1/19/2006 2_3 Terminated Lossless Line empty.

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2.3 – The Terminated,

Lossless Transmission Line
Reading Assignment: pp. 57-64

We now know that a lossless transmission line is completely

characterized by real constants Z 0 and β .

Likewise, the 2 waves propagating on a transmission line are

completely characterized by complex constants V0+ and V0− .

Q: Z 0 and β are determined from L, C, and ω . How do we

find V0+ and V0− ?

A:

Every transmission line has 2 “boundaries”

1)
2)

Typically, there is a source at one end of the line, and a load

at the other.

Let’s apply the load boundary condition!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/19/2006 2_3 Terminated Lossless Line empty.doc 2/3

HO: The Terminated, Lossless Transmission Line

HO: Special Values of Load Impedance

Q: So the line impedance at the end of a line must be load

impedance ZL (i.e., Z ( z = z L ) = Z L ); what is the line
impedance at the beginning of the line (i.e.,
Z ( z = z L − A ) = ? )?

A:

HO: Transmission Line Input Impedance

Example: Input Impedance

Q: For a given ZL we can determine an equivalent ΓL . Is

there an equivalent Γin for each Zin ?

A: HO: The Reflection Coefficient Transformation

Q: So, the purpose of the transmission line is to transfer

E.M. energy from the source to the load. Exactly how much
power is flowing in the transmission line, and how much is
delivered to the load?

A: HO: Power Flow and Return Loss

Note that we can specify a load with:

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/19/2006 2_3 Terminated Lossless Line empty.doc 3/3

1)
2)
3)

HO: VSWR

Q: What happens if our transmission line is terminated by

something other than a load? Is our transmission line theory
still valid?

A: As long as a transmission line is connected to linear

devices our theory is valid. However, we must be careful to
properly apply the boundary conditions associated with each
linear device!

Example: The Transmission Coefficient

Example: Applying Boundary Conditions

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/28/2005 The Terminated Lossless Transmission.doc 1/8

The Terminated, Lossless

Transmission Line
Now let’s attach something to our transmission line. Consider a
lossless line, length A , terminated with a load ZL.

I(z) IL

+ +
V (z) Z0 , β VL ZL
- -
A
z
z = zL − A z = zL

Q: What is the current and voltage at each and every point on

the transmission line (i.e., what is I ( z ) and V ( z ) for all points
z where z L − A ≤ z ≤ z L ?)?

A: To find out, we must apply boundary conditions!

In other words, at the end of the transmission line ( z = z L )—

where the load is attached—we have many requirements that all
must be satisfied!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/28/2005 The Terminated Lossless Transmission.doc 2/8

1. To begin with, the voltage and current ( I ( z = z L ) and

V ( z = z L ) ) must be consistent with a valid transmission line
solution:

V (z = z L ) = V + (z = z L ) + V −
(z = zL )
= V0+ e − j β zL + V0− e + j β zL

V0+ ( z = z L ) V0− ( z = z L )
I (z = zL ) = −
Z0 Z0
V0+ − j β zL V0− + j β zL
= e − e
Z0 Z0

2. Likewise, the load voltage and current must be related by

Ohm’s law:
VL = Z L I L

3. Most importantly, we recognize that the values I ( z = z L ) ,

V ( z = z L ) and IL, VL are not independent, but in fact are
strictly related by Kirchoff’s Laws!

I(z=zL) IL

+ +

Z0 , β V (z=zL) VL ZL

- -

z = zL − A z = zL

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/28/2005 The Terminated Lossless Transmission.doc 3/8

From KVL and KCL we find these requirements:

V ( z = z L ) = VL

I (z = z L ) = IL

These are the boundary conditions for this particular problem.

Æ Careful! Different transmission line problems lead to

different boundary conditions—you must access each
problem individually and independently!

Combining these equations and boundary conditions, we find

that:

VL = Z L I L

V (z = zL ) = Z L I (z = zL )

ZL
V + (z = zL ) + V − (z = zL ) =
Z0
(V + (z = zL ) − V − (z = z L ) )

Rearranging, we can conclude:

V − (z = z L ) Z L − Z 0
=
V (z = z L ) Z L + Z 0
+

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/28/2005 The Terminated Lossless Transmission.doc 4/8

Q: Hey wait as second! We earlier defined V − ( z ) V + ( z ) as

reflection coefficient Γ ( z ) . How does this relate to the
expression above?

