a hyperbola, but I'll give you the short
form below.
The only difference in the definition of a hyperbola and that of an ellipse is that the
hyperbola is the difference of the distances from the foci that is constant and the ellipse
is the sum of the distances from the foci that is constant.

Instead of the equation being (x/a)2 + (y/b)2 = 1, the equation is (x/a)2 - (y/b)2 = 1.

The graphs, however, are very different.

 The center is the starting point at (h,k).

 The Transverse axis contains the foci and the vertices.
 Transverse axis length = 2a. This is also the constant that the difference of the
distances must be.
 Conjugate axis length = 2b.
 Distance between foci = 2c.
 The foci are within the curve.
 Since the foci are the farthest away from the center, c is the largest of the three
lengths, and the Pythagorean relationship is: a 2 + b2 = c2.

Standard Forms
The table below summarizes the standard forms for the three main conic sections
based on the direction of the main axis. For a parabola, the axis is the "axis of
symmetry" and divides the parabola in half. For the ellipse, it's called the "major axis"
and is the longer axis. For the hyperbola, the axis is the "transverse axis" and goes
between the vertices.

Horizontal Vertical Axis

 
Axis
Parbola

Ellipse

Hyperbol
a

8.2 - Translation of Conics

The only difference between this section and the last section is that in this section, the
conics have gone through a rigid transformation and been shifted vertically or
horizontally.

By replacing every x with an x-h and every y with a y-k, what used to be at the origin is
now at the point (h,k). All movement is then relative to that point.

Eccentricity
Eccentricity, is the ratio of the distance to the focus divided by the distance to the
vertex. That is, e=c/a.

Each conic section has an eccentricity.

Conic Eccentricity

Circle e=0

Ellipse 0<e<1

Parabola e=1

Hyperbola e>1

Eccentricity is often used in astronomy to describe the path of the planets, moons, or
comets which orbit another object.

Parabola
The vertex of the parabola used to be at the origin. The vertex will now be at the point
(h,k).

Vertical Axis of Symmetry

 ( x - h )2 = 4 p ( y - k )

The vertex is at (h,k).

Since the axis of symmetry is vertical, the foci and directrix have different y coordinates
than the vertex.

Since p is the directed distance from the vertex to the focus, the focus will be at (h,k+p)

Since the directrix is p units the other side of the vertex, the equation of the directrix will
be y=k-p

The parabola will open up if p is positive and down if p is negative.

Horizontal Axis of Symmetry

 ( y - k )2 = 4 p ( x - h )

The vertex is at (h,k).

Since the axis of symmetry is horizontal, the foci and directrix have different x
coordinates than the vertex.

Since p is the directed distance from the vertex to the focus, the focus will be at (h+p,k)

Since the directrix is p units the other side of the vertex, the equation of the directrix will
be x=h-p

The parabola will open right if p is positive and left if p is negative.

Circle
( x - h ) 2 + ( y - k ) 2 = r2

The center of the circle used to be at the origin. The center will now be at the point (h,k).

Ellipse
The center of the ellipse used to be at the origin. The center will now be at the point
(h,k).

Recall that for an ellipse, the distance from the center to the vertices is a, the distance
from the center to the foci is c, and the distance from the center to the endpoints of the
minor axis is b. The longest of these lengths is the distance to the vertices, so the
Pythagorean identity for an ellipse is a2 = b2 + c2.
Horizontal Major Axis

Since the major axis is horizontal, the foci and vertices will have different x coordinates
than the center.

Since a is the distance from the center to the vertices, the vertices will be at (h+a,k) and
(h-a,k)

Since c is the distance from the center to the foci, the foci will be at (h+c,k) and (h-c,k).

Since b is the distance from the center to the endpoints of the minor axis, and the minor
axis is vertical, the endpoints of the minor axis will be at (h,k+b) and (h,k-b).

Vertical Major Axis

Since the major axis is vertical, the foci and vertices will have different y coordinates
than the center.

Since a is the distance from the center to the vertices, the vertices will be at (h,k+a) and
(h,k-a)

Since c is the distance from the center to the foci, the foci will be at (h,k+c) and (h,k-c).

Since b is the distance from the center to the endpoints of the minor axis, and the minor
axis is horizontal, the endpoints of the minor axis will be at (h+b,k) and (h-b,k).

Hyperbola
The center of the hyperbola used to be at the origin. The center will now be at the point
(h,k).

Recall that for a hyperbola, the distance from the center to the vertices is a, the distance
from the center to the foci is c, and the distance from the center to the endpoints of the
conjugate axis is b. The longest of these lengths is the distance to the foci, so the
Pythagorean identity for a hyperbola is a 2 + b2 = c2.

Horizontal Transverse Axis

The center is at (h,k)

Since the transverse axis is horizontal, the foci and vertices will have different x
coordinates than the center.

Since a is the distance from the center to the vertices, the vertices will be at (h+a,k) and
(h-a,k)

Since c is the distance from the center to the foci, the foci will be at (h+c,k) and (h-c,k).

Since b is the distance from the center to the endpoints of the conjugate axis, and the
conjugate axis is vertical, the endpoints of the conjugate axis will be at (h,k+b) and (h,k-
b).

Since the change in y is b and the change in x is a, the slope of they asymptotes will be
±b/a. The equations of the asymptotes will be (y-k) = ± b/a (x-h).

Vertical Transverse Axis

The center is at (h,k)

Since the transverse axis is vertical, the foci and vertices will have different y
coordinates than the center.

