Module I-continued

• Chapter 2:Network models

– Layered tasks
– TCP/IP Suite
– OSI Model
– Layers in OSI model,
– Addressing
 Chapter 2
Network Models

• We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As

an example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail. The process of
sending a letter to a friend would be complex if
there were no services available from the post
office.
Tasks involved in sending a letter
 Protocol Layering
• Another example: Communication is so simple that it
can occur in only one layer. Assume Maria and Ann are
neighbours with a lot of common ideas.
• Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in
one layer, face to face, in the same language
 Simple Protocol
1. Maria and Ann know that they should greet each
other when they meet.
2. They know that they should confine their vocabulary
to the level of their friendship.
3. Each party knows that she should refrain from
speaking when the other party is speaking.
4. Each party knows that the conversation should be a
dialog, not a monolog: both should have the
opportunity to talk about the issue.
5. They should exchange some nice words when they
leave.
 A Three layered Protocol

• Ann
needs to
move to
another
branch
located
in a city
very far
from
Maria.
 Why Layering?
• Protocol layering enables us to divide a
complex task into several smaller and
simpler tasks.
• To achieve modularity. Modularity in this
case means independent layers.
• A layer (module) can be defined as a black
box with inputs and outputs, without
concern about how inputs are changed to
outputs.
 Principles of Protocol Layering
1. If we want bidirectional communication, we need
to make each layer so that it is able to perform
two opposite tasks, one in each direction.
Ex: the third layer task is to listen (in one direction)
and talk (in the other direction).

2. The two objects under each layer at both sites

should be identical.
Ex:The object under layer 3 at both sites should be a
plaintext letter.
 Logical Connections
There is a
logical
connection
between each
layer. This
means that we
have layer-to-
layer
communication
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols
organized in different layers) used in the Internet
today.
• It is a hierarchical protocol made up of
interactive modules, each of which provides a
specific functionality.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper
level protocol is supported by the services
provided by one or more lower level protocols.
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined
as four software layers built upon the hardware.
Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-
layer model.
 Layered Architecture
• Assume that we want to use the suite in a small
internet made up of three LANs (links), each with a
link-layer switch. We also assume that the links are
connected by one router
 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• Using logical connections makes it easier for us
to think about the duty of each layer.
– The duty of the application, transport, and network
layers is end-to-end.
– The duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-
to-hop, in which a hop is a host or router.
– In other words, the domain of duty of the top three
layers is the internet, and the domain of duty of the
two lower layers is the link.
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol suite

Note:
• Although the logical connection at the network layer is
between the two hosts, identical objects exist between two
hops in this case because a router may fragment the packet at
the network layer and send more packets than received
• The link between two hops does not change the object.
Network support layers
physical layer
data link layer
network layer
User support layer
application layer

The transport layer links the network

support layers and the user support layer.
 Description of Each Layer
1. Physical Layer (PHY)
Coordinates the functions required to carry a bit
stream over a physical medium
 PHY Functions
1. Defines the characteristics of the interface between
the devices and the transmission medium and type of
medium
2. Defines the representation of bits- Encoding
3. Decides the Data rate – Transmission rate
4. Synchronization of bits – Generally Tx. & Rx.
Clocks
5. Line Configuration – P2P or Multipoint
6. Physical Topology – Mesh, Ring, Bus, Hybrid…..
7. Transmission Mode – Simplex, half or full duplex
 Note

The physical layer is responsible for

movements of individual bits from one
hop (node) to the next.

2.19
 2. Data Link Layer (DLL)
Transforms the Physical layer, a raw transmission
facility into a reliable link
 DLL Functions
1. Framing – divides the stream of bits into
smaller data units called frames
2. Physical addressing – Adds address of
receiver
3. Flow Control – Prevents a fast Transmitter
from swamping a slow receiver
4. Error Control – Adds a trailer for error
detection
5. Access Control – Determines which device
has control over the link at any instant of time
Data Link Layer Example
 Note

The data link layer is responsible for

moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.