A: Recall that Γ ( z ) is a function of transmission line position z.

The value V −
(z = zL ) V +
(z = z L ) is simply the value of function
Γ ( z ) evaluated at z = z L (i.e., evaluated at the end of the line):

V − (z = z L ) ZL − Z0
= Γ ( z = z ) =
V + (z = z L )
L
ZL + Z0

This value is of fundamental importance for the terminated

transmission line problem, so we provide it with its own special
symbol ( ΓL ) !

ZL − Z0
ΓL  Γ (z = z L ) =
ZL + Z0

Q: Wait! We earlier determined that:

Z (z ) − Z 0
Γ (z ) =
Z (z ) + Z 0
so it would seem that:

Z (z = z L ) − Z 0
ΓL = Γ (z = z L ) =
Z (z = z L ) + Z 0

Which expression is correct??

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/28/2005 The Terminated Lossless Transmission.doc 5/8

A: They both are! It is evident that the two expressions:

ZL − Z0 Z (z = z L ) − Z 0
ΓL = and ΓL =
ZL + Z0 Z (z = z L ) + Z 0

are equal if:

Z (z = z L ) = Z L

And since we know that from Ohm’s Law:

VL
ZL =
IL
and from Kirchoff’s Laws:

VL V ( z = z L )
=
IL I (z = z L )

and that line impedance is:

V (z = zL )
= Z (z = zL )
I (z = zL )

we find it apparent that the line impedance at the end of the

transmission line is equal to the load impedance:

Z (z = zL ) = Z L

The above expression is essentially another expression of the

boundary condition applied at the end of the transmission line.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/28/2005 The Terminated Lossless Transmission.doc 6/8

Q: I’m confused! Just what are were we

trying to accomplish in this handout?

A: We are trying to find V(z) and I(z) when a

lossless transmission line is terminated by a
load ZL!

We can now determine the value of V0− in terms of V0+ . Since:

V − ( z = z L ) V0−e + j β zL
ΓL = + =
V ( z = z L ) V0+e − j β zL
We find:

V0− = e −2 j β zL ΓL V0+

And therefore we find:

V − ( z ) = (e −2 j β zL ΓL V0+ ) e + j β z

V ( z ) = V0+ ⎡⎣e − j β z + (e −2 j β zL ΓL ) e + j β z ⎤⎦

V0+ ⎡ − j β z
I (z ) =
Z0 ⎣e − ( e −2 j β z L
Γ L ) e + j βz
⎤
⎦
where:

ZL − Z0
ΓL =
ZL + Z0

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/28/2005 The Terminated Lossless Transmission.doc 7/8

zL = 0

Now, we can further simplify our analysis by arbitrarily

assigning the end point zL a zero value (i.e., z L = 0 ):
I(z) IL

+ +
V (z) Z0 , β VL ZL
- -
A
z
z = −A z = 0

If the load is located at z =0 (i.e., if z L = 0 ), we find that:

V (z = 0) =V + (z = 0) + V − (z = 0)
= V0+ e − j β ( 0 ) + V0− e + j β ( 0 )
= V0+ + V0−

V0+ ( z = 0 ) V0− ( z = 0 )
I (z = 0) = −
Z0 Z0
V0+ − j β ( 0) V0− + j β ( 0)
= e − e
Z0 Z0
V0+ −V0−
=
Z0

⎛V0+ + V0− ⎞
Z (z = 0) = Z 0 ⎜ + − ⎟
⎝ V0 −V0 ⎠

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/28/2005 The Terminated Lossless Transmission.doc 8/8

Likewise, it is apparent that if z L = 0 , ΓL and Γ 0 are the same:

V − ( z = 0 ) V0 −
ΓL = Γ (z = z L ) = + = = Γ0
V ( z = 0 ) V0 +

Therefore:
ZL − Z0
ΓL = = Γ0
ZL + Z0

Thus, we can write the line current and voltage simply as:

V ( z ) = V0+ ⎡⎣e − j β z + Γ L e + j β z ⎤⎦
⎡⎣for z L = 0⎤⎦
V0+ − j β z
I (z ) = ⎡⎣e − Γ L e + j β z ⎤⎦
Z0

Q: But, how do we determine V0+ ??