Since a is the distance from the center to the vertices, the vertices will be at (h,k+a) and
(h,k-a)

Since c is the distance from the center to the foci, the foci will be at (h,k+c) and (h,k-c).

Since b is the distance from the center to the endpoints of the conjugate axis, and the
conjugate axis is horizontal, the endpoints of the conjugate axis will be at (h+b,k) and
(h-b,k).

Since the change in y is a and the change in x is b, the slope of they asymptotes will be
±a/b. The equations of the asymptotes will be (y-k) = ± a/b (x-h).

8.3 - Parametric Equations

In the past, we have been working with rectangular equations, that is equations
involving only x and y so that they could be graphed on the Cartesian (rectangular)
coordinate system.

We also had an example of the height of a freely falling body as a function of time in
seconds t. That function was a quadratic function. If the object is not dropped or thrown
straight up into the air, there will also be a horizontal component of its position. The
horizontal component is a simple distance function (d=rt).
Path of Falling Object

y(t) = -16t2 - v0t + y0

x(t) = r t
v0 = initial vertical velocity
y0 = initial height
r = horizontal velocity
t = time in seconds

Notice that both of those functions, the vertical height and the horizontal distance are
functions of time. So, to fully describe the path of an object, we need two equations.
One for the vertical component and one for the horizontal component. Both of these
functions are functions of a third variable, t.

This gives us parametric equations. A parameter is simply the independent variable in a

function.

Sketching a Plane Curve

A plane curve results when the ordered pairs ( x(t), y(t) ) are graphed for all values of t
on some interval.

One way to sketch the plane curve is to make a table of values. The parameter t has
several values listed for it and the corresponding values for x(t) and y(t) are computed.
Then the ordered pairs are plotted and the curve is drawn in between the plotted pairs.

Orientation or Direction

When sketching a plane curve, the "direction of increasing t" or "orientation" of the curve
is indicated by little arrows indicating which direction the curve is moving in when the
value of the parameter t increases.

Graphing Calculator
The graphing calculator does a wonderful job of graphing parametric equations. You
must, however, tell the calculator that you want to graph parametric equations as
opposed to regular functions. To do this, put your calculator into the parametric mode by
hitting [MODE] and choosing the [PAR] option. Be sure to reset your calculator back to
[FUN] for Function mode when you are done with parametric equations. While you're in
the Mode menu, you may wish to set your calculator to [RADIAN] mode instead of
[DEGREE] mode. They are used for trigonometric functions, which we won't be using,
but they do affect the way the zoom keys work.

After setting up your calculator for parametric mode, notice that when you hit the Y=
key, you no longer have a y1=. You now have a pair of equations, a x and an y that are
both functions of t. Simply enter the parametric equations in for x and y. Notice that the
key you have been using for X is also marked T. In parametric mode, a T will
automatically appear instead of the X.

Window Settings

You will now have three additional window choices that you did not have before. Tmin,
Tmax, and Tstep. Tmin is the smallest value for the parameter that you wish to use.
Unless you have good reason not to (like the domain says t >= 0), be sure to use
negative values for Tmin. Tmax is the largest value for the parameter that you wish to
use. Unless you have good reason not to, use a positive value for Tmax. In other words,
make sure T can take on both positive and negative values. Tstep is the change in T,
and should be reasonable for the range of T values you've specified.

TMin = -5, TMax = 5, and TStep = 0.1 are usually good starting values. If you find out
that the graph doesn't show up, you may need to change those values.

Warning! The Zoom Standard will reset the settings on the T. If you do a zoom
standard, your T will go between 0 and 2 pi (in radian mode) by pi/24 and 0 to 360 (in
degree mode) by 7.5. Neither of these contain negative values and may not show the
entire graph.

The direction of increasing t is the direction the calculator draws the curve in. Indicate
this with directional arrows along the curve.

Eliminating the Parameter

Another way to sketch a plane curve is to eliminate the parameter. The steps to
eliminating the parameter are simple.

 Solve one of the parametric equations for t.

 Substitute for t into the other parametric equation.

In step 1, you should solve for t in the simpler equation. Easier to solve doesn't always
mean smaller exponent. If you have an t2 and a t3, solve for the t in the t3 (if possible).
By doing so, you avoid a plus/minus situation when you take the square root of t.

It may not always be necessary to completely solve for t. This is valueable when one of
the terms appears in the other equations.

Example 1

Eliminate the parameter from x = 3t2 - 4 and y = 2t.

The y is definitely the easier function to solve for t, and when you do that, you get t =
y/2.

Subsitute that into the x equation for t and you get x = 3(y/2) 2 - 4. Simplify to get x = 3/4
y2 - 4.

Example 2

Consider the system of equations x = et and y = e3t.

If you were to solve this using the steps listed above, you would take the x = e t equation
and solve it for t to get t = ln x. Then substitute that into the y = e 3t equation to get y =
e3ln x. Using properties of logarithms, you would move the 3 to be the exponent on the x
and then the e and ln functions inverse out, leaving you with y = x 3.

Now, consider this. y = e3t = (et)3. Since x = et, replace the et by x. y = (x)3 or just y = x3.
There was no need to go all the way down to t.

Another note about this problem. Since x and y are both exponential functions, the
range on each of them are the positive reals. However, that is lost when you simplify to
y = x3. Be sure to stick a domain restriction on x to make it the same as the original.
That restriction would be x > 0.