Morph

Review Article
Journal of Intelligent Material Systems

and Structures
2016, Vol. 27(17) 2289–2312
Morphing aircraft based on smart ! The Author(s) 2016
Reprints and permissions:
materials and structures: A sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1045389X16629569
state-of-the-art review jim.sagepub.com
Jian Sun1, Qinghua Guan1, Yanju Liu2 and Jinsong Leng1
Abstract
A traditional aircraft is optimized for only one or two flight conditions, not for the entire flight envelope. In contrast, the
wings of a bird can be reshaped to provide optimal performance at all flight conditions. Any change in an aircraft’s config-
uration, in particular the wings, affects the aerodynamic performance, and optimal configurations can be obtained for
each flight condition. Morphing technologies offer aerodynamic benefits for an aircraft over a wide range of flight condi-
tions. The advantages of a morphing aircraft are based on an assumption that the additional weight of the morphing com-
ponents is acceptable. Traditional mechanical and hydraulic systems are not considered good choices for morphing
aircraft. ‘‘Smart’’ materials and structures have the advantages of high energy density, ease of control, variable stiffness,
and the ability to tolerate large amounts of strain. These characteristics offer researchers and designers new possibilities
for designing morphing aircraft. In this article, recent developments in the application of smart materials and structures
to morphing aircraft are reviewed. Specifically, four categories of applications are discussed: actuators, sensors, control-
lers, and structures.
Keywords
smart materials and structures, morphing aircraft, review
Introduction morphing wings can play a very important role in air-

craft design (Cistone, 2004; Weiss, 2003).
The kite, which might be considered the earliest type of A number of aircraft with morphing wings have
aircraft, was invented by the Chinese 2000 years ago. been designed and produced since World War II,
These kites were made from easily obtained natural including the X5 (sweep wing, USA, 1951–1958), the
materials: silk fabric or paper for the wings, fine, high- F-111 (sweep wing, USA, 1964–2010), the XB-70 (span
tensile-strength silk for the tether, and bamboo for a bending wing, USA, 1964–1969), the SU-17 (sweep
strong, lightweight airframe. The first rocket was devel- wing, former Soviet Union, 1966-till date), the MIG-23
oped in the 13th century in China using black powder (sweep wing, former Soviet Union, 1967-till date), the
as the propellant. The rocket was the first powered air- SU-24 (sweep wing, former Soviet Union, 1967-till
craft used in war and was the forerunner of the jet date), the Tu-22M (sweep wing, former Soviet Union,
engine. The Wright brothers completed the first flight 1969-till date), the F-14 (sweep wing, USA, 1970–
of a powered, manned aircraft (the Wright Flyer) on 17 2006), the B-1 (sweep wing, USA, 1974-till date), the
December 1903. The 274 kg aircraft had two 12.3 m Tornado (sweep wing, UK, Germany, and Italy, 1974-
wings and was powered by an 8.9 kW, 82 kg engine. till date), and the Tu-160 (sweep wing, former Soviet
The Wright Flyer stimulated the rapid development of
aircraft in the 20th century. 1
Centre for Composite Materials and Structures, Science Park of Harbin
To improve aerodynamic performance, the use of
Institute of Technology (HIT), Harbin, People’s Republic of China
bionics in aircraft design is being considered. Swifts 2
Department of Astronautical Science and Mechanics, Harbin Institute of
control their glide performance by changing the geome- Technology (HIT), Harbin, People’s Republic of China
try of their wings; for example, they adjust their wing
sweep to suit the speed (Lentink et al., 2007). Jackdaws Corresponding author:
Jinsong Leng, Centre for Composite Materials and Structures, Science
(Rosén and Hedenström, 2001) and other birds Park of Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT), P.O. Box 3011, No. 2
(Thomas, 1996) maneuver in flight by changing the YiKuang Street, Harbin 150080, People’s Republic of China.
geometry of their wings and tail. It follows that Email: [email protected]
2290 Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 27(17)
Union, 1981-till date) (Barbarino et al., 2011a). The electrorheological and magnetorheological fluids, shape
most famous example is the Grumman F-14 Tomcat. memory alloys, shape memory polymers, electro-active
This aircraft, which was featured in the film ‘‘The Final polymers, and multifunctional nano-composites can be
Countdown,’’ was in service with the US Navy from considered smart materials (Sater and Crowe, 2000;
1974 to 2006. The wing structure was made of titanium, Vessonen, 2002). Smart structures include auxetic hon-
including the wing box, the wing pivots, and the wing eycombs, variable-stiffness tubes, multi-stable struc-
skins. The F-14’s wing sweep could be varied between tures, and corrugated structures. In general, smart
20" and 68" in flight to obtain the optimum lift-to-drag materials and structures comprise a smart system. To
ratio for the Mach number. This aircraft was retired by draw an analogy to humans, as shown in Figure 1,
the US Navy on 22 September 2006. The main reasons smart materials and structures can obtain information
given for the F-14’s retirement were the high number of from the environment around the skin (sensing), they
maintenance hours and the high costs resulting from then produce an internal chemical or physical effect
the heavy and complex sweep wing structure. delivered to the brain for decision making (control),
To overcome the problems with traditional materi- and finally, they implement actions through the mus-
als and structures, novel materials are required cles (actuation). The information passes through the
(Donadon and Iannucci, 2014; Lloyd, 2007). Smart nerves, and each part is linked by tendons and fibrous
materials and structures, which offer self-actuating, bands (structures).
self-sensing, self-healing, self-assembly, and self- Smart materials and structures have one or more of
adaptive capabilities, have great potential for applica- the three main features as follows:
tions in morphing aircraft (Rodriguez, 2007; Simpson
et al., 1998). A variety of morphing technologies 1. Self-actuating—the system produces an output
based on smart materials and structures will be such as force, displacement, heat, and light after
required to enable an aircraft to perform in-flight being stimulated (Chung, 2004; Kang et al.,
configuration changes for optimum performance 2006; Krstulovic-Opara et al., 2003; Song et al.,
(Colozza, 2007; NASA, 2001; Website). 2011b).
2. Self-sensing—in response to changes in the envi-
Smart materials and structures ronment, the system can generate electric or
magnetic signals or undergo strain that can be
It is difficult to define ‘‘smart’’ materials. Unlike static,
measured to describe the environment
or ‘‘dead,’’ materials, smart materials are ‘‘alive’’: they
(Kruusamäe et al., 2011; Moslehi et al., 2011;
can respond to changes in the environment (Bhavsar
Sodano et al., 2004).
et al., 2008; Tzou et al., 2004). Therefore, smart materi-
3. Self-adaptive—the system can change its geome-
als are not only structural materials but also active
try to adapt to the environment (this feature
materials. Sources of stimulation include stress, strain,
applies specifically to structures) (Rodrigues
electricity, magnetism, heat, light, and microwave
et al., 2010; Vos et al., 2011a, 2011b).
radiation (Bogue, 2012). Currently, piezoelectric, mag-
netostrictive, and ferroelectric materials, optical fibers,
Figure 1. Smart materials and structures.

Sun et al. 2291
Table 1. Properties of typical smart materials.
Density Nominal stress Strain Actuation Stimulation

frequency
Unit or method g/cm3 MPa % S E M T
Shape memory alloy (SMA) (Hartl and Lagoudas, 6.4–6.5 400–700 8 Slow ! !
2007; Nespoli et al., 2010; Wei and Sandström,
1998)
Piezoelectric ceramic (Craig, 1996; MEMSnet, 7.5–7.8 100 0.1 Fast ! !
2014; Website)
Piezoelectric composites (Bent and Pizzochero, 3.79 34–41 1.5 Fast ! !
2000; Smart Material Corp., 2014; Website)
Shape memory polymer (SMP) (Leng et al., 2011; 0.92 2–10 50–100 Slow ! ! ! !
Liu et al., 2009, 2014)
Elastic-active polymer (EAP) (Bar-Cohen, 2002; 1–2.5 10–30 300 Fast ! !
Shahinpoor et al., 1998)
Magnetostriction (Bar-Cohen, 2000) 9.2 100 2 Fast ! !
Electrorheological fluids (ER) (Hao, 2001) . 0.016 N/A Fast ! !
Magnetorheological fluids (MR) (Kciuk and 3–4 0.05–0.1 N/A Fast ! !
Turczyn, 2006; Park et al., 2010)
Here, ‘‘S’’ denotes nominal stress and strain, ‘‘E’’ denotes electric, ‘‘M’’ denotes magnetic, and ‘‘T’’ denotes temperature.
Table 1 presents the properties and the means of sti- and low speeds, which can reduce fuel consumption
mulation for various common smart materials. and improve the flight envelope dramatically. Aircraft
Generally, smart materials have a high energy density with variable-chord or variable-camber wings can have
(Tieck et al., 2004). According to the requirements of a shorter takeoff distances. Variable-span wings, flexible
particular application (e.g. stress, strain, weight, speed), winglets, and twisting wings can improve the aerody-
designers can select the best material. namic performance of low-speed aircraft.
Different levels of morphing require diverse types of
materials and structures to meet its various demands.
Morphing aircraft Some of the earliest research on smart materials and
The basic principle of an airplane can be described as structures for morphing aircraft mainly focused on
follows: gravity is overcome by the lift generated by the medium morphing, such as the research conducted by
flow of air over the aircraft’s wings, and the lift depends the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Spangler,
on the wing shape and size and the velocity of the air- 1989). In that research, a helicopter rotor blade
craft. Drag can be balanced by thrust. In one sense, for trailing-edge flap was actuated by piezoelectric materi-
a given airplane fuselage, or body, the aerodynamic als to control the aerodynamic force. In the 1990s, sev-
performance depends on the wing configuration. For a eral types of smart materials and structures were
given thrust and airspeed, there will be an optimal wing investigated, including piezoelectric materials, electro-
configuration for each mission (Joshi et al., 2004) strictive materials, magnetostrictive materials, shape
(Figure 2). memory alloys, and fiber optic sensors (McGowan
The degree of morphing in a wing can be classified et al., 1999; Martin et al., 1998). Several studies have
as large, medium, or small (Gomez and Garcia, 2011; focused on morphing rotor structures using piezoelec-
Jacob and Smith, 2009; Sofla et al., 2010) depending on tric materials (Barrett, 1996; Barrett et al., 1998;
the dimension that varies. Folding wings, variable- Barrett and Stutts, 1997; Ehlers and Weisshaar, 1990;
sweep wings, variable-span (telescoping) wings, and Giurgiutiu et al., 1994; Rodgers et al., 1997; Steadman
deployable wings comprise the large category. Twisting et al., 1994), shape memory alloys (Roglin et al., 1994;
wing, flexible winglets, variable-chord (telescoping) Roglin and Hanagud, 1996), and magnetostrictive
wings, and variable-camber wings comprise the materials (Giurgiutiu et al., 1995). Piezoelectric actua-
medium category. Variable-airfoil wings and bulging tors were used in morphing airfoil wings (Pinkerton
wings comprise the small category. Aircraft with and Moses, 1997) and in the control fins of a missile
morphing technologies has some advantages over (Barrett and Stutts, 1998). Since the late 1990s, a large
fixed-geometry aircraft, and these advantages are listed number of investigations on smart materials and struc-
in Table 2. A multi-mission aircraft can be designed for tures for morphing aircraft have been conducted, and
good performance in multiple flight conditions. For interest in the subject has been global (Barbarino et al.,
example, a fighter with folding wings or variable-sweep 2011a). Several studies have involved unmanned aerial
wings can have good performance at both high speed vehicles (UAVs) (Baier and Datashvili, 2011; Daynes
Table 2. Advantages of morphing aircraft (Frommer and Crossley, 2005; Jha and Kudva, 2004; Previtali et al., 2014b; Roth et al.,
2002).
Morphing methods Advantages
Large Folding Increase the critical Mach number