A: We require a second boundary condition to determine V0+ .

The only boundary left is at the other end of the transmission
line. Typically, a source of some sort is located there. This
makes physical sense, as something must generate the incident
wave !

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 1/17

Special Values of
Load Impedance
Let’s look at some specific values of load impedance
Z L = RL + jX L and see what happens on our transmission line!

1. Z L = Z 0

In this case, the load impedance is numerically equal to the

characteristic impedance of the transmission line. Assuming
the line is lossless, then Z0 is real, and thus:

RL = Z 0 and XL = 0

It is evident that the resulting load reflection coefficient is

zero:
Z − Z0 Z0 − Z0
ΓL = L = =0
ZL + Z0 Z0 + Z0

This result is very interesting, as it means that there is no

reflected wave V − ( z ) !

V − ( z ) = (e −2 j β zL Γ L V0+ ) e + j β z

( )
= e −2 j β zL ( 0 )V0+ e + j β z
=0

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 2/17

Thus, the total voltage and current along the transmission line
is simply voltage and current of the incident wave:

V ( z ) = V + ( z ) =V0+e − j β z

V0+ − j β z
I (z ) = I (z ) =
+
e
Z0

Meaning that the line impedance is likewise numerically equal

to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line for
all line position z:

V (z ) V0+e − j β z
Z (z ) = = Z 0 + − j βz = Z 0
I (z ) V0 e

And likewise, the reflection coefficient is zero at all points

along the line:
V − (z ) 0
Γ (z ) = + = + =0
V (z ) V (z )

We call this condition (when Z L = Z 0 ) the matched condition,

and the load Z L = Z 0 a matched load.

2. Z L = 0

A device with no impedance is called a short circuit! I.E.:

RL = 0 and XL = 0

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 3/17

In this case, the voltage across the load—and thus the

voltage at the end of the transmission line—is zero:

VL = Z L I L = 0 and V (z = z L ) = 0

Note that this does not mean that the current is zero!

IL = I (z = z L ) ≠ 0

For a short, the resulting load reflection coefficient is

therefore:
Z − Z0 0 − Z0
ΓL = L = = −1
ZL + Z0 0 + Z0

Meaning (assuming z L = 0 ):

V0− = −V0+

As a result, the total voltage and current along the

transmission line is simply:

V ( z ) = V0+ (e − j β z − e + j β z ) = − j 2V0+ sin ( β z )

V0+ − j β z 2V0+
I (z ) =
Z0
(e + e ) = Z cos ( β z )
+ j βz

Meaning that the line impedance can likewise be written in

terms of a trigonometric function:

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 4/17

V (z )
Z (z ) = = − jZ 0 tan ( β z )
I (z )

Note that this impedance is purely reactive. This means that

the current and voltage on the transmission line will be
everywhere 90D out of phase.

Hopefully, this was likewise apparent to you when you

observed the expressions for V(z) and I(z)!

Note at the end of the line (i.e., z = z L = 0 ), we find that

V ( z = 0 ) = − j 2V0+ sin ( 0 ) = 0

2V0+ 2V0+
I (z = 0 ) = cos ( 0 ) =
Z0 Z0

As expected, the voltage is zero at the end of the

transmission line (i.e. the voltage across the short). Likewise,
the current at the end of the line (i.e., the current through
the short) is at a maximum!

Finally, we note that the line impedance at the end of the

transmission line is:

Z ( z = 0 ) = − jZ 0 tan ( 0 ) = 0

Just as we expected—a short circuit!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 5/17

Finally, the reflection coefficient function is (assuming

z L = 0 ):
V − ( z ) −V0+e + j β z
Γ (z ) = + = + − j β z = −e j β z
V (z ) V0 e

Note that for this case Γ ( z ) = 1 , meaning that:

V − (z ) = V + (z )

In other words, the magnitude of each wave on the

transmission line is the same—the reflected wave is just as
big as the incident wave!

3. Z L = ∞

A device with infinite impedance is called an open circuit!