2.24
 3. Network Layer (NL)
Responsible for delivery of individual packets from
Source to destination
 NL Functions
• Logical addressing – to distinguish between
source & destination when packets are
Crossing network boundaries
• Routing – During interconnection of
networks packets are to be routed to their
final destination
Example
Figure 2.20 IP addresses

2.29
 NL Protocols
• It supports Internetworking protocol(IP) –Unreliable &
connectionless protocol (BEST EFFORT)
• IP uses 4 supporting protocols:
– ARP (Address resolution protocol) – Associates a logical
address with a physical address (finds PA when its LA is
known)
– RARP(Reverse ARP) – Allows a host to discover its network
address when its Physical address is known
– ICMP(Internet Control message protocol) – Mechanism
used by hosts & GW’s to send notification of datagram
problems back to the sender
– DHCP(Dynamic host configuration protocol) – Facilitates
IP to get the network layer address of a host
– IGMP(Internet Group management protocol) – To transmit
to a group of systems
 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

2.31
 4. Transport Layer (TL)
Responsible for Process to Process delivery of the
entire message
 TL Functions
1. Service –point addressing - Due to several programs
being run simultaneously on a computer addressing
should be made from the generating process port of
sender to that of the rx.
2. Segmentation & reassembly – Sequence numbers
are introduced in the packet header
3. Connection Control – Can be Connection-oriented
or connection less
4. Flow Control – End-to-end as compared to Single
link
5. Error Control – Process to Process (generally
achieved thro’ retransmission.)
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Example
Figure shows an example of transport layer
communication. Data coming from the upper layers have
port addresses j and k (j is the address of the sending
process, and k is the address of the receiving process).
Since the data size is larger than the network layer can
handle, the data are split into two packets, each packet
retaining the port addresses (j and k). Then in the network
layer, network addresses (A and P) are added to each
packet.
Example
 Transport Layer Protocols
• UDP – Unreliable packet delivery or Connection
less protocol.
– Adds only port addresses, checksum for error control
and length information of the data
• TCP – Reliable, connection oriented stream
transport protocol
– Provides sequencing, flow & error control.
• SCTP – Stream Control Transmission Protocol
– Combines best features of TCP & UDP
– Provides support for newer applications such as
VoIP
 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the

delivery
of a message from one process to another.

2.38
 5. Application Layer (App L)
Provides Communication Services to user
applications
 App Layer Functions
• Network virtual terminal – Software version of
a physical terminal and it allows users to log
onto a remote host
• File transfer, access and management – access
& retrieve files from a remote host
• Mail Services – Basis for email forwarding &
storage
• Directory services – Provides distributed
database sources & access for global info.
Specific Addresses
User friendly addresses

Ex:
www.google.com

www.rediffmail.com

www.rnsit.co.in
 Application Layer Protocols
• SNMP(Simple Network Management Protocol): used by an
administrator to manage the Internet at global and local
levels.
• FTP(File Transfer Protocol): used for transferring files
from one host to another
• SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): main protocol used
in electronic mail (e-mail) service
• HTTP(Hyper text transfer protocol): is a vehicle for
accessing the world wide web
• DNS (Domain Name System ): used by other protocols to
find the network-layer address of a computer
• TELNET (Terminal Network): used for accessing a site
remotely
• …………….
Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
 Encapsulation at the Source Host
1. At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is referred to as
a message. A message normally does not contain any header
or trailer, but if it does, we refer to the whole as the message.
The message is passed to the transport layer.

2. The transport layer takes the message as the payload, the load
that the transport layer should take care of. It adds the transport
layer header to the payload, which contains the identifiers of
the source and destination application programs that want to
communicate plus some more information that is needed for the
end-to-end delivery of the message, such as information needed
for flow, error control, or congestion control. The result is the
transport-layer packet, which is called the segment (in TCP)
and the user datagram (in UDP). The transport layer then
passes the packet to the network layer.
3. The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as data or
payload and adds its own header to the payload. The header
contains the addresses of the source and destination hosts and
some more information used for error checking of the header,
fragmentation information, and so on. The result is the network-
layer packet, called a datagram. The network layer then passes the
packet to the data-link layer.