Decrease parasitic drag
Sweep Increase the critical Mach number
Decrease high-speed drag
Span telescoping Increase L/D, loiter time, cruise distance
Decrease engine requirements
Deployable Increase L/D, loiter time, cruise distance
Decrease engine requirements
Medium Twist Increase maneuverability
Prevent tip stall
Winglet bending Increase L/D, maneuverability
Decrease induced (tip vortex) drag
Chord telescoping Increase low-speed airfoil performance
Variable camber Increase airfoil efficiency
Delay separation
Small Variable airfoil Increase high-speed airfoil performance
Bulging Increase wing efficiency
Decrease compressibility (wave) drag
Here, L/D means Lift to Drag ratio.
Figure 2. Comparing the predicted performance of a fixed-geometry wing, a morphing-airfoil wing, and a morphing wing for
various missions (Joshi et al., 2004).
Sun et al. 2293
and Weaver, 2013a; Gomez and Garcia, 2011; Kuder Texas A&M University and the Boeing Company
et al., 2013; Kudva, 2004; Thill et al., 2008), and several (Hartl et al., 2010a, 2010b; Oehler et al., 2012a, 2012b).
mature morphing technologies for helicopter rotor In August 2005, full-scale flight tests of variable-
blades and jet engines have already been flight-tested geometry chevrons, which were actuated using an SMA
with full-scale test articles (Calkins and Mabe, 2010; and installed on a 777-300ER with GE-115B engines,
Giurgiutiu, 2000b, 2011). In the next four sections, were completed (Mabe et al., 2007); photographs of the
applications of smart materials and structures in chevrons are shown in Figure 3. The results indicated
morphing aircraft will be described in detail. that noise in cruise was significantly reduced. The chev-
rons improve the mixing of the freestream air and the
fan stream. Other uses of SMA actuators in jet engines
Actuators
including a morphing inlet internal wall (Pitt et al.,
Shape memory alloys 2002), a morphing intake (Song et al., 2011a), and a
A shape memory alloy (SMA) is a metallic alloy such morphing nozzle (Mabe, 2008) have also been investi-
as NiTi, NiTiCu, and CuAlNi that can recover from a gated. The morphing inlet internal wall was tested in a
deformation and return to its original shape when sub- wind tunnel.
jected to heat (Otsuka and Wayman, 1998) which is SMA actuators can be used to alter the wing geome-
known as shape memory effect. There is four transition try as well. A variable-sweep wing controlled by SMA
points known as the martensitic start and finish tem- ribbons on the spar has been investigated (Galantai
peratures (Ms and Mf) and the austenite start and fin- et al., 2012). In several other studies, SMA wire was
ish temperatures (As and Af). Through a training cycle, used to create a morphing trailing edge to enhance lift
an SMA acquires a stabilized strain that can be recov- (Kang et al., 2012; Karagiannis et al., 2014; Ko et al.,
ered when the temperature is higher than Ms. SMA has 2014; Senthilkumar, 2012). Several segmented morph-
the property of super-elasticity, which means it could ing trailing-edge concepts, which produce a larger
work even under high applied loads and large inelastic trailing-edge angle, have been investigated (Ameduri
deformations, or undergo large strains without plastic et al., 2011; Barbarino et al., 2009b, 2011c; Wang et al.,
deformation or failure (Barbarino et al., 2014). SMAs 2013). A similar approach can be used in the leading
are very desirable for actuators because of properties edge to increase the lift-to-drag ratio (Abdullah et al.,
such as high output forces, large recoverable strains, 2011). Cornell University designed a Hyper-Elliptic
high energy densities, controllability, and the capability Cambered Span (HECS) wing using SMA actuators
for one-way and two-way memory effects. SMAs are (Manzo et al., 2005). This morphing wingtip can mark-
already widely used in aerospace morphing structures. edly improve maneuverability by enhancing yaw con-
The most well-known application of SMAs is in an trol while in the furled state. Groups of SMA actuators
engine nozzle on a Boeing commercial airplane to have been used to create a morphing-airfoil wing for
reduce jet noise (Calkins et al., 2006). A large amount subsonic cruise flight conditions (Brailovski et al., 2010;
of theoretical work and simulations were performed by Georges et al., 2012), and wind tunnel tests showed
Figure 3. Full-scale flight tests of SMA-actuated variable-geometry chevrons on a Boeing 777-300ER with GE-115B engines (Mabe
et al., 2007).
reductions in drag from 14.5% to 26.7% with an aver- were successfully used in a BK117 S7045 prototype air-
age value of 18.5% under quasi-constant lift condi- craft in Europe, as shown in Figure 4. The results
tions. SMA torque tube actuators have been used to showed that the vibrations were reduced as much as
provide near-optimum blade twist for helicopters in 90% (to less than 0.05 g) when the active-flap rotor
both hover and cruise flight conditions (Bushnell et al., was installed (Jaenker et al., 2008; Konstanzer et al.,
2008). SMA actuators have also been used in bionic 2008).
flapping wings. An artificial beetle hind wing produced Several researchers have designed piezoelectric
a flapping motion at 9 Hz with a 120" flapping angle actuators based on a ‘‘step and repeat’’ driving strategy
using cyclic heating with two SMA wires (Muhammad which means actuators produce displacement pulses by
et al., 2010). insistently repeated motions to generate larger linear
displacements and larger output forces (Loverich, 2004;
Paine et al., 2008) to control the configuration of a
Piezoelectric materials morphing structure rapidly and accurately.
A crystal with piezoelectric properties was discovered
by the Curie brothers in 1880. A maximum of 0.1%
Piezoelectric composites. Piezoelectric composites have
strain can be obtained by applying a voltage to a piezo-
been used to reduce vibration and noise from helicopter
electric material (Bogue, 2012; Vessonen, 2002). Layers
rotors. At the German Aerospace Center (DLR), piezo-
of these crystals can be stacked to form a piezoelectric
electric composites were integrated into rotor blades to
stack actuator. Piezoelectric fibers can be mixed with
control blade twist (Monner et al., 2011). Rotor blade
resin to produce piezoelectric composites. These com-
trailing-edge flaps with piezoelectric composites actua-
posites can produce larger strains and various types of
tors can achieve similar performance (Koratkar and
motion (e.g. extension, bending, and twisting). These
Chopra, 2000).
composites are generally referred to as active fiber com-
In several studies, the camber of the wings of a micro
posite (AFC), macro fiber composite (MFC), or light-
air vehicle (MAV) was altered using piezoelectric com-
weight piezo-composite actuator (LIPCA).
posites to change the lift, the drag, and the pitching
moment (Bilgen and Friswell, 2014; Heryawan et al.,
Piezoelectric ceramics. Because piezoelectric ceramics are 2005, 2006; Molinari et al., 2015; Paradies and Ciresa,
capable of producing large output forces and high- 2009; Prazenica et al., 2014) or to control the roll and
frequency responses, they have been used to drive hydrau- pitch by morphing the trailing edge near the wingtips
lic pumps. The principle of operation is as follows. A (Bilgen et al., 2007; Probst et al., 2012; Vos et al., 2007);
chamber with an inlet and an outlet is linked to a hydrau- the feasibility of these designs has been demonstrated in
lic system through one-way valves. The piezoelectric cera- flight tests (see Figure 5). An MAV in which the eleva-
mic actuator moves a metal membrane to change the tors were controlled by piezoelectric composites was
volume of the chamber cyclically according to a periodic constructed and tested in a wind tunnel (Yoon et al.,
voltage. Because of the pressure differential, the liquid 2006a, 2006b). In a biomimetic approach, piezoelectric
flows from the inlet to the outlet (Chapman et al., 2005; composites have been used to produce a flapping wing
Chaudhuri and Wereley, 2010; Kim and Wang, 2007; (Syaifuddin et al., 2005) that takes advantage of the
Oates et al., 2000; Sirohi and Chopra, 2002). These pumps high bandwidth of piezoelectric materials. In another
have achieved maximum flow rates of 2300 cc/min and study, the composites were installed in a flexible flap-
output pressures exceeding 200 bar in the stalled condi- ping wing to change the camber and increase the lift as
tion. A piezoelectric hydraulic pump was successfully used much as 20.8% at 8 Hz flapping frequency, 20" pitch
in a morphing wing on a remotely piloted vehicle (O’Neill angles, and 10 m/s flow velocity (Kim et al., 2008).
and Burchfield, 2007).
Piezoelectric ceramics have also been used in linear
actuators in helicopter rotor systems to improve vibra- Shape memory polymers
tion, noise, and aerodynamic performance (Straub A shape memory polymer (SMP) is a type of polymer
et al., 2004a). An important technological advancement that, like an SMA, exhibits the shape memory effect.
would be to increase the output of piezoelectric ceramic SMPs are capable of significant macroscopic recovery
actuators (currently, the maximum extension strain is after receiving an external stimulus (e.g. heat, electric-
only 0.1%). Several different types of piezoelectric ity, light, magnetism, microwaves, moisture, or a
actuators such as the O type (Grohmann et al., 2006), change in pH) (Leng et al., 2011). During this process,
the L-L type (Lee and Chopra, 2001), and the X type the material transitions between a glassy state, that is,
(Straub et al., 2004b) have been designed and tested. O- hard, with a high Young’s modulus (greater than
type actuators were used to drive trailing-edge flaps 3 GPa), and an elastic state, that is, soft, with a low
installed on MD900 rotor blades in whirl tower tests Young’s modulus (1–10 MPa), so there is a distinct
conducted by the Boeing Company. X-type actuators change in stiffness. Because of their low recovery forces,
Sun et al. 2295
Figure 4. BK117 S7045 flight test with active rotor trailing-edge flaps actuated by piezoelectric actuators (Konstanzer et al., 2008).
Figure 5. Micro air vehicle controlled by piezoelectric materials on the ground and in flight (Bilgen et al., 2007).
SMPs are frequently used as actuators in deployable resin, which enhances the mechanical performance of
space structures, that is, in a weightless environment the SMP. Morphing skins based on SMP composites
(Leng et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2014). However, SMPs have been designed and tested in telescoping wings
have great potential for applications requiring a morph- (Perkins et al., 2004; Reed et al., 2005; Yin et al., 2008),
ing skin because of their variable stiffness. SMP morph- variable-camber wings (Sun et al., 2013, 2014b; Yin
ing skins can withstand aerodynamic loads in the glassy et al., 2009), sweep wings (Keihl et al., 2005; McKnight
state and tolerate large deformations (up to 100% and Henry, 2008), deployable wings (Leng et al., 2015;
strain) in the elastic state, and thus, they can accommo- Yu et al., 2009), and folding wings (Bye and McClure,
date morphing structures (McKnight and Henry, 2005; 2007; Cantrell and Ifju, 2015). Figure 6 shows the
Sun et al., 2012). deployment of a wing with a morphing skin. The SMP
SMP composites have been fabricated by mixing composite skin alters its shape when heated and main-
carbon fibers, glass fibers, or elastic fibers with an SMP tains a smooth and seamless wing surface.
Figure 6. Deployable wing with SMP composite skin (Yu et al., 2009).
shape when subjected to a magnetic field. Terfenol-D

(chemical composition: Tb0.3Dy0.7Fe1.9) is a typical
magnetostrictive material that undergoes a large
induced strain in a low-intensity magnetic field at room
temperature (Claeyssen et al., 2002). A linear step
actuator based on Terfenol-D was demonstrated to
have a very good performance: a maximum force of
410 N, a range of motion of 45 mm, a maximum speed
of 60 mm/min, and 95 W of power. In comparison
with conventional piezoelectric actuators, it could gen-
erate much higher actuation strains. It has higher
actuation stresses in comparison with solenoid and
moving-coil transducers (Kim and Sadighi, 2010).
Figure 7. A lighter-than-air vehicle controlled with EAP Magnetostrictive materials have been used to drive
actuators (Michel et al., 2007). hydraulic pumps (Bridger et al., 2004; Chaudhuri et al.,
2009; Sneed et al., 2007). The principle is similar to that
Electro-active polymers of the piezoelectric pump. A maximum pressure of
An electro-active polymer (EAP) can be stimulated by greater than 1700 lbf/in2 was produced, and the output
electricity to produce a significant change in shape or power reached 180 W. A design for a variable-span
size, where the strain can be as high as 300% (Bar- morphing wing UAV is shown in Figure 8.
Cohen, 2002). EAP materials include dielectric elasto- At present, smart materials are mainly used as
mers (DE), ionic polymer–metal composites (IPMCs), actuators. Comparing with conventional electromotor,
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), and other similar smart materials have the properties of higher power
materials. As an actuator, EAPs have many advantages density, more output force (SMA, piezoelectric materi-
including low weight, low power consumption, a fast als, and magnetostriction materials), larger output dis-
response, and flexibility (Zhao et al., 2015). EAPs have placement (SMP, EAP, and MFC), higher output
been used in flapping wing MAVs (Kim et al., 2007; frequency (piezoelectric materials, magnetostriction
Lee et al., 2006; Park et al., 2005). Only a 2.5–4 V sinu- materials), or other features. The designers could
soidal signal was required to generate sufficient lift choose them according to application conditions.
from the flapping wings for the MAV to become air- However, it should be noted that there are still some
borne. EAPs have also been used in actuators for the shortcomings of smart materials. First, for SMA,
trailing edges of a fixed-wing UAV to increase the lift piezoelectric materials, magnetostriction materials, and
(Molinari et al., 2011). A small lighter-than-air vehicle some other materials, closed-loop control is required to
whose rudders and elevators are controlled by EAP achieve the high precision control. Second, some mate-
actuators is shown in Figure 7. The 3.5-m-long proto- rials need special power source to drive, which means
type vehicle was tested successfully in 2006 and in 2007 the increasing in the complexity and weight of addi-
and demonstrated satisfactory control performance tional power source. For example, EAP, piezoelectric
(Michel et al., 2007). materials, and magnetostriction materials need to be
driven by high voltage or high current. Third, high level
of the demanding for driving energy makes it difficult
Magnetostriction to find an efficient method to drive some materials,
Magnetostriction is a property of certain materials in such as SMP. Moreover, some materials have poor
which the material undergoes a change in dimension or mechanical properties, which have restricted the
Sun et al. 2297
Figure 8. Hydraulic and control systems for a morphing wing UAV (Sneed et al., 2007).
development and application of them. For instance,