I.E.:
RL = ∞ and/or XL = ±∞

In this case, the current through the load—and thus the

current at the end of the transmission line—is zero:

VL
IL = =0 and I (z = z L ) = 0
ZL

Note that this does not mean that the voltage is zero!

VL =V ( z = z L ) ≠ 0

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 6/17

For an open, the resulting load reflection coefficient is:

ZL − Z0 Z
ΓL = lim = lim L = 1
Z L →∞ Z + Z Z L →∞ Z
L 0 L

Meaning (assuming z L = 0 ):

V0− =V0+

As a result, the total voltage and current along the

transmission line is simply (assuming z L = 0 ):

V ( z ) = V0+ (e − j β z + e + j β z ) = 2V0+ cos ( β z )

V0+ − j β z 2V0+
I (z ) =
Z0
(e − e ) = − j Z sin ( β z )
+ j βz

Meaning that the line impedance can likewise be written in

terms of trigonometric function:

V (z )
Z (z ) = = jZ 0 cot ( β z )
I (z )

Again note that this impedance is purely reactive—V(z) and

I(z) are again 90D out of phase!

Note at the end of the line (i.e., z = z L = 0 ), we find that

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 7/17

2V0+
V ( z = 0 ) = 2V0 cos ( 0 ) =
+

Z0

2V0+
I (z = 0 ) = − j sin ( 0 ) = 0
Z0
As expected, the current is zero at the end of the
transmission line (i.e. the current through the open). Likewise,
the voltage at the end of the line (i.e., the voltage across the
open) is at a maximum!

Finally, we note that the line impedance at the end of the

transmission line is:

Z ( z = 0 ) = jZ 0 cot ( 0 ) = ∞

Just as we expected—an open circuit!

Finally, the reflection coefficient is (assuming z L = 0 ):

V − ( z ) V0+e + j β z
Γ (z ) = + = + − j βz = e + j 2βz
V ( z ) V0 e

Note that likewise for this case Γ ( z ) = 1 , meaning again that:

V − (z ) = V + (z )

In other words, the magnitude of each wave on the

transmission line is the same—the reflected wave is just as
big as the incident wave!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 8/17

4. RL = 0

For this case, the load impedance is purely reactive (e.g. a

capacitor of inductor):
Z L = j XL

Thus, both the current through the load, and voltage across
the load, are non-zero:

IL = I (z = z L ) ≠ 0 VL =V ( z = z L ) ≠ 0

The resulting load reflection coefficient is:

Z L − Z 0 jXL − Z 0
ΓL = =
Z L + Z 0 jX L + Z 0

Given that Z0 is real (i.e., the line is lossless), we find that

this load reflection coefficient is generally some complex
number.

We can rewrite this value explicitly in terms of its real and

imaginary part as:

jX L − Z 0 ⎛ XL2 − Z 02 ⎞ ⎛ 2 Z 0 XL ⎞
ΓL = =⎜ 2 ⎟ + j ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
jX L + Z 0 ⎝ X L + Z 02 ⎠ ⎝ X L + Z 0 ⎠

Yuck! This isn’t much help!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 9/17

Let’s instead write this complex value ΓL in terms of its

magnitude and phase. For magnitude we find a much more
straightforward result!

2
2 jX L − Z 0 XL2 + Z 02
ΓL = = 2 =1
jX L + Z 0
2
XL + Z 02

Its magnitude is one! Thus, we find that for reactive loads,

the reflection coefficient can be simply expressed as:

ΓL = e j θΓ
where
⎡ 2 Z 0 XL ⎤
θ Γ = tan −1 ⎢ 2⎥
⎣ XL − Z 0 ⎦
2

We can therefore conclude that for a reactive load:

V0− = e j θ V0+Γ

As a result, the total voltage and current along the

transmission line is simply (assuming z L = 0 ):

V ( z ) =V0+ (e − j β z + e + j θL e + j β z )
=V0+ e + j θΓ 2 e ( − j ( β z +θ Γ 2 )
+e
+ j ( β z +θ Γ 2 )
)
= 2V0+ e + j θΓ 2 cos ( β z + θ Γ 2 )

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 10/17

V0+ − j β z
I (z ) =
Z0
( e − e + j βz )

V0+ + j θL 2 − j ( β z +θL 2)
=
Z0
e e ( −e (
+ j β z +θ L 2 )
)
2V0+
= −j e + j θL 2 sin ( β z + θ L 2 )
Z0

Meaning that the line impedance can again be written in terms

of trigonometric function:

V (z )
Z (z ) = = jZ 0 cot ( β z + θ Γ 2 )
I (z )

Again note that this impedance is purely reactive—V(z) and

I(z) are once again 90D out of phase!

