Chapter 17
Grain Growth
INTRODUCTION
After recrystallization is complete, that is, when the polygonalized matrix is replaced by new strain-
free grains, further annealing increases the average grain size. This process is known as grain growth
and is accomplished by migration of grain boundaries.
Recrystallization decreases the retained energy of deformation, but the grain boundaries still have a
finite amount of interfacial energy. The material is still metastable, with stability being achieved only if
the structure becomes a single grain or crystal. This is achieved during grain growth
17.1 The Driving Force
The number of grains decreases during grain growth. The driving force for grain growth is the
reduction in the grain-boundary free energy. Grain boundaries tend to move towards their centre of
curvature because by straightening they reduce their surface area. This driving force is about an order
of magnitude smaller than that for recrystallization
Figure 17.1 Movement of grain boundary towards its centre
of curvature
At the atomic level, atoms tend to move positions with more correct nearest neighbours, as
indicated by shorter arrows so as to sooth the misorientation. This is equivalent to the boundary
moving towards its centre of curvature as indicated by larger arrows in Figure 17.1.
Figure 17.2 Concavity & convexity of grains
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Grain Growth 2
It is found that grains with less than six sides will have concave out curvatures and are unstable.
They tend to shrink in size while those with more than six sides have convex curvatures will grow in
size as shown in Figure 17.2
17.2 Types of Grain Growth
Grain growth can be classified into two types
(a) Normal or continuous Grain Growth
(b) Abnormal or discontinuous grain growth
17.2.1 Normal Growth
During annealing the average grain size increases but the grain size distribution remains more or
less the same during Normal Grain Growth as shown in Figure 17.3
Figure 17.3 Grain Size Distribution remains the same, after the
grain growth in three different conditions
17.2.2 Abnormal Growth
Abnormal growth grain growth occurs at very high annealing temperatures, in the presence of
finely precipitated second phase/ inclusions that pin the grain boundaries and inhibits the growth.
Figure 17.4 Abnormal Grain growths
in Fe-3%Si
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3 Grain Growth
Here, due to high temperature few special grains tend to overcome the inhibiting force and grow
disproportionately as show in Figure 17.4. This type of growth is also called as Secondary
recrystallization or exaggerated grain growth.
17.3 Grain Growth Law
It is evident that grain growth occurs to reduce the interfacial energy. Smaller the grain more is the
number of sides it has and more is the interfacial energy. Hence we may assume that smaller the grain
more is the growth rate so that the interfacial energy reduces faster
∫ ∫
= At (17.1)
Where D0 is the initial grain size at t=0. The constant A is ought to have a temperature dependence
of the Arrhenius form so
( )
Experimentally it is found that the grain growth in single-phase metals follows a relationship of the
form
⁄
(17.2)
Equation 17.2 can be derived easily from Equation 17.1 if we take the initial diameter of grains as
being very small ( as compared to the present diameter. This is called the Parabolic Growth
Law. It is observed only in single-phase metals & alloys in ideal cases. In general for other metals and
alloys, the growth law is governed by the empirical equation
⁄ ⁄
(17.3)
The time exponent n values in Equation 17.3 are experimentally determined and are usually much
less than 0.5 and only approach 0.5 in very pure metals or at very high temperatures.
The reason why n value is less than 0.5 is because the solute atoms hinder grain boundary migration
by formation of grain boundary – solute atmosphere and thus grain growth is effectively decreased. If
the solute content decreases i.e. metal becomes purer, then grain growth is also favoured and value of
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Grain Growth 4
n approaches 0.5. Similarly, at high temperatures the grain boundary-solute atmospheres are broken up
by thermal vibrations thus favouring the grain growth.
EXAMPLE 17.1 The grain size of pure Copper after annealing for 103 s is 10 m. If the time
exponent is 0.5, the total time of annealing required in obtaining a grain size of 40 m
(A) 4 x 103 s (B) 8 x 103 s (C) 16 x 103 s (D) 64 x 103 s
Solution: As the metal is pure and nothing about initial grain size is mentioned we can assume that the
Growth Law obeys
⁄
⁄
( )
⁄
( )
Aliter: The same solutions can be arrived by using Equation 17.1/17.3 & putting
EXAMPLE 17.2 A single phase Aluminium alloy with a grain size of 5 m is annealed at
0
500 C. The grain size increases to 15 m after 30 min. Time exponent may be assumed to be 0.5. The
further annealing time that will be required to increase the grain size to 25 m is
(A) 15 min (B) 30 min (C) 60 min (D) 90 min
Solution: As the metal is pure and initial grain size is given, by Equation 17.3 we have (n = 0.5)
⁄ ⁄
= At
Therefore, = A (30)
= At
Where t, is the total time from the beginning. By dividing the 2 equations we have
t = 90 min
Thus the further time required is 90 – 30 min = 60 min (Option C)
Aliter: Taking step wise growth. = A (30)
=A
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5 Grain Growth
Where tf, is the further time required. On dividing the 2 equations, we obtain tf = 60 min (Option C)
EXAMPLE 17.3 It is found that precipitates in a two-phase alloy with a starting mean grain size
of 200 nm grow to 300 nm after 1 day of exposure at 2000C. The further time taken to grow to 400 nm
at the same temperature will be (to the nearest day)
(A) 1 more day (B) 2 more days (C) 3 more days (D) 4 more days
Solution: As the alloy is a two phase mixture, generalized growth law equation to be used assuming
the value of n = 0.5
⁄ ⁄
= At
Therefore, = A (1)
= A (t)
Where t, is the total time from the beginning. By dividing the 2 equations we have
t = 2.4 days
Thus the further time required is 2.4 – 1 days = 1.4 days (Option A)
Aliter: Taking step wise growth. = A (30)
=A
Where tf, is the further time required. On dividing the 2 equations, we obtain tf = 1.4 days (Option A)
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Grain Growth 6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
i. David A. Porter, Phase Transformations in Metals and Alloys, 3rd Edition, 2012
ii. F. Campbell, Elements of Metallurgy and Engineering Alloys, ASM, 2008
iii. V. Raghavan, Solid State Phase Transformations, 4th Edition, 2015
iv. John D. Verhoeven, Fundamentals of Physical Metallurgy, 1934
v. Special thanks to Ms. Deepika Agrawal for participating in the Discussion on solutions
to example problems
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