piezoelectric materials and magnetostriction materials
usually are partial to brittle failure and SMA, SMP,
and EAP have poor anti-fatigue ability. All these
aspects mentioned above should be avoided cautiously
when applying these smart materials as actuators.
Materials modification should be focused on in future
work.
Sensors
Optical fibers
In a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor, a grating is
etched into the core of an optical fiber. The refractive
index of the fiber will change in response to an axial Figure 9. Model of a flexible, variable-camber wing (skin
strain or a change in temperature. Strain caused by removed) monitored by an FBG sensor (Li et al., 2013a).
changes in the ambient temperature, stress (Yi et al.,
2012), pressure (Urban et al., 2010), or crack forma-
tion, among other factors, can be monitored by FBG The actual shape of a twisting wing actuated by SMAs
sensors. The strain distribution can be obtained accu- can be monitored with an array of FBG sensors and a
rately by temperature compensation (Kim et al., 2013). neural network (Mieloszyk et al., 2011a, 2011b). The
Embedded FBG sensors have been used in composite shape of an SMP can also be measured with FBG sen-
wings to monitor impact damage (Nakamura et al., sors, which have potential applications in a folding skin
2007; Takeda et al., 2007), cracks (Sekine et al., 2006), (Li et al., 2013b, 2013c).
and loads (Costa et al., 2014). These sensors can iden-
tify the locations and the shapes of fatigue cracks and
the time of failure. Furthermore, FBG sensors can
Piezoelectric materials
monitor the dynamic strains in a wing in flight (Cusano In piezoelectric materials, applying an electric current
et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2003). The wing root structure to the material causes the material to undergo a change
of an F/A-18 was tested under fatigue loading. Using in dimensions. Conversely, a change in dimensions
FBG sensors, the fatigue life and mechanisms and the (such as by an applied mechanical stress) generates an
failure locations could be monitored (Davis et al., 2012; electric charge in a piezoelectric material. This property
Schembri et al., 2013). can be used to create a sensor. Piezoelectric sensors can
FBG sensors can be used in morphing wings to be installed inside a structure or attached to the surface
monitor the shape of the wing. Deflections in variable- to detect internal structural damage based on sound
camber wings (Figure 9) have been determined from and ultrasound (Shang et al., 2008). In one study, a
the strain in a metal plate or a hinge measured using health monitoring system for a composite airframe
FBG sensors (Ciminello et al., 2013; Li et al., 2013a). (including the wings, the fuselage, and the empennage)
based on smart material also have some deficiencies

stated as follows. Wire signal transmission system is so
complex and ponderous, which causes much inconveni-
ence in applying. In order to solve this problem, a type
of wireless transmission system is already being devel-
oped. Moreover, since there is a limit on the number of
channels in signal demodulation system, it is desired to
realize a demodulation system capable of multi-signal
Figure 10. Piezoelectric differential air-pressure sensor for an processing. In addition, some sensors are prone to snap-
insect wing (Takahashi et al., 2010). ping such as optical fiber sensor and piezoelectric cera-
mics sensor or tearing such as EAP.
using piezoelectric sensors to measure structural strains Structures

under high-frequency loading was developed
(Kosmatka and Oliver, 2006). Piezoelectric sensors Auxetic honeycomb structures
have been used to monitor the load and deformation Unlike traditional honeycomb structures, an auxetic
bifurcations of a multi-stable structure to control its structure is one that becomes wider when it is stretched
motion (Zareie et al., 2011). This type of sensor can (Evans and Alderson, 2000), and therefore, it has a
also be used to measure the velocity of a morphing negative Poisson’s ratio (Prawoto, 2012). Auxetic hon-
structure (Ray and Batten, 2012). Figure 10 shows a eycomb structures have other advantages for morphing
device with a piezo-resistive cantilever that was able to structures (Luo and Tong, 2013a, 2013b). Variable-
detect the differential pressure over the wing surface of camber wings have been designed using several types of
an insect (Takahashi et al., 2009, 2010). auxetic structures, including reentrant hexagonal hon-
eycombs (Dong and Sun, 2011; Heo et al., 2013;
Vigliotti and Pasini, 2015), chiral honeycombs (Airoldi
Electro-active polymers et al., 2012; Bornengo et al., 2005; Martin et al., 2008;
Similar to piezoelectric materials, EAPs can also gener- Spadoni and Ruzzene, 2007), and cross-shaped honey-
ate electrical signals and can be used for flexible struc- combs (Zhang et al., 2012, 2014). Zero-Poisson’s-ratio
tures and large strain conditions. Figure 11 shows a honeycombs have been used in variable-span morphing
flapping wing MAV with EAP sensors on its wings wings (Ajaj et al., 2012; Bubert et al., 2010; Chen et al.,
(Hsu et al., 2006; Yang et al., 2007). The lift in flight 2015; Gong et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2013; Olympio and
was obtained from the EAP sensors. These results were Gandhi, 2010; Vocke et al., 2012, 2015). Figure 12
verified in a wind tunnel test and flight tests. EAP sen- shows a variable-span morphing wing with a 100%
sors can also be used for monitoring vibrating struc- extension (Vocke et al., 2011). Similar approaches have
tures (Sahu et al., 2013). been used to create variable-chord wing structures
Self-sensing is another main feature of smart materi- (Barbarino et al., 2011b; Chen et al., 2013d; Dale et al.,
als. Smart materials have sensing capabilities with some 2014). Adaptive wings have been constructed by adding
environmental parameters such as stress, strain, tem- pressured air in the sealed honeycombs to obtain the
perature and the location of structure damage and feed- optimal configuration for a given flight condition
back some measurable signals. However, these sensors (Barrett and Barrett, 2014; Vos and Barrett, 2010a,
Figure 11. EAP sensors on a flapping wing MAV (Yang et al., 2007).
Sun et al. 2299
Figure 12. Variable-span morphing wings based on zero-poisson’s-ratio honeycombs: (a) contracted state and (b) extended state
(Vocke et al., 2011).
2010b, 2011). A pressurized honeycomb has also been (Chen et al., 2012b, 2013a). Photographs of the out-of-
used as the actuator in a morphing wingtip structure plane deformation under uniform loading as the tube
(Sun et al., 2014a). Other honeycomb designs have was being heated are shown in Figure 13.
been used in wing boxes (Saito et al., 2011) and engine The third type of variable-stiffness tube is called a
fan blades (Lira et al., 2011). fluidic flexible matrix composite (F2MC) tube. The
stiffness of the tube is controlled by the pressure of a
fluid inside the tube. Pressurizing the fluid causes a
Variable-stiffness tube structures sharp increase in the stiffness because of the special
There is a contradiction in morphing structures, which anisotropic tube structure and the incompressibility of
means the structure must be both strong and deform- the fluid. The modulus ratio of a skin made with
able. A structure with variable stiffness is required. F2MC tubes can reach 55.5 (Shan et al., 2009), and the
Shape memory polymers are variable-stiffness materi- theoretical maximum modulus ratio can be 120 (Chen
als, as discussed in section ‘‘Shape memory polymers.’’ et al., 2012a). To obtain a larger modulus ratio, SMPs
This section discusses the use of variable-stiffness tubes can be used for the matrix to form F2MC-reinforced
and a flexible matrix to create a structure. There are SMP composites (Philen et al., 2009). The modulus
three types of variable-stiffness tubes. The first type is a ratio for these types can reach 140, which can allow
pneumatic tube, which is also called a pneumatic mus- the material to withstand conditions that could dam-
cle fiber. Pneumatic muscle fibers have been used as age an F2MC. This type of tube has been used as an
actuators (Vanderhoff and Kim, 2009) that shorten actuator to drive a morphing wing structure (Doepke
under air-pressure loads. In this process, the stiffness of et al., 2014).
the tube changes dramatically. Pneumatic muscle fibers
can be added to a flexible matrix to form a morphing
skin, where the transverse stiffness ratio can be as high
Multi-stable structures
as 120 (Chen et al., 2011). This morphing skin was also A multi-stable structure has two or more stable states,
used in a variable-camber wing structure as both actua- and the structure can transition rapidly from one to the
tor and skin (Feng et al., 2015). other when stimulated. Multi-stable structures have
The second type of variable-stiffness tube is the been used for morphing wing UAVs (Daynes and
SMP composite tube, a carbon fiber filament-wound Weaver, 2013b; Mattioni et al., 2008). Multi-stable
tube cured with SMP resin. In one set of studies, the structures have been used to construct variable-sweep
modulus ratio of a morphing skin created using SMP wings. In tests, the wings successfully transitioned from
composite tubes was 59.6 according to tensile tests straight to fully swept (Mattioni et al., 2006). A
Figure 13. Deformation of a morphing skin with SMP composite tubes (Chen et al., 2013a).
twisting structure has been manufactured based on bi- that the PBP mechanism improves tip rotation up to
stable structures actuated by MFCs to control a UAV 40% compared to conventional antagonistically actu-
(Schultz, 2005). Morphing wing trailing edges have ated SMA plates (Sinn and Barrett, 2010).
been designed to control four states by changing the
upper surface and the lower surface, both of which are
made of bi-stable structures (Mattioni et al., 2007). An Corrugated structures
adaptive morphing-airfoil wing has been designed with Corrugated structures can undergo a large expansion
a bi-stable structure that switches between stiff and or contraction in one direction. These structures are
compliant modes (Arrieta et al., 2014). A morphing additionally suited for folding or bending (Dayyani
wingtip structure based on a bi-stable structure can et al., 2015; Previtali et al., 2014a). Within a specified
provide the optimal wing configurations for takeoff range of Reynolds numbers, eddies form over the cor-
and cruise (Friswell et al., 2006), which can be deter- rugated surface, similar to streamlined airfoils (Xia
mined from wind tunnel tests (see Figure 14). A morph- et al., 2014). Morphing trailing-edge structures can be
ing air inlet using multi-stable structures that switches covered with corrugated skins (Shaw et al., 2015).
between the open and closed positions to either create There are two methods to make corrugated structures
a flush surface or form a submerged air duct with a smooth. One method is to fill the structure with flexible
divergent–convergent channel has been constructed rubber (Yokozeki et al., 2006, 2014), and the other
(Daynes et al., 2011). An actuator is designed to oper- method is to cover it with a segmented skin similar to
ate at a first working temperature while in a preceding fish scales (Thill et al., 2010). Figure 15 shows a morph-
manufacturing process the first layer of material is ing winglet with a corrugated structure in which a
structurally connected to a support beam at a second 0.52 rad change in dihedral angle and 0.055 rad change
temperature wherein the second temperature is higher in twist angle were achieved (Ursache et al., 2008).
than the first temperature so as to cause that at the first Corrugated structures have been used in a flapping
temperature the support beam is in compression with- artificial insect wing whose aerodynamic behavior was
out causing flexure thereof (Barrett and Tiso, 2011). analyzed (Meng et al., 2010).
SMA-actuated post-buckled pre-compressed (PBP) Smart structures are distinct from the traditional
plates are capable of tip deflection of up to 45", and bearing structures, since smart structures emphasize
Sun et al. 2301
Figure 14. Wind-tunnel test rig for a winglet incorporating bi-stable structures (Mattioni et al., 2007).
Figure 15. Demonstration of extension and canting of a morphing winglet with a corrugated structure (Ursache et al., 2008).
more the feature of deformability and designability. for example, by twisting the blades or controlling a
For different deformation structures of morphing air- trailing-edge flap (Chen and Chopra, 1997; Giurgiutiu,
craft, a structure capable of carrying and deforming is 2000a). Aircraft engine rotor vibrations and bearing
the base of actuator and sensors. These current designs forces can be reduced using piezoelectric actuators
of lightweight deformation structure have good perfor- (Leboi et al., 2010). Vibrations in the wings (Munteanu
mance on the bearing and deformation capacity, but and Ursu, 2008) and the vertical stabilizer (Chen et al.,
there are still some problems about the relationship 2013b; Gao et al., 2013) can be reduced dramatically
between deformation structures and smooth configura- using piezoelectric actuators as active dampers. An
tion to be solved. There are two potential solutions as active buffet alleviation system has been tested on a 1/
follows. First one, smooth configurations could be rea- 16th-scale model of a vertical stabilizer in a wind tunnel
lized by finding a valid method to connect flexible skin (Hanagud et al., 2002). Active vibration control has
to deformation structures. Second, searching for theo- been used for buffet load alleviation on a full-scale F/
retical support build unsmooth configurations which A-18 vertical stabilizer (Chen et al., 2006); the test rig is
also have good performance on some special aerody- shown in Figure 16.
namic efficiency. To achieve a comfortable environment in an air-
plane, the interior broadband noise can be reduced
Controllers using smart actuators (Dimino and Concilio, 2010;
Guigou and Fuller, 1998; Konstanzer et al., 2006; Rose
Active vibration control et al., 2011). Piezoelectric actuators were used to reduce
Vibration and noise significantly affect the comfort and engine noise and unsteady flow over an aft fuselage
the safety of an aircraft. Smart materials and structures panel during takeoff on a Boeing B-1B high-
have been used to reduce the vibration of rotor blades, performance combat aircraft (Larsona et al., 1998).
control of structures such as active vibration control