Note at the end of the line (i.e., z = z L = 0 ), we find that

V ( z = 0 ) = 2V0+ cos (θ Γ 2 )

2V0+
I (z = 0 ) = − j sin (θ Γ 2 )
Z0

As expected, neither the current nor voltage at the end of

the line are zero.

We also note that the line impedance at the end of the

transmission line is:

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 11/17

Z ( z = 0 ) = jZ 0 cot (θ Γ 2 )

With a little trigonometry, we can show (trust me!) that:

XL
cot (θ Γ 2 ) =
Z0
and therefore:

Z ( z = 0 ) = jZ 0 cot (θ Γ 2 ) = j X L = Z L

Just as we expected!

Finally, the reflection coefficient function is (assuming

z L = 0 ):
V − ( z ) V0+e + j θ e + j β z
Γ

=e (
+ j 2 β z +θ 2)
Γ (z ) = + = Γ

V (z ) V0 e
+ − j βz

Note that likewise for this case Γ ( z ) = 1 , meaning once

again:
V − (z ) = V + (z )

In other words, the magnitude of each wave on the

transmission line is the same—the reflected wave is just as
big as the incident wave!

Q: Gee, a reactive load leads to results very similar to that

of an open or short circuit. Is this just coincidence?

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 12/17

A: Hardly! An open and short are in fact reactive loads—

they cannot absorb power (think about this!).

Specifically, for an open, we find θ Γ = 0 , so that:

ΓL = e j θΓ = 1

Likewise, for a short, we find that θ Γ = π , so that:

ΓL = e j θΓ = −1

5. XL = 0

For this case, the load impedance is purely real (e.g. a

resistor):
Z L = RL

Thus, both the current through the load, and voltage across
the load, are non-zero:

IL = I (z = z L ) ≠ 0 VL =V ( z = z L ) ≠ 0

The resulting load reflection coefficient is:

ZL − Z0 R − Z0
ΓL = =
ZL + Z0 R + Z0

Given that Z0 is real (i.e., the line is lossless), we find that

this load reflection coefficient must be a purely real value!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 13/17

In other words:

R − Z0
Re {ΓL } = Im {ΓL } = 0
R + Z0

The magnitude is thus:

R − Z0
ΓL =
R + Z0

whereas the phase θ Γ can take on one of two values:

⎧0 if Re {ΓL } > 0 (i.e., if RL > Z 0 )

⎪
θΓ = ⎨
⎪π if Re {ΓL } < 0 (i.e., if RL < Z 0 )
⎩

For this case, the impedance at the end of the line must be
real ( Z ( z = z L ) = RL ). Thus, the current and the voltage at
this point are precisely in phase.

However, even though the load impedance is real, the line

impedance at all other points on the line is generally complex!

Moreover, the general current and voltage expressions, as

well as reflection coefficient function, cannot be further
simplified for the case where Z L = RL .

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 14/17

Q: Why is that? When the load was purely imaginary

(reactive), we where able to simply our general expressions,
and likewise deduce all sorts of interesting results!

A: True! And here’s why. Remember, a lossless transmission

line has series inductance and shunt capacitance only. In
other words, a length of lossless transmission line is a purely
reactive device (it absorbs no energy!).

* If we attach a purely reactive load at the end of the

transmission line, we still have a completely reactive system
(load and transmission line). Because this system has no
resistive (i.e., real) component, the general expressions for
line impedance, line voltage, etc. can be significantly
simplified.

* However, if we attach a purely real load to our reactive

transmission line, we now have a complex system, with both
real and imaginary (i.e., resistive and reactive) components.
This complex case is exactly what our general expressions
already describes—no further simplification is possible!

5. Z L = RL + jX L

Now, let’s look at the general case, where the load has both a
real (resitive) and imaginary (reactive) component.