4. The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as data or

payload and adds its own header, which contains the link-layer
addresses of the host or the next hop (the router). The result is the
link-layer packet, which is called a frame. The frame is passed to
the physical layer for transmission.
Decapsulation and Encapsulation at the Router
At the router, we have both decapsulation and encapsulation because
the router is connected to two or more links.
1. After the set of bits are delivered to the data-link layer, this layer
decapsulates the datagram from the frame and passes it to the
network layer.

2. The network layer only inspects the source and destination

addresses in the datagram header and consults its forwarding
table to find the next hop to which the datagram is to be
delivered. The contents of the datagram should not be changed by
the network layer in the router unless there is a need to fragment
the datagram if it is too big to be passed through the next link. The
datagram is then passed to the data-link layer of the next link.

3. The data-link layer of the next link encapsulates the datagram

in a frame and passes it to the physical layer for transmission.
 Decapsulation at the Destination Host

• At the destination host, each layer only

decapsulates the packet received, removes the
payload, and delivers the payload to the next-
higher layer protocol until the message reaches the
application layer.

• It is necessary to say that decapsulation in the host

involves error checking.
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

1.Link layer/Physical
Addresses
2.Logical Addresses
3.Port Addresses
4.Specific
Addresses/Names

2.50
Addresses in TCP/IP
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
 Physical addresses-Review

Ethernet uses a 6-byte(48-bit) physical address

imprinted on NIC
Ex: f8:a9:63:52:db:12
 IP/Logical addresses
A 4-byte(32-
bit) or 8
byte(64 bit) IP
address

Ex: IPv4
100.20.31.5
Or IPv6
Fe08:2189:557
f:3209
 Port addresses
TCP/IP port
address is 2
bytes(16 bits) in
length

Ex: For http appln.,port number is 0080,for FTP 25

Specific Addresses
User friendly addresses

Ex: www.google.com

www.rediffmail.com

www.rnsit.co.in

www.vtu.ac.in
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
Since the TCP/IP protocol suite uses several protocols at
some layers, we can say that we have multiplexing at the
source and demultiplexing at the destination.

Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a

layer can encapsulate a packet from several next-
higher layer protocols (one at a time);

Demultiplexing means that a protocol can decapsulate

and deliver a packet to several next-higher layer
protocols (one at a time).
 The OSI Model

• When computers were first linked together

into networks, moving information between
different types of computers was a very
difficult task.

• In the early 1980s, the International

Standards Organization (ISO) recognized
the need for a standard network model.
 OSI model
• ISO-International Standards Organization

• ISO standard for all network communication

standardized
Open System Interconnection(OSI) model
for networking
Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
Benefits of OSI Model:

•Reduces complexity-breaks down into manageable parts

•Standardizes interfaces

•Facilitates modular engineering-allows different types of

H/W to communicate

•Ensures interoperate technology-prevents changes in

one layer from affecting other layer

•Accelerates evolution

•Simplifies teaching & learning

OSI Model
OSI Layers
 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

2.68
Session Layer
Note

The presentation layer is responsible for

translation, compression, and encryption.
Presentation Layer
An exchange using the OSI model
TCP/IP and OSI model
TCP/IP and the OSI Model
Summary of Layer Functions
Review questions
1. What is TCP/IP model? Explain the function of each layer in TCP/IP model
2. What is OSI model? Explain the function of each layer in OSI model.
3. Give the mapping of OSI layers to Internet model (TCP/IP suite)
4.What are the responsibilities of the Network layer in the Internet model?
5. What are the responsibilities of the Transport layer in the Internet model?
6. Name some services provided by the application layer in the Internet
model?
7.Explain in detail the all 4-levels of addressing used in an internet employing
TCP/IP with example.
8.Explain the following
a. network support layers
b. user support layers
c. encapsulation
d. framing
9. Give the two functions for each layer in OSI model
10. What is PDU? How it is generated? Give the name of PDU for each layer
of OSI model
11. Explain multiplexing and demultiplexing in the models