and airflow control. Controllers, sensors and actuators,
and smart structures combine electronic technology to
form a smart system capable of sensing, processing,
and actuating, which will be the developing trend of
smart materials and structures.
Conclusion
In this article, applications of smart materials and
structures in morphing aircraft were reviewed. These
materials are already being used in several micro air
vehicles, unmanned aerial vehicles, and full-size air-
craft, suggesting the great potential of smart materials
and structures in morphing aircraft. However, smart
Figure 16. Active vibration control of an F/A-18 vertical materials and structures are not currently suitable for
stabilizer with piezoelectric actuators (Chen et al., 2006). production aircraft. To realize the full potential of
these devices, multi-scale design and multi-disciplinary
research should be considered, and the following five
Airflow control challenges should be addressed:
The aerodynamic behavior of a body can be improved 1. Material modification. At the molecular scale,
through small changes in its surface. Piezoelectric cera- amputation, grafting, or recombination technol-
mic actuators have been used with a compliant upper ogy could be used to improve the performance
wing surface to create an active wall that can be made of current smart materials.
to oscillate to reduce skin friction (Pätzold et al., 2013). 2. Functional additives. Additives (e.g. carbon
Transonic drag has been reduced using a morphing nanotubes, carbon black, graphite, ferrous pow-
wing airfoil driven by SMAs (Barbarino et al., 2009a). ders, and nickel powders) could be incorporated
An active vibrating surface can reduce drag and into smart composites to make them multifunc-
increase lift, as was demonstrated on a 1/10-scale V-22 tional. For example, SMPs can be heated elec-
model in a wind tunnel (Calkins and Clingman, 2002). trically by incorporating conductive additives
The use of a linear array of micro-flaps on a delta wing (Leng et al., 2007, 2008, 2009; Lu et al., 2010).
to generate rolling moments to control a tailless aircraft 3. Structure optimization. Optimized structures can
has been demonstrated in a wind tunnel (Liu et al., be designed using topology optimization meth-
1995). A novel wing with smooth, hingeless morphing ods (Vasista and Tong, 2013). Moreover, novel
ailerons that increase the chordwise aerodynamic effi- structures may be discovered by applying new
ciency has been developed (Pankonien and Inman, concepts (Chen et al., 2013c; Fischer et al., 2011;
2013), as shown in Figure 17. The capability of this Wu et al., 2014).
type of control surface to maintain stability and 4. Hybrid applications. Novel structures can be
increase efficiency has been demonstrated in wind tun- constructed using various smart materials; for
nel tests and in flight tests (Bilgen et al., 2013). example, honeycombs constructed using SMAs
At this point, the smart materials are not applied as (Hassan et al., 2008; Okabe and Sugiyama,
real controllers but actuating units. Controllers based 2009) or SMPs (Rossiter et al., 2014), bi-stable-
on smart materials put more emphasis on the active structure actuators constructed from MFCs
Figure 17. Discrete aileron controlled by MFC (Pankonien and Inman, 2013).
Sun et al. 2303
(Giddings et al., 2011; Molinari et al., 2014; Barbarino S, Gandhi F and Webster SD (2011b) Design of
Schultz and Hyer, 2004), and hybrid linear step extendable chord sections for morphing helicopter rotor
actuators driven by magnetostrictive or piezo- blades. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Struc-
electric materials (Ueno et al., 2007). tures 22: 891–905.
5. Novel smart materials. Many types of novel Barbarino S, Pecora R, Lecce L, et al. (2009b) A novel SMA-
smart materials are required, and efforts should based concept for airfoil structural morphing. Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance 18(5–6): 696–705.
be made to create and investigate them.
Barbarino S, Pecora R, Lecce L, et al. (2011c) Airfoil struc-
tural morphing based on S.M.A. actuator series: numerical
Declaration of Conflicting Interests and experimental studies. Journal of Intelligent Material
Systems and Structures 22: 987–1003.
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with Bar-Cohen Y (2000) Electroactive polymers as artificial mus-
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this cles—capabilities, potentials and challenges (Section 11, in
article. Chapter 8, ‘‘Motion’’ paper). In: Osada Y (ed.) Handbook
on Biomimetics. Tokyo: NTS, pp. 1–13.
Funding Bar-Cohen Y (2002) Electro-active polymers: current capabil-
ities and challenges. In: Proceedings of SPIE smart structures
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
and materials 2002: electroactive polymer actuators and devices
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
(EAPAD), San Diego, CA, 17 March, vol. 4695.
article: This work is supported by the National Natural
Barrett RM (1996) Active aeroelastic tailoring of an adaptive
Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos 11225211 and
Flexspar stabilator. Smart Materials and Structures 5:
11272106).
723–730.
Barrett RM and Barrett C (2014) Biomimetic FAA-certifi-
References able, artificial muscle structures for commercial aircraft
wings. Smart Materials and Structures 23: 074011.
Abdullah EJ, Bil C and Watkins S (2011) Performance of
Barrett RM and Stutts J (1997) Design and testing of a 1/
adaptive airfoil control system using shape memory alloy
12th-scale solid state adaptive rotor. Smart Materials and
actuators for UAV. In: Proceedings of the 11th AIAA avia-
Structures 6: 491–497.
tion technology, integration, and operations (ATIO) confer-
Barrett RM and Stutts J (1998) Development of a piezocera-
ence, Virginia Beach, VA, 20–22 September, AIAA 2011-
mic flight control surface actuator for highly compressed
6849.
munitions. In: Proceedings of 39th structures, structural
Airoldi A, Crespi M, Quaranta G, et al. (2012) Design of a
dynamics and materials conference, Long Beach, CA, 20–23
morphing airfoil with composite chiral structure. Journal
April, AIAA 98-2034, pp. 2807–2813. Reston, VA: AIAA.
of Aircraft 49(4): 1008–1019.
Barrett RM and Tiso P (2011) Actuator. Patent no. 7,898,153,
Ajaj RM, Friswell MI, Flores EIS, et al. (2012) Span morph-
USA, 1 March.
ing: a conceptual design study. In: Proceedings of the 53rd
Barrett RM, Frye P and Schliesman M (1998) Design, con-
AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC structures, structural
struction and characterization of a flightworthy piezoelec-
dynamics, and materials conference, Honolulu, HI, 23–26
tric solid state adaptive rotor. Smart Materials and
April, AIAA 2012-1510.
Ameduri S, Brindisi A, Tiseo B, et al. (2011) Optimization
Bent AA and Pizzochero AE (2000) Recent advances in active
and integration of shape memory alloy (SMA)-based elas-
fiber composites for structural control. In: Proceedings of
tic actuators within a morphing flap architecture. Journal
SPIE smart structures and materials 2000: industrial and
of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures. Epub
commercial applications of smart structures technologies,
ahead of print 17 November. DOI: 10.1177/
Newport Beach, CA, 6 March, vol. 3991, pp. 244–254. Bel-
1045389X11428672.
lingham, WA: SPIE.
Arrieta AF, Kuder IK, Rist M, et al. (2014) Passive load alle-
Bhavsar R, Vaidya NY, Ganguly P, et al. (2008) Intelligence
viation aerofoil concept with variable stiffness multi-stable
in novel materials. Oilfield Review 20(1): 32–41.
composites. Composite Structures 116: 235–242.
Bilgen O and Friswell MI (2014) Piezoceramic composite
Baier H and Datashvili L (2011) Active and morphing aero-
actuators for a solid-state variable-camber wing. Journal of
space structures—a synthesis between advanced materials,
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 25(7): 806–817.
structures and mechanisms. International Journal of Aero-
Bilgen O, Butt LM, Day SR, et al. (2013) A novel unmanned
nautical and Space Sciences 12(3): 225–240.
aircraft with solid-state control surfaces: analysis and flight
Barbarino S, Ameduri S, Lecce L, et al. (2009a) Wing shape
demonstration. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
control through an SMA-based device. Journal of Intelli-
gent Material Systems and Structures 20: 283–296.
Bilgen O, Kochersberger K, Diggs EC, et al. (2007) Morphing
Barbarino S, Bilgen O, Ajaj RM, et al. (2011a) A review of
wing micro-air-vehicles via macro-fiber-composite actua-
morphing aircraft. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems
tors. In: Proceedings of the 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/
and Structures 22: 823–877.
AHS/ASC structures, structural dynamics, and materials
Barbarino S, Flores ES, Ajaj RM, et al. (2014) A review on
conference, Honolulu, HI, 23–26 April, AIAA 2007-1785.
shape memory alloys with applications to morphing air-
Bogue R (2012) Smart materials: a review of recent develop-
craft. Smart Materials and Structures 23(6): 063001.
ments. Assembly Automation 32: 3–7.
Bornengo D, Scarpa F and Remillat C (2005) Evaluation of of SPIE’s North American conference on smart structures
hexagonal chiral structure for morphing airfoil concept. and materials, San Diego, CA, 3–6 March, vol. 3041, pp.
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part 217–230. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
G: Journal of Aerospace Engineering 219: 185–192. Chen SB, Chen YJ, Zhang ZC, et al. (2013a) Experiment and
Brailovski V, Terriault P, Georges T, et al. (2010) SMA actua- analysis of morphing skin embedded with shape memory
tors for morphing wings. Physics Procedia 10: 197–203. polymer composite tube. Journal of Intelligent Material
Bridger K, Sewell JM, Cooke AV, et al. (2004) High-pressure Systems and Structures. Epub ahead of print 31 December.
magnetostrictive pump development: a comparison of pro- DOI: 10.1177/1045389X13517307.
totype and modeled performance. In: Proceedings of SPIE Chen Y, Ulker FD, Wickramasinghe V, et al. (2013b) Devel-
smart structures and materials 2004: industrial and commer- opment of robust control law for active buffeting load
cial applications of smart structures technologies, San alleviation of smart fin structures. Journal of Intelligent
Diego, CA, 14 March, vol. 5388, pp. 247–257. Bellingham, Material Systems and Structures. Epub ahead of print 11
WA: SPIE. June. DOI: 10.1177/1045389X13491639.
Bubert EA, Woods BKS, Lee K, et al. (2010) Design and fab- Chen Y, Viresh W and Zimcik D (2006) Development and
rication of a passive 1D morphing aircraft skin. Journal of verification of real-time controllers for F/A-18 vertical fin
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 21: 1699–1716. buffet load alleviation. In: Proceedings of SPIE smart
Bushnell GS, Arbogast D and Ruggeri R (2008) Shape con- structures and materials 2006: smart structures and inte-
trol of a morphing structure (rotor blade) using a shape grated systems, San Diego, CA, 26 February, vol. 6173, p.
memory alloy actuator system. In: Proceedings of SPIE 617310. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
active and passive smart structures and integrated systems Chen YJ, Scarpa F, Farrow IR, et al. (2013c) Composite flex-
2008, San Diego, CA, 9 March, vol. 6928, p. 69282A. Bel- ible skin with large negative Poisson’s ratio range: numeri-
lingham, WA: SPIE. cal and experimental analysis. Smart Materials and
Bye DR and McClure PD (2007) Design of a morphing vehi- Structures 22: 045005.
cle. In: Proceedings of the 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ Chen YJ, Scarpa F, Remillat C, et al. (2013d) Curved
ASC structures, structural dynamics, and materials confer- Kirigami SILICOMB cellular structures with zero Pois-
ence, Honolulu, HI, 23–26 April, AIAA 2007-1728. son’s ratio for large deformations and morphing.
Calkins FT and Clingman DJ (2002) Vibrating surface actua- Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 25:
tors for active flow control. In: Proceedings of SPIE smart 731–743.
structures and materials 2002: industrial and commercial Chen YJ, Sun J, Liu YJ, et al. (2012a) Experiment and analy-
applications of smart structures technologies, San Diego, sis of fluidic flexible matrix composite (F2MC) tube. Jour-
CA, 17 March, vol. 4698, pp. 85–96. Bellingham, WA: nal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 23(3):
SPIE. 279–290.
Calkins FT and Mabe JH (2010) Shape memory alloy based Chen YJ, Sun J, Liu YJ, et al. (2012b) Variable stiffness prop-
morphing aerostructures. Journal of Mechanical Design erty study on shape memory polymer composite tube.
132: 111012. Smart Materials and Structures 21: 094021.