Q: Haven’t we already determined all the general

expressions (e.g., ΓL ,V ( z ) , I ( z ) , Z ( z ) , Γ ( z ) ) for this general
case? Is there anything else left to be determined?

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 15/17

A: There is one last thing we need to discuss. It seems

trivial, but its ramifications are very important!

For you see, the “general” case is not, in reality, quite so

general. Although the reactive component of the load can be
either positive or negative ( −∞ < X L < ∞ ), the resistive
component of a passive load must be positive ( RL > 0 )—there’s
no such thing as negative resistor!

This leads to one very important and useful result. Consider

the load reflection coefficient:

ZL − Z0
ΓL =
ZL + Z0

=
(RL + jXL ) − Z 0
(RL + jXL ) + Z 0
(R − Z 0 ) + jXL
= L
(RL + Z 0 ) + jXL

Now let’s look at the magnitude of this value:

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 16/17

ΓL
2 (R − Z 0 ) + jXL
= L
(RL + Z 0 ) + jXL
( RL − Z 0 ) + X L2
2

=
(RL + Z 0 ) + XL2
2

=
( RL
2
− 2RL Z 0 + Z 02 ) + X L2
(RL
2
+ 2RL Z 0 + Z 02 ) + X L2

=
(R L
2
+ Z 02 + X L2 ) − 2RL Z 0
(RL
2
+ Z 02 + X L2 ) + 2RL Z 0

It is apparent that since both RL and Z 0 are positive, the

numerator of the above expression must be less than (or equal
to) the denominator of the above expression.

Æ In other words, the magnitude of the load reflection

coefficient is always less than or equal to one!

ΓL ≤ 1 (for RL ≥ 0 )

Moreover, we find that this means the reflection coefficient

function likewise always has a magnitude less than or equal to
one, for all values of position z.

Γ (z ) ≤ 1 (for all z)

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Special Values of Load Impedance.doc 17/17

Which means, of course, that the reflected wave will always

have a magnitude less than that of the incident wave
magnitude:

V − (z ) ≤ V + (z ) (for all z)

We will find out later that this result is consistent with

conservation of energy—the reflected wave from a passive
load cannot be larger than the wave incident on it.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 Transmission Line Input Impedance.doc 1/9

Transmission Line
Input Impedance
Consider a lossless line, length A , terminated with a load ZL.

I(z) IL

+ +
V (z) Z0 , β VL
ZL
- -

A
z = −A z = 0

Let’s determine the input impedance of this line!

Q: Just what do you mean by input impedance?

A: The input impedance is simply the line impedance seen

at the beginning ( z = −A) of the transmission line, i.e.:

V ( z = −A )
Zin = Z ( z = −A ) =
I ( z = −A )

Note Zin equal to neither the load impedance ZL nor the

characteristic impedance Z0 !

Zin ≠ Z L and Zin ≠ Z 0

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 Transmission Line Input Impedance.doc 2/9

To determine exactly what Zin is, we first must determine the

voltage and current at the beginning of the transmission line
( z = −A ).
V ( z = − A ) = V0+ ⎡⎣e + j β A + Γ L e − j β A ⎤⎦

V0+ + j β A
I ( z = −A ) = ⎡⎣e − Γ L e − j β A ⎤⎦
Z0
Therefore:

V ( z = −A ) ⎛ e + j β A + ΓL e − j β A ⎞
Zin = = Z0 ⎜ + j βA ⎟
I ( z = −A ) ⎝e − ΓL e − j β A ⎠

We can explicitly write Zin in terms of load ZL using the

previously determined relationship:

ZL − Z0
ΓL =
ZL + Z0

Combining these two expressions, we get:

Zin = Z0
( ZL + Z 0 ) e + j β A + (ZL − Z 0 ) e − j β A
(ZL + Z 0 ) e + j β A − (ZL − Z 0 ) e − j β A
⎛ Z L (e + j β A + e − j β A ) + Z 0 (e + j β A − e − j β A ) ⎞
= Z0 ⎜ ⎟
⎜ Z L (e + j β A + e − j β A ) − Z 0 (e + j β A − e − j β A ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Now, recall Euler’s equations:

e + j β A = cos β A + j sin β A
e − j β A = cos β A − j sin β A
Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS
1/26/2005 Transmission Line Input Impedance.doc 3/9

Using Euler’s relationships, we can likewise write the input

impedance without the complex exponentials:

⎛ Z L cos β A + j Z 0 sin β A ⎞
Zin = Z 0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Z 0
cos β A + j Z L sin β A ⎠
⎛ Z + j Z 0 tan β A ⎞
= Z0 ⎜ L ⎟
Z
⎝ 0 + j Z L tan β A ⎠

Note that depending on the values of β , Z 0 and A , the input

impedance can be radically different from the load impedance
ZL !