Calkins FT, Mabe JH and Butler GW (2006) Boeing’s vari- Chen YJ, Yin WL, Liu YJ, et al. (2011) Structural design and
able geometry chevron: morphing aerospace structures for analysis of morphing skin embedded with pneumatic mus-
jet noise reduction. In: Proceedings of SPIE smart struc- cle fibers. Smart Materials and Structures 20: 085033.
tures and materials 2006: industrial and commercial applica- Chung DDL (2004) Self-heating structural materials. Smart
tions of smart structures technologies, San Diego, CA, 26 Materials and Structures 13: 562–565.
February, vol. 6171, p. 61710O. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. Ciminello M, Concilio A, Flauto D, et al. (2013) FBG sensor
Cantrell JT and Ifju PG (2015) Experimental characterization system for trailing edge chord-wise hinge rotation measure-
of unimorph shape memory polymer actuators incorporat- ments. In: Proceedings of SPIE sensors and smart structures
ing transverse curvature in the substrate. Experimental technologies for civil, mechanical, and aerospace systems
Mechanics 55(8): 1395–1409. 2013, San Diego, CA, 10 March, vol. 8692, p. 869221. Bel-
Chapman EG, Herdic SL, Keller CA, et al. (2005) Develop-
lingham, WA: SPIE.
ment of miniaturized piezo-hydraulic pumps. In: Proceed- Cistone J (2004) Next century aerospace traffic management:
ings of SPIE smart structures and materials 2005: industrial
the sky is no longer the limit. Journal of Aircraft 41(1):
and commercial applications of smart structures technolo-
36–42.
gies, San Diego, CA, 6 March, vol. 5762, pp. 299–310. Bel-
Claeyssen F, Lhermet N and Maillard T (2002) Magnetostric-
lingham, WA: SPIE.
tive actuators compared to piezoelectric actuators. In: Pro-
Chaudhuri A and Wereley NM (2010) Experimental valida-
ceedings of the SPIE European workshop on smart
tion of a hybrid electrostrictive hydraulic actuator analy-
structures in engineering and technology, Giens, 21 May,
sis. Journal of Vibration and Acoustics 132: 021006.
vol. 4763, pp. 194–200. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
Chaudhuri A, Yoo JH and Wereley NM (2009) Design, test
Colozza A (2007) Fly like a bird—flapping wings could revolu-
and model of a hybrid magnetostrictive hydraulic actua-
tionize aircraft design. IEEE Spectrum, 1 May, pp. 39–43.
tor. Smart Materials and Structures 18: 085019.
Costa J, Black RJ, Moslehi B, et al. (2014) Fiber-optically
Chen J, Shen X and Li J (2015) Zero Poisson’s ratio flexible
sensorized composite wing. In: Proceedings of SPIE smart
skin for potential two-dimensional wing morphing. Aero-
sensor phenomena, technology, networks, and systems inte-
space Science and Technology 45: 228–241.
gration 2014, San Diego, CA, 9 March, vol. 9062, p.
Chen PC and Chopra I (1997) Wind tunnel test of a smart
906213. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
rotor with individual blade twist control. In: Proceedings
Sun et al. 2305
Craig D (1996) Near piezoelectric actuator technology. In: Friswell MI, Baker D, Herencia JE, et al. (2006) Compliant
Proceedings of SPIE smart structures and materials 1996: structures for morphing aircraft. In: Proceedings of
smart structures and integrated systems, San Diego, CA, 25 ICAST2006: 17th international conference on adaptive
February, vol. 2717, pp. 246–258. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. structures and technologies, Taipei, Taiwan, 16–19 Octo-
Cusano A, Capoluongo P, Campopiano S, et al. (2006) ber, pp. 17–24.
Experimental modal analysis of an aircraft model wing by Frommer JB and Crossley WA (2005) Enabling continuous
embedded fiber Bragg grating sensors. IEEE Sensors Jour- optimization for sizing morphing aircraft concepts. In:
nal 6(1): 67–77. Proceedings of the 43rd AIAA aerospace sciences
Dale AS, Cooper JE and Mosquera A (2014) Topology opti- meeting and exhibit, Reno, NV, 10–13 January, AIAA
mization and experimental validation of 0-y honeycomb 2005-2816.
for adaptive morphing wing. In: Proceedings of the AIAA Galantai VP, Sofla AYN, Meguid SA, et al. (2012) Bio-
SciTech, 22nd AIAA/ASME/AHS adaptive structures con- inspired wing morphing for unmanned aerial vehicles using
ference, National Harbor, MD, 13–17 January, AIAA intelligent materials. International Journal of Mechanics
2014-0763. and Materials in Design 8: 71–79.
Davis C, Tejedor S, Grabovac I, et al. (2012) High-strain fiber Gao L, Lu QQ, Fei F, et al. (2013) Active vibration control
Bragg gratings for structural fatigue testing of military air- based on piezoelectric smart composite. Smart Materials
craft. Photonic Sensors 2(3): 215–224. and Structures 22: 125032.
Daynes S and Weaver PM (2013a) Review of shape-morphing Georges T, Brailovski V and Terriault P (2012) Design of
automobile structures: concepts and outlook. Proceedings active bias SMA actuators for morphing wing applica-
of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal tions. Advanced Materials Research 409: 627–632.
of Automobile Engineering. Epub ahead of print 1 August. Giddings PF, Kim HA, Salo AIT, et al. (2011) Modelling of
DOI: 10.1177/0954407013496557. piezoelectrically actuated bistable composites. Materials
Daynes S and Weaver PM (2013b) Stiffness tailoring using Letters 65(9): 1261–1263.
prestress in adaptive composite structures. Composite Giurgiutiu V (2000a) Active-Materials induced-strain actua-
Structures 106: 282–287. tion for aeroelastic vibration control. Shock and Vibration
Daynes S, Weaver PM and Trevarthen JA (2011) A morphing Digest 32(5): 355–368.
composite air inlet with multiple stable shapes. Journal of Giurgiutiu V (2000b) Recent advances in smart-material rotor
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 22: 961–973. control actuation. In: Proceedings of the 41st AIAA/
Dayyani I, Shaw AD, Flores ES, et al. (2015) The mechanics ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC structures, structural dynamics,
of composite corrugated structures: a review with applica- and materials conference, and adaptive structures forum,
tions in morphing aircraft. Composite Structures 133: Atlanta, GA, 3–6 April, AIAA 2000-1709.
358–380. Giurgiutiu V (2011) Review of smart-materials actuation solu-
Dimino I and Concilio A (2010) A feedforward control sys- tions for aeroelastic and vibration control. Journal of Intel-
tem for the active noise control of a triple-pane aircraft- ligent Material Systems and Structures 11: 525–544.
type window. In: Proceedings of the 17th international con- Giurgiutiu V, Chaudhry Z and Rogers CA (1994) Active con-
gress on sound and vibration, Cairo, Egypt, 18–22 July, pp. trol of helicopter rotor blades with induced strain actua-
1–8. tors. In: Proceedings of 35th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/
Doepke EB, Philen MK and West RL (2014) Design and opti- ASC structures, structural dynamics, and materials confer-
mization of a morphing aileron control surface using FMC ence, Hilton Head, SC, 18–20 April, AIAA-94-1765-CP.
actuators. In: Proceedings of SPIE sensors and smart struc- Giurgiutiu V, Chaudhry Z and Rogers CA (1995) Engineering
tures technologies for civil, mechanical, and aerospace sys- feasibility of induced-strain actuators for rotor blade active
tems 2014, San Diego, CA, 9 March, vol. 9061, p. 90613H. vibration control. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems
Bellingham, WA: SPIE. and Structures 6: 583–597.
Donadon MV and Iannucci L (2014) A numerical study on Gomez JC and Garcia E (2011) Morphing unmanned aerial
smart material selection for flapped and twisted morphing vehicles. Smart Materials and Structures 20: 103001.
wing configurations. Journal of Aerospace Technology and Gong X, Huang J, Scarpa F, et al. (2015) Zero Poisson’s ratio
Management 6(3): 281–290. cellular structure for two-dimensional morphing applica-
Dong WJ and Sun Q (2011) Airfoil design and numerical tions. Composite Structures 134: 384–392.
analysis for morphing wing structure. Advanced Materials Grohmann B, Maucher C and Jänker P (2006) Actuation
Research 228–229: 169–173.
concepts for morphing helicopter rotor blades. In: Pro-
Ehlers SM and Weisshaar TA (1990) Static aeroelastic beha-
ceedings of the 25th international congress of the aeronauti-
vior of an adaptive laminated piezoelectric composite
cal sciences (ICAS 2006), Hamburg, Germany, 3–8
wing. AIAA Journal 28: 1611–1623.
September, pp. 1–10.
Evans KE and Alderson KL (2000) Auxetic materials: the
Guigou C and Fuller CR (1998) Control of aircraft interior
positive side of being negative. Engineering Science and
broadband noise with foam-PVDF smart skin. Journal of
Education Journal 9(4): 148–154.
Sound and Vibration 220(3): 541–557.
Feng N, Liu LW, Liu YJ, et al. (2015) A bio-inspired, active
Hanagud S, De Noyer B, Luo H, et al. (2002) Tail buffet alle-
morphing skin for camber morphing structures. Smart
viation of high-performance twin-tail aircraft using piezo-
Materials and Structures 24: 035023.
stack actuators. AIAA Journal 40(4): 619–627.
Fischer C, Terriault P and Brailovskic V (2011) Debonding
Hao T (2001) Electrorheological fluids. Advanced Materials
characterization of SMA/polymer morphing structures.
13(24): 1847–1857.
Advanced Materials Research 409: 621–626.
Hartl DJ and Lagoudas DC (2007) Aerospace applications of Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International
shape memory alloys. Proceedings of the Institution of Journal 86(4): 295–306.
Mechanical Engineers, Part G: Journal of Aerospace Engi- Kciuk M and Turczyn R (2006) Properties and application of
neering 221: 535–551. magnetorheological fluids. Journal of Achievements in
Hartl DJ, Lagoudas DC, Calkins FT, et al. (2010a) Use of a Materials and Manufacturing Engineering 18(1–2):
Ni60Ti shape memory alloy for active jet engine chevron 127–130.
application, I: thermomechanical characterization. Smart Keihl MM, Bortolin RS, Sanders B, et al. (2005) Mechanical
Materials and Structures 19: 015020. properties of shape memory polymers for morphing air-
Hartl DJ, Mooney JT, Lagoudas DC, et al. (2010b) Use of a craft applications. In: Proceedings of SPIE smart structures
Ni60Ti shape memory alloy for active jet engine chevron and materials 2005: industrial and commercial applications
application, II: experimentally validated numerical analy- of smart structures technologies, San Diego, CA, 6 March,
sis. Smart Materials and Structures 19: 015021. vol. 5762, pp. 143–151. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
Hassan MR, Scarpa F, Ruzzene M, et al. (2008) Smart shape Kim DK, Kim HI, Han JH, et al. (2008) Experimental investi-
memory alloy chiral honeycomb. Materials Science and gation on the aerodynamic characteristics of a bio-mimetic
Engineering: A 481–482: 654–657. flapping wing with macro-fiber composites. Journal of
Heo H, Ju J and Kim DM (2013) Compliant cellular struc- Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 19: 423–431.
tures: application to a passive morphing airfoil. Composite Kim GW and Wang KW (2007) Piezoelectric-hydraulic pump
Structures 106: 560–569. based band brake actuation system for automotive trans-
Heryawan Y, Park HC, Goo NS, et al. (2005) Design and mission control. In: Proceedings of SPIE active and passive
demonstration of a small expandable morphing wing. In: smart structures and integrated systems 2007, San Diego,
Proceedings of SPIE smart structures and materials 2005: CA, 18 March, vol. 6525, p. 65251E. Bellingham, WA:
smart structures and integrated systems, San Diego, CA, 6 SPIE.
March, vol. 5764, pp. 224–231. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. Kim HI, Kim DK and Han JH (2007) Study of flapping
Heryawan Y, Park HC, Goo NS, et al. (2006) Structural actuator modules using IPMC. In: Proceedings of SPIE
design, manufacturing, and wind tunnel test of a small electroactive polymer actuators and devices (EAPAD)
expandable wing. Key Engineering Materials 306–308: 2007, San Diego, CA, 18 March, vol. 6524, p. 65241A.
1157–1162. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
Hsu CK, Ho JY, Feng GH, et al. (2006) A flapping MAV Kim JH, Lee YG, Park Y, et al. (2013) Temperature-compen-
(Micro Aerial Vehicle) with PVDF-parylene composite sated strain measurement of full-scale small aircraft wing
skin. In: Proceedings of Asia-Pacific conference of transdu- structure using low-cost FBG interrogator. In: Proceedings
cers and micro-nano technology—APCOT 2006, Singapore, of SPIE sensors and smart structures technologies for civil,
25–28 June. mechanical, and aerospace systems 2013, San Diego, CA,
Jacob JD and Smith SW (2009) Design limitations of deploy- 10 March, vol. 8692, p. 86922P. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
able wings for small low altitude UAVs. In: Proceedings of Kim WJ and Sadighi A (2010) A novel low-power linear mag-
the 47th AIAA aerospace sciences meeting including the new netostrictive actuator with local three-phase excitation.
horizons forum and aerospace exposition, Orlando, FL, 5–8 IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics 15(2):
January, AIAA 2009-1291. 299–307.
Jaenker P, Kloeppel V, Konstanzer P, et al. (2008) Piezo Ko SH, Bae JS and Rho JH (2014) Development of a morph-
active vibration and noise control in helicopters. In: Pro- ing flap using shape memory alloy actuators: the aerody-
ceedings of the 26th international congress of the aeronautical namic characteristics of a morphing flap. Smart Materials
sciences, Anchorage, Alaska, 14–19 September, pp. 1–10. and Structures 23: 074015.
Jha AK and Kudva JN (2004) Morphing aircraft concepts, Konstanzer P, Enenkl B, Aubourg PA, et al. (2008)
classifications, and challenges. In: Proceedings of SPIE Recent advances in Eurocopter’s passive and active vibra-
smart structures and materials 2004: industrial and commer- tion control. In: Proceedings of the American helicopter
cial applications of smart structures technologies, San society 64th annual forum, Montréal, QC, Canada, 29
Diego, CA, 14 March, vol. 5388, pp. 213–224. Bellingham, April–1 May.
WA: SPIE. Konstanzer P, Grünewald M, Jänker P, et al. (2006) Aircraft
Joshi SP, Tidwell Z, Crossley WA, et al. (2004) Comparison interior noise reduction through a piezo tunable vibration
of morphing wing strategies based upon aircraft perfor- absorber system. In: Proceedings of the 25th international
mance impacts. In: Proceedings of the 45th AIAA/ASME/ congress of the aeronautical sciences (ICAS 2006), Ham-
ASCE/AHS/ASC structures, structural dynamics, and burg, 3–8 September, pp. 1–6.
materials conference, Palm Springs, CA, 19–22 April, Koratkar NA and Chopra I (2000) Analysis and testing of
AIAA 2004-1722. mach-scaled rotor with trailing-edge flaps. AIAA Journal
Kang GY, Han GY, Kang JY, et al. (2006) Label-free protein 38(7): 1113–1124.
assay with site-directly immobilized antibody using self- Kosmatka JB and Oliver J (2006) Development of an in-flight
actuating PZT cantilever. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemi- structural health monitoring system for composite
cal 117: 332–338. unmanned aircraft. In: Proceedings of the 47th AIAA/
Kang WR, Kim EH, Jeong MS, et al. (2012) Morphing wing ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC structures, structural dynamics,
mechanism using an SMA wire actuator. International and materials conference, Newport, RI, 1–4 May, AIAA
Journal of Aeronautical and Space Sciences 13(1): 58–63. 2006-1881.
Karagiannis D, Solomou A, Machairas T, et al. (2014) Airfoil Krstulovic-Opara N, Nau J, Wriggers P, et al. (2003) Self-
morphing based on SMA actuation technology. Aircraft actuating SMA-HPFRC fuses for auto-adaptive
Sun et al. 2307
composite structures. Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastruc- Systems and Structures. Epub ahead of print 19 November.
ture Engineering 18: 78–94. DOI: 10.1177/1045389X13510220.
Kruusamäe K, Brunetto P, Punning A, et al. (2011) Electro- Li P, Yan ZJ, Zhang L, et al. (2013b) Monitoring of deploy-
mechanical model for a self-sensing ionic polymer–metal ment process of shape memory polymers for morphing
composite actuating device with patterned surface electro- structures with embedded fibre Bragg grating sensors.
des. Smart Materials and Structures 20: 124001. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures
Kuder IK, Arrieta AF, Raither WE, et al. (2013) Variable 25(10): 1224–1232.
stiffness material and structural concepts for morphing Li P, Yan ZJ, Zhou KM, et al. (2013c) Monitoring static
applications. Progress in Aerospace Sciences 63: 33–55. shape memory polymers using a fiber Bragg grating as a
Kudva JN (2004) Overview of the DARPA smart wing proj- vector-bending sensor. Optical Engineering 52(1): 014401.
ect. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures Lira C, Scarpa F and Rajasekaran R (2011) A gradient cellu-
15: 261–267. lar core for aeroengine fan blades based on auxetic config-
Larsona CR, Falangasa E, Dobbsa SK, et al. (1998) Piezo- urations. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
ceramic active vibration suppression control system devel- Structures 22: 907–917.
opment for the B-lB aircraft. In: Proceedings of SPIE Liu C, Tsao T, Tai YC, et al. (1995) Out-of-plane permalloy
smart structures and materials 1998: industrial and commer- magnetic actuators for delta-wing control. In: Proceedings
cial applications of smart structures technologies, San of the IEEE micro electro mechanical systems, MEMS ’95,
Diego, CA, 1 March, vol. 3326, pp. 294–305. Bellingham, Amsterdam, 29 January–2 February, pp. 7–12. New York:
WA: SPIE. IEEE.
Leboi F, Rinderknecht S and Özet M (2010) Model-based Liu WD, Zhu H, Zhou SQ, et al. (2013) In-plane corrugated
control of an elastic aircraft engine rotor with piezo stack. cosine honeycomb for 1D morphing skin and its applica-
In: Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE 17th international confer- tion on variable camber wing. Chinese Journal of Aeronau-
ence on industrial engineering and engineering management tics 26(4): 935–942.
(IE&EM), Xiamen, China, 29–31 October, pp. 537–541. Liu YJ, Du HY, Liu LW, et al. (2014) Shape memory poly-
New York: IEEE. mers and their composites in aerospace applications: a
Lee JR, Ryu CY, Koo BY, et al. (2003) In-flight health moni- review. Smart Materials and Structures 23: 023001.
toring of a subscale wing using a fiber Bragg grating sensor Liu YJ, Lv HB, Lan X, et al. (2009) Review of electro-active
system. Smart Materials and Structures 12: 147–155. shape-memory polymer composite. Composites Science
Lee SG, Park HC, Pandita SD, et al. (2006) Performance and Technology 69: 2064–2068.
improvement of IPMC (Ionic Polymer Metal Composites) Lloyd PA (2007) Requirements for smart materials. Proceed-
for a flapping actuator. International Journal of Control, ings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part G:
Automation, and Systems 4(6): 748–755. Journal of Aerospace Engineering 221: 471–478.
Lee T and Chopra I (2001) Design of piezostack-driven trail- Loverich JJ (2004) Development of a new high specific power
ing-edge flap actuator for helicopter rotors. Smart Materi- piezoelectric actuator. Master’s Thesis, The Pennsylvania
als and Structures 10: 15–24. State University, State College, PA.
Leng JS, Lan X, Liu YJ, et al. (2008) Electrical conductivity Lu HB, Liu YJ, Gou JH, et al. (2010) Synergistic effect of
of thermoresponsive shape-memory polymer with carbon nanofiber and carbon nanopaper on shape
embedded micron sized Ni powder chains. Applied Physics memory polymer composite. Applied Physics Letters 96:
Letters 92: 014104. 084102.
Leng JS, Lan X, Liu YJ, et al. (2011) Shape-memory polymers Luo QT and Tong LY (2013a) Adaptive pressure-controlled
and their composites: stimulus methods and applications. cellular structures for shape morphing, I: design and anal-
Progress in Materials Science 56: 1077–1135. ysis. Smart Materials and Structures 22: 055014.
Leng JS, Liu LW, Lv HB, et al. (2012) Applications for Luo QT and Tong LY (2013b) Adaptive pressure-controlled
shape-memory polymer composites in aerospace. JEC cellular structures for shape morphing, II: numerical and
Composites Magazine 72: 56–58. experimental validation. Smart Materials and Structures
Leng JS, Lu HB, Liu YJ, et al. (2007) Electroactivate shape- 22: 055015.
memory polymer filled with nanocarbon particles and Mabe J (2008) Variable area jet nozzle for noise reduction
short carbon fibers. Applied Physics Letters 91: 144105. using shape memory alloy actuators. In: Proceedings of
Leng JS, Lu HB, Liu YJ, et al. (2009) Shape-Memory Acoustic’08 Paris, Paris, 29 June–4 July, pp. 5487–5492.
polymers—a class of novel smart materials. MRS Bulletin Mabe J, Calkins FT and Ruggeri RT (2007) Full-scale flight
34: 848–855. tests of aircraft morphing structures using SMA actuators.
Leng JS, Yu K, Sun J, et al. (2015) Deployable morphing In: Proceedings of SPIE active and passive smart structures
structure based on shape memory polymer. Aircraft Engi- and integrated systems 2007, San Diego, CA, 18 March,
neering and Aerospace Technology: An International Jour- vol. 6525, p. 65251C. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
nal 87(3): 218–223. McGowan AM, Horta LG, Harrison JS, et al. (1999)
Lentink D, Müller UK, Stamhuis EJ, et al. (2007) How swifts Research activities within NASA’s morphing program. In:
control their glide performance with morphing wings. The RTO AVT specialists’ meeting on ‘‘structural aspects of
Nature 46: 1082–1085. flexible aircraft control,’’ Ottawa, ON, Canada, 18–20
Li P, Liu YJ and Leng JS (2013a) A new deformation moni- October.
toring method for a flexible variable camber wing based on McKnight G and Henry C (2005) Variable stiffness materials
fiber Bragg grating sensors. Journal of Intelligent Material for reconfigurable surface applications. In: Proceedings of
SPIE smart structures and materials 2005: active materials: Molinari G, Quack M, Arrieta AF, et al. (2015) Design, reali-
behavior and mechanics, San Diego, CA, 6 March, vol. zation and structural testing of a compliant adaptable
5761, pp. 119–126. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. wing. Smart Materials and Structures 24(10): 105027.
McKnight G and Henry C (2008) Large strain variable stiff- Molinari G, Quack M, Dmitriev V, et al. (2011) Aero-struc-
ness composites for shear deformations with applications tural optimization of morphing airfoils for adaptive wings.
to morphing aircraft skins. In: Proceedings of SPIE beha- Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 22:
vior and mechanics of multifunctional and composite materi- 1075–1089.
als 2008, San Diego, CA, 9 March, vol. 6929, p. 692919. Monner HP, Riemenschneider J, Opitz S, et al. (2011) Devel-
Bellingham, WA: SPIE. opment of active twist rotors at the German Aerospace
Manzo J, Garcia E, Wickenheiser A, et al. (2005) Design of a Center (DLR). In: Proceedings of the 52nd AIAA/ASME/
shape-memory alloy actuated macro-scale morphing air- ASCE/AHS/ASC structures, structural dynamics, and
craft mechanism. In: Proceedings of the SPIE smart struc- materials conference, Denver, CO, 4–7 April, AIAA 2011-
tures and materials 2005: smart structures and integrated 1824.
systems, San Diego, CA, 6 March, vol. 5764, pp. 232–240. Moslehi B, Black RJ and Faridian F (2011) Multifunctional
Bellingham, WA: SPIE. fiber Bragg grating sensing system for load monitoring of
Martin CA, Kudva J, Austin F, et al. (1998) Smart materials composite wings. In: Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE aero-
and structures—smart wing, vols I, II, III and IV. Report: space conference, Big Sky, MT, 5–12 March.
AFRL-ML-WP-TR-1999-4162, December. Hawthorne, Muhammad A, Nguyen QV, Park HC, et al. (2010) Improve-
CA: Northrop Grumman Corporation. ment of artificial foldable wing models by mimicking the
Martin J, Heyder-Bruckner JJ, Remillat C, et al. (2008) The unfolding/folding mechanism of a beetle hind wing. Jour-
hexachiral prismatic wingbox concept. Physica Status nal of Bionic Engineering 7: 134–141.
Solidi B 245(3): 570–577. Munteanu E and Ursu I (2008) Piezo smart composite wing
Mattioni F, Gatto A, Weaver PM, et al. (2006) The applica- with LQG/LTR control. In: Proceedings of the IEEE inter-
tion of residual stress tailoring of snap-through composites national symposium on industrial electronics ISIE 2008,
for variable sweep wings. In: Proceedings of the 47th Cambridge, 30 June–2 July, pp. 1160–1165. New York:
AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC structures, structural IEEE.
dynamics, and materials conference, Newport, RI, 1–4 Nakamura N, Ogisu T, Yoneda H, et al. (2007) Impact moni-
May, AIAA 2006-1972. toring of the aircraft composite structure using FBG sen-
Mattioni F, Weaver PM, Friswell MI, et al. (2007) Modelling sor/PZT actuator hybrid sensor system. In: Proceedings of
and applications of thermally induced multistable compo- SPIE industrial and commercial applications of smart struc-
sites with piecewise variation of lay-up in the planform. In: tures technologies 2007, San Diego, CA, 18 March, vol.
Proceedings of the 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC 6527, p. 65270B. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
structures, structural dynamics, and materials conference, NASA (2001) Available at: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dry-
Honolulu, HI, 23–26 April, AIAA 2007-2262. den/multimedia/imagegallery/Morph/ED01-0348-
Mattioni F, Weaver PM, Potter KD, et al. (2008) The appli- 1.html#.UwYYWE3ivIU (accessed 10 June 2014).
cation of thermally induced multistable composites to Nespoli A, Besseghini S, Pittaccio S, et al. (2010) The high
morphing aircraft structures. In: Proceedings of SPIE potential of shape memory alloys in developing miniature
industrial and commercial applications of smart structures mechanical devices: a review on shape memory alloy mini-
technologies 2008, San Diego, CA, 9 March, vol. 6930, p. actuators. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical 158: 149–160.
693012. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. Oates WS, Mauck LD and Lynch CS (2000) PZT piston dri-
MEMSnet (2014) Available at: https://www.memsnet.org/ ven hydraulic pump development. In: Proceedings of the
material/leadzirconatetitanatepzt/ (accessed 10 June 2014). 2000 12th IEEE international symposium, applications of
Meng XG, Xu L and Sun M (2010) Aerodynamic effects of ferroelectrics, Honolulu, HI, 21 July–2 August, pp. 733–
corrugation in flapping insect wings in hovering flight. 736. New York: IEEE.
Journal of Experimental Biology 214: 432–444. Oehler SD, Hartl DJ, Lopez R, et al. (2012a) Design optimi-
Michel S, Dürager C, Zobel M, et al. (2007) Electro active zation and uncertainty analysis of SMA morphing struc-
polymers as a novel actuator technology for lighter-than- tures. Smart Materials and Structures 21: 094016.
air vehicles. In: Proceedings of SPIE electroactive polymer Oehler SD, Hartl DJ, Turner TL, et al. (2012b) Modeling
actuators and devices (EAPAD) 2007, San Diego, CA, 18 fluid structure interaction with shape memory alloy actu-
March, vol. 6524, p. 65241Q. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. ated morphing aerostructures. In: Proceedings of SPIE
Mieloszyk M, Krawczuk M, Skarbek L, et al. (2011a) An industrial and commercial applications of smart structures
application of neural network for structural health moni- technologies 2012, San Diego, CA, 11 March, vol. 8343, p.
toring of an adaptive wing with an array of FBG sensors. 834305. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 305: 012066. Okabe Y and Sugiyama H (2009) Shape-variable sandwich
Mieloszyk M, Skarbek L, Krawczuk M, et al. (2011b) Appli- structure with SMA honeycomb core and CFRP skins. In:
cation of fibre Bragg grating sensors for structural health Proceedings of SPIE active and passive smart structures
monitoring of an adaptive wing. Smart Materials and and integrated systems 2009, San Diego, CA, 8 March, vol.
Structures 20: 125014. 7288, p. 728817. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
Molinari G, Arrieta AF and Ermanni P (2014) Aero-struc- Olympio KR and Gandhi F (2010) Zero Poisson’s ratio cellu-
tural optimization of three-dimensional adaptive wings lar honeycombs for flex skins undergoing one-dimensional
with embedded smart actuators. Journal of Aircraft 52(9): morphing. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
1940–1951. Structures 21: 1737–1753.
Sun et al. 2309
O’Neill C and Burchfield J (2007) Kinetic ceramics piezoelec- Structures. Epub ahead of print 13 October. DOI: 10.1177/
tric hydraulic pumps. In: Proceedings of SPIE industrial 1045389X14554132.
and commercial applications of smart structures technolo- Previtali F, Arrieta AF and Ermanni P (2014b) Performance
gies 2007, San Diego, CA, 18 March, vol. 6527, p. 65270I. of a three-dimensional morphing wing and comparison
Bellingham, WA: SPIE. with a conventional wing. AIAA Journal 52(10):
Otsuka K and Wayman CM (1998) Shape Memory Materials. 2101–2112.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–19. Probst TA, Kochersberger K, Stiltner B, et al. (2012) Smart
Paine JSN, Johns ME, Sesler JJ, et al. (2008) Linear high- material actuators as a means of UAV flight control. In:
force ‘‘step and repeat’’ piezoelectric motors. In: Proceed- Proceedings of the 50th AIAA aerospace sciences meeting
ings of the 39th aerospace mechanisms symposium, NASA including the new horizons forum and aerospace exposition,
Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL, 7–9 May. Nashville, TN, 9–12 January, AIAA 2012-0486.
Pankonien A and Inman DJ (2013) Experimental testing of Ray CW and Batten BA (2012) Sensor placement for flexible
spanwise morphing trailing edge concept. In: Proceedings wing shape control. In: Proceedings of the 2012 American
of SPIE active and passive smart structures and integrated control conference, Montréal, QC, Canada, 27–29 June,
systems 2013, San Diego, CA, 10 March, vol. 8688, p. pp. 1430–1435.
868815. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. Reed JL Jr, Hemmelgarn CD, Pelley BM, et al. (2005) Adap-
Paradies R and Ciresa P (2009) Active wing design with inte- tive wing structures. In: Proceedings of SPIE smart struc-
grated flight control using piezoelectric macro fiber com- tures and materials 2005: industrial and commercial
posites. Smart Materials and Structures 18: 035010. applications of smart structures technologies, San Diego,
Park BJ, Fang FF and Choi HJ (2010) Magnetorheology: CA, 6 March, vol. 5762, pp. 132–142. Bellingham, WA:
materials and application. Soft Matter 6: 5246–5253. SPIE.
Park HC, Lee S and Kim KJ (2005) Equivalent modeling for Rodgers JP, Hagood NW and Weems DB (1997) Design
shape design of IPMC (Ionic Polymer-Metal Composite) and manufacture of an integral twist-actuated rotor
as flapping actuator. Key Engineering Materials 297–300: blade. In: Proceedings of 38th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/
616–621. ASC structures, structural dynamics, and materials confer-
Pätzold A, Peltzer I, Nitsche W, et al. (2013) Active compli- ence and adaptive structures forum, Kissimmee, FL, 7–10
ant wall for skin friction reduction. International Journal April.
of Heat and Fluid Flow 44: 87–94. Rodrigues G, Bastaits R and Preumont A (2010) Intelligent
Perkins DA, Reed JL Jr and Havens E (2004) Morphing wing segmented deformable mirrors for adaptive optics. In: Pro-
structures for loitering air vehicles. In: Proceedings of the ceedings of ISMA2010 including USD2010, Leuven, 20–22
45th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC structures, structural September, pp. 4471–4483.
dynamics, and materials conference, Palm Springs, CA, 19– Rodriguez AR (2007) Morphing aircraft technology survey.
22 April, AIAA 2004-1888. In: Proceedings of the 45th AIAA aerospace sciences meet-
Philen M, Phillips D and Baur J (2009) Variable modulus ing and exhibit, Reno, NV, 8–11 January, AIAA 2007-
materials based upon F2MC reinforced shape memory 1258.
polymers. In: Proceedings of the 50th AIAA/ASME/ Roglin RL and Hanagud SV (1996) A helicopter with adap-
ASCE/AHS/ASC structures, structural dynamics, and tive rotor blades for collective control. Smart Materials
materials conference, Palm Springs, CA, 4–7 May, AIAA and Structures 5: 76–88.
2009-2116. Roglin RL, Kondor S and Hanagud S (1994) Adaptive air-
Pinkerton JL and Moses RW (1997) A Feasibility Study to foils for helicopters. In: Proceedings of 35th AIAA struc-
Control Airfoil Shape Using THUNDER (Technical mem- tures, structural dynamics, and materials conference, Hilton
orandum). Hampton, VA: NASA Langley Research Head, SC, 18–20 April, pp. 279–287. Reston, VA: AIAA.
Center. Rose M, Unruh O and Haase T (2011) Vibration control of
Pitt DM, Dunne JP and White EV (2002) Design and test of stiffened plates with embedded cavities using flat piezo-
a SMA powered adaptive aircraft inlet internal wall. In: ceramic actuator devices. In: Proceedings of the 18th inter-
Proceedings of the 43rd AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC national congress on sound and vibration, Rio De Janeiro,
structures, structural dynamics, and materials conference, Brazil, 10–14 July, pp. 1–8.
Denver, CO, 22–25 April, AIAA 2002-1356. Rosén M and Hedenström A (2001) Gliding flight in a jack-
Prawoto Y (2012) Seeing auxetic materials from the daw: a wind tunnel study. Journal of Experimental Biology
mechanics point of view: a structural review on the nega- 204: 1153–1166.
tive Poisson’s ratio. Computational Materials Science 58: Rossiter J, Takashima K, Scarpa F, et al. (2014) Shape mem-
140–153. ory polymer hexachiral auxetic structures with tunable
Prazenica RJ, Kim D, Moncayo H, et al. (2014) Design, char- stiffness. Smart Materials and Structures 23: 045007.
acterization, and testing of macro-fiber composite actua- Roth B, Peters C and Crossley WA (2002) Aircraft sizing with
tors for integration on a fixed-wing UAV. In: Proceedings morphing as an independent variable: motivation, strate-
of SPIE active and passive smart structures and integrated gies and investigations. In: Proceedings of the AIAA’s air-
systems 2014, San Diego, CA, 9 March, vol. 9057, p. craft technology, integration, and operations (ATIO) 2002
905715. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. technical, Los Angeles, CA, 1–3 October, AIAA 2002-
Previtali F, Arrieta AF and Ermanni P (2014a) Double-walled 5840.
corrugated structure for bending-stiff anisotropic morph- Sahu A, Banerjee T, Niyogi AG, et al. (2013) Active control
ing skins. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and of radiated sound from stiffened plates using IDE-PFC
actuators. International Journal of Acoustics and Vibration actuator. In: Proceedings of SPIE smart structures and
18(3): 109–116. materials 2002: smart structures and integrated systems,
Saito K, Agnese F and Scarpa F (2011) A cellular kirigami San Diego, CA, 17 March, vol. 4701, pp. 552–569. Belling-
morphing wingbox concept. Journal of Intelligent Material ham, WA: SPIE.
Systems and Structures. Epub ahead of print 5 August. Smart Material Corp. (2014) Available at: http://www.smart-
DOI: 10.1177/1045389X11416030. material.com/MFC-product-main.html (accessed 10 June
Sater JM and Crowe CR (2000) Smart air and space structure 2014).
demonstrations: status and technical issues. In: Proceed- Sneed RC, Smith RR, Cash MF, et al. (2007) Smart-material
ings of the 41st AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC structures, based hydraulic pump system for actuation of a morphing
structural dynamics, and materials conference and exhibit, wing. In: Proceedings of 48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/
Atlanta, GA, 3–6 April, AIAA-2000-1625. ASC structures, structural dynamics, and materials confer-
Schembri T, Tejedor S and Davis C (2013) Strain measure- ence, Honolulu, HI, 23–26 April, AIAA 2007-1702.
ments using fibre Bragg gratings during full-scale struc- Sodano HA, Park G and Inman DJ (2004) An investigation
tural testing of an F/A-18 centre barrel. Key Engineering into the performance of macro-fiber composites for sensing
Materials 558: 510–521. and structural vibration applications. Mechanical Systems
Schultz MR (2005) A new concept for active bistable twisting and Signal Processing 18: 683–697.
structures. In: Proceedings of SPIE smart structures and Sofla AYN, Meguid SA, Tan KT, et al. (2010) Shape morph-
materials 2005: smart structures and integrated systems, ing of aircraft wing: status and challenges. Materials and
San Diego, CA, 6 March, vol. 5764, pp. 241–252. Belling- Design 31: 1284–1292.
ham, WA: SPIE. Song GB, Ma N, Li LY, et al. (2011a) Design and control of
Schultz MR and Hyer MW (2004) A morphing concept based a proof-of-concept active jet engine intake using shape
on unsymmetric composite laminates and piezoceramic memory alloy actuators. Smart Structures and Systems
MFC actuators. In: Proceedings of the 45th AIAA/ASME/ 7(1): 1–13.
ASCE/AHS/ASC structures, structural dynamics, and Song YJ, Wei WL and Qu XG (2011b) Colorimetric biosen-
materials conference, Palm Springs, CA, 19–22 April, sing using smart materials. Advanced Materials 23:
AIAA 2004-1806. 4215–4236.
Sekine H, Fujimoto SE, Okabe T, et al. (2006) Structural Spadoni A and Ruzzene M (2007) Numerical and experimen-
health monitoring of cracked aircraft panels repaired with tal analysis of the static compliance of chiral truss-core air-
bonded patches using fiber Bragg grating sensors. Applied foils. Journal of Mechanics of Materials and Structures
Composite Materials 13: 87–98. 2(5): 965–981.
Senthilkumar M (2012) Analysis of SMA actuated plain flap Spangler RL Jr (1989) Piezoelectric actuators for helicopter
wing. Journal of Engineering Science and Technology rotor control. Master’s Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of
Review 5(1): 39–43. Technology, Cambridge, MA.
Shahinpoor M, Bar-Cohen Y, Simpson JO, et al. (1998) Ionic Steadman DL, Griffin SF and Hanagud SV (1994) Structure-
polymer-metal composites (IPMCs) as biomimetic sensors, control interaction and the design of piezoceramic actu-
actuators and artificial muscles—a review. Smart Materials ated adaptive airfoils. In: Proceedings of AIAA/ASME
and Structures 7: 15–30. adaptive structures forum, Hilton Head, SC, 21–22 April,
Shan Y, Philen M, Lotfi A, et al. (2009) Variable stiffness AIAA 1994-1747, pp. 135–142. Reston, VA: AIAA.
structures utilizing fluidic flexible matrix composites. Jour- Straub FK, Kennedy DK, Domzalski DB, et al. (2004a)
nal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 20(4): Smart material-actuated rotor technology—SMART.
443–456. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 15:
Shang BL, Song BF and Chang F (2008) New sensor technol- 249–260.
ogies in aircraft structural health monitoring. In: Proceed- Straub FK, Kennedy DK, Stemple AD, et al. (2004b) Devel-
ings of the 2008 international conference on condition opment and whirl tower test of the SMART active flap
monitoring and diagnosis, Beijing, China, 21–24 April. rotor. In: Proceedings of SPIE smart structures and materi-
Shaw AD, Dayyani I and Friswell MI (2015) Optimisation of als 2004: industrial and commercial applications of smart
composite corrugated skins for buckling in morphing air- structures technologies, San Diego, CA, 14 March, vol.
craft. Composite Structures 119: 227–237. 5388.
Simpson JO, Wise SA, Bryant RG, et al. (1998) Innovative Sun J, Gao HL, Scarpa F, et al. (2014a) Active inflatable
materials for aircraft morphing. In: Proceedings of SPIE auxetic honeycomb structural concept for morphing wing-
smart structures and materials 1998: industrial and commer- tips. Smart Materials and Structures 23: 125023.
cial applications of smart structures technologies, San Sun J, Gong XB, Liu YJ, et al. (2013) Research on a variable
Diego, CA, 3–5 March, vol. 3326. camber wing with shape memory polymer skin. In: Pro-
Sinn T and Barrett R (2010) Shape memory alloy post buckled ceedings of 54th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC struc-
precompressed (SMAPBP) actuator concepts and theory. tures, structural dynamics, and materials conference,
In: Proceedings of SPIE smart structures and materials Boston, MA, 8–11 April, AIAA 2013-1919.
+ nondestructive evaluation and health monitoring, San Sun J, Liu Y and Leng J (2014b) Mechanical properties of
Diego, CA, 9 April, p. 764308. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. shape memory polymer composites enhanced by elastic
Sirohi J and Chopra I (2002) Design and testing of a high fibers and their application in variable stiffness morphing
pumping frequency piezoelectric-hydraulic hybrid skins. Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
Sun et al. 2311
Structures. Epub ahead of print 26 August. DOI: 10.1177/ Vigliotti A and Pasini D (2015) Analysis and design of lattice
1045389X14546658. materials for large cord and curvature variations in skin
Sun J, Xu YY, Chen YJ, et al. (2012) Spandex fiber reinforced panels of morphing wings. Smart Materials and Structures
shape memory polymer composites and their mechanical 24(3): 037006.
properties. Advanced Materials Research 410: 370–374. Vocke RD III, Kothera CS and Wereley NM (2012) Develop-
Syaifuddin M, Park HC, Yoon KJ, et al. (2005) Design and ment of a span-extending blade tip system for a reconfigur-
evaluation of LIPCA-actuated flapping device. In: Pro- able helicopter rotor. In: Proceedings of the 53rd AIAA/
ceedings of SPIE smart structures and materials 2005: smart ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC structures, structural dynamics,
structures and integrated systems, San Diego, CA, 6 March, and materials conference, Honolulu, HI, 23–26 April,
vol. 5764, pp. 151–158. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. AIAA 2012-1664.
Takahashi H, Matsumoto K and Shimoyama I (2009) Air Vocke RD III, Kothera CS and Wereley NM (2015) Develop-
pressure sensor for an insect wing. In: Proceedings of 2009 ment of a quasi-static span-extending blade tip for
IEEE 22nd international conference on micro electro a morphing helicopter rotor. Journal of Aircraft 52(3):
mechanical systems (MEMS), Sorrento, 25–29 January, 1–13.
pp. 825–828. New York: IEEE. Vocke RD III, Kothera CS, Woods BKS, et al. (2011) Devel-
Takahashi H, Matsumoto K and Shimoyama I (2010) Mea- opment and testing of a span-extending morphing wing.
surement of differential pressure on a butterfly wing. In: Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 22:
Proceedings of 2010 IEEE 23rd international conference on 879–890.
micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS), Hong Kong, Vos R and Barrett R (2010a) Pressure adaptive honeycomb: a
24–28 January, pp. 63–66. New York: IEEE. new adaptive structure for aerospace applications. In: Pro-
Takeda S, Aoki Y, Ishikawa T, et al. (2007) Structural health ceedings of SPIE sensors and smart structures technologies
monitoring of composite wing structure during durability for civil, mechanical, and aerospace systems 2010, San
test. Composite Structures 79: 133–139. Diego, CA, 7 March, vol. 7647, p. 76472B. Bellingham,
Thill C, Etches J, Bond I, et al. (2008) Morphing skins. Aero- WA: SPIE.
nautical Journal 112: 117–139. Vos R and Barrett R (2010b) Pressure adaptive honeycomb:
Thill C, Etches J, Bond I, et al. (2010) Composite corrugated a novel concept for morphing aircraft structures. In: Pro-
structures for morphing wing skin applications. Smart ceedings of 27th international congress of the aeronautical
Materials and Structures 19: 124009. sciences (ICAS 2010), Nice, 19–24 September.
Thomas A (1996) The flight of birds that have wings and a Vos R and Barrett R (2011) Mechanics of pressure-adaptive
tail: variable geometry expands the envelope of flight per- honeycomb and its application to wing morphing. Smart
formance. Journal of Theoretical Biology 183: 126–134. Materials and Structures 20: 094010.
Tieck RM, Mohanchandra KP and Carman GP (2004) Smart Vos R, Barrett R and Romkes A (2011a) Mechanics of
material actuators for airfoil morphing applications. In: pressure-adaptive honeycomb. Journal of Intelligent Mate-
Proceedings of SPIE smart structures and materials 2004: rial Systems and Structures 22: 1041–1055.
smart structures and integrated systems, San Diego, CA, 14 Vos R, Barrett R, De Breuker R, et al. (2007) Post-buckled
March, vol. 5390, pp. 235–246. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. precompressed elements: a new class of control actuators
Tzou HS, Lee HJ and Arnold SM (2004) Smart materials, for morphing wing UAVs. Smart Materials and Structures
precision sensors/actuators, smart structures, and structro- 16: 919–926.
nic systems. Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Struc- Vos R, Scheepstra J and Barrett R (2011b) Topology optimi-
tures 11(4–5): 367–393. zation of pressure adaptive honeycomb for a morphing
Ueno T, Keat CS and Higuchi T (2007) Linear step motor flap. In: Proceedings of SPIE active and passive smart
based on magnetic force control using composite of mag- structures and integrated systems 2011, San Diego, CA, 6
netostrictive and piezoelectric materials. IEEE Transac- March, vol. 7977, p. 79771J. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
tions on Magnetics 43(1): 11–14. Wang Q, Xu ZW and Zhu Q (2013) Structural design of
Urban F, Kadlec J, Vlach R, et al. (2010) Design of a pressure morphing trailing edge actuated by SMA. Frontiers of
sensor based on optical fiber Bragg grating lateral defor- Mechanical Engineering 8(3): 268–275.
mation. Sensors 10: 11212–11225. Wei ZG and Sandström R (1998) Shape-memory materials
Ursache NM, Isikveren AT and Friswell MI (2008) Technol- and hybrid composites for smart systems: part I, shape-
ogy integration for active poly-morphing winglets develop- memory materials. Journal of Materials Science 33:
3743–3762.
ment. In: Proceedings of SMASIS08, ASME conference on
Weiss P (2003) Wings of change: shape-shifting aircraft
smart materials, adaptive structures and intelligent systems,
may ply future skyways. Science News 164(23): 359, 362,
Ellicott City, MD, 28–30 October, SMASIS2008-496.
365.
Vanderhoff A and Kim KJ (2009) Variable stiffness material
Wu R, Sun J, Chang ZZ, et al. (2014) Elastic composite skin
and structural concepts for morphing applications. Smart
for a pure shear morphing wing aircraft. Journal of Intelli-
Materials and Structures 18: 125014.
gent Material Systems and Structures. Epub ahead of print
Vasista S and Tong LY (2013) Topology-optimized design
13 March. DOI: 10.1177/1045389X14526796.
and testing of a pressure-driven morphing-aerofoil trailing-
Xia YY, Bilgen O and Friswell MI (2014) The effect of corru-
edge structure. AIAA Journal 51(8): 1898–1907.
gated skins on aerodynamic performance. Journal of Intel-
Vessonen I (2002) Smart Materials and Structures: VTT
ligent Material Systems and Structures 25: 786–794.
Research Program 2000–2002, Espoo, Finland, 4th Decem-
Yang LJ, Hsu CK, Ho JY, et al. (2007) Flapping wings with
ber 2002. Espoo: Technical Research Centre of Finland.
PVDF sensors to modify the aerodynamic forces of a
micro aerial vehicle. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical Yoon KJ, Setiawan H, Nguyen NT, et al. (2006b) Develop-
139: 95–103. ment of elevator control surface for small air robot using
Yi JC, Zhang HS, Qiao XP, et al. (2012) Shape monitoring piezoceramic actuator. In: Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE
for wing structure using fiber Bragg grating sensors. In: international conference on robotics and biomimetics,
Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE fifth international conference Kunming, China, 17–20 December, pp. 835–839. New
on advanced computational intelligence (ICACI), Nanjing, York: IEEE.
China, 18–20 October, pp. 1032–1036. New York: IEEE. Yu K, Yin WL, Sun SH, et al. (2009) Design and analysis of
Yin WL, Fu T, Liu JC, et al. (2009) Structural shape sensing morphing wing based on SMP composite. In: Proceedings
for variable camber wing using FBG sensors. In: Proceed- of SPIE industrial and commercial applications of smart
ings of SPIE, sensors and smart structures technologies for structures technologies 2009, San Diego, CA, 8 March, vol.
civil, mechanical, and aerospace systems, San Diego, CA, 7290, p. 72900S. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
30 March, vol. 7292, p. 72921H. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. Zareie S, Zabihollah A and Azizi A (2011) Buckling control
Yin WL, Sun QJ, Zhang B, et al. (2008) Seamless morphing of morphing composite airfoil structure using multi-stable
wing with SMP skin. Advanced Materials Research 47–50: laminate by piezoelectric sensors/actuators. In: Proceedings
97–100. of SPIE behavior and mechanics of multifunctional materials
Yokozeki T, Sugiura A and Hirano Y (2014) Development of and composites 2011, San Diego, CA, 6 March, vol. 7978,
variable camber morphing airfoil using corrugated struc- p. 79781Z. Bellingham, WA: SPIE.
ture. Journal of Aircraft 51(3): 1023–1029. Zhang P, Zhou L and Qiu T (2012) Design and application of
Yokozeki T, Takeda SI, Ogasawara T, et al. (2006) Mechani- cross-shaped cellular honeycombs for a variable camber
cal properties of corrugated composites for candidate wing. Journal of Aircraft 49(5): 1451–1459.
materials of flexible wing structures. Composites Part A: Zhang P, Zhou L, Cheng W, et al. (2014) Conceptual design
Applied Science and Manufacturing 37: 1578–1586. and experimental demonstration of a distributedly actu-
Yoon KJ, Setiawan H and Goo NS (2006a) Design of elevator ated morphing wing. Journal of Aircraft 52(2): 452–461.
control surface actuated by LIPCA for small unmanned Zhao J, Niu J, McCoul D, et al. (2015) A rotary joint for a
air vehicle. In: Proceedings of SPIE smart structures and flapping wing actuated by dielectric elastomers: design and
materials 2006: smart structures and integrated systems, experiment. Meccanica 50(11): 2815–2824.
San Diego, CA, 26 February, vol. 6173, p. 61730D. Bel-
lingham, WA: SPIE.

Morph

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Morph

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Morph

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Review Article

Journal of Intelligent Material Systems

state-of-the-art review jim.sagepub.com

Jian Sun1, Qinghua Guan1, Yanju Liu2 and Jinsong Leng1

Introduction morphing wings can play a very important role in air-

Figure 1. Smart materials and structures.

Table 1. Properties of typical smart materials.

Density Nominal stress Strain Actuation Stimulation

Morphing methods Advantages

Large Folding Increase the critical Mach number

Here, L/D means Lift to Drag ratio.

shape when subjected to a magnetic field. Terfenol-D

development and application of them. For instance,

based on smart material also have some deficiencies

using piezoelectric sensors to measure structural strains Structures

control of structures such as active vibration control

You might also like