Special Cases

Now let’s look at the Zin for some important load impedances
and line lengths.

Æ You should commit these results to memory!

1. A = λ
2

If the length of the transmission line is exactly one-half

wavelength ( A = λ 2 ), we find that:

2π λ
βA = =π
λ 2
meaning that:

cos β A = cos π = −1 and sin β A = sin π = 0

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 Transmission Line Input Impedance.doc 4/9

and therefore:
⎛ Z L cos β A + j Z 0 sin β A ⎞
Zin = Z 0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Z 0 cos β A + j Z L sin β A ⎠
⎛ Z ( − 1) + j Z L (0) ⎞
= Z0 ⎜ L ⎟
Z
⎝ 0 ( − 1) + j Z L (0) ⎠
= ZL

In other words, if the transmission line is precisely one-half

wavelength long, the input impedance is equal to the load
impedance, regardless of Z0 or β.

Zin = Z L Z0, β ZL

A = λ
2

2. A = λ
4

If the length of the transmission line is exactly one-quarter

wavelength ( A = λ 4 ), we find that:

2π λ π
βA = =
λ 4 2
meaning that:

cos β A = cos π 2 = 0 and sin β A = sin π 2 = 1

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 Transmission Line Input Impedance.doc 5/9

and therefore:

⎛ Z L cos β A + j Z 0 sin β A ⎞
Zin = Z 0 ⎜ ⎟
Z
⎝ 0 cos β A + j Z L sin β A ⎠
⎛ Z (0) + j Z 0 (1) ⎞
= Z0 ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ Z 0
(0) + j Z L (1) ⎠
(Z )
2
0
=
ZL

In other words, if the transmission line is precisely one-quarter

wavelength long, the input impedance is inversely proportional to
the load impedance.

Think about what this means! Say the load impedance is a short
circuit, such that Z L = 0 . The input impedance at beginning of
the λ 4 transmission line is therefore:

( Z ) ( Z )
2 2

Zin = 0
= 0
=∞
ZL 0

Zin = ∞ ! This is an open circuit! The quarter-wave transmission

line transforms a short-circuit into an open-circuit—and vice
versa!

Zin = ∞ Z0 , β ZL=0

A = λ
4
Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS
1/26/2005 Transmission Line Input Impedance.doc 6/9

3. Z L = Z 0

If the load is numerically equal to the characteristic impedance

of the transmission line (a real value), we find that the input
impedance becomes:

⎛ Z L cos β A + j Z 0 sin β A ⎞
Zin = Z 0 ⎜ ⎟
Z
⎝ 0 cos β A + j Z L sin β A ⎠
⎛ Z cos β A + j Z 0 sin β A ⎞
= Z0 ⎜ 0 ⎟
Z
⎝ 0 cos β A + j Z 0
sin β A ⎠
= Z0

In other words, if the load impedance is equal to the

transmission line characteristic impedance, the input impedance
will be likewise be equal to Z0 regardless of the transmission
line length A .

Zin = Z 0 Z0 , β ZL=Z0

4. Z L = j X L

If the load is purely reactive (i.e., the resistive component is

zero), the input impedance is:

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 Transmission Line Input Impedance.doc 7/9

⎛ Z L cos β A + j Z 0 sin β A ⎞
Zin = Z 0 ⎜ ⎟
Z
⎝ 0 cos β A + j Z L sin β A ⎠
⎛ j X L cos β A + j Z 0 sin β A ⎞
= Z0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Z 0 cos β A + j X L sin β A ⎠
2

⎛ X cos β A + Z 0 sin β A ⎞
= j Z0 ⎜ L ⎟
Z
⎝ 0 cos β A − X L sin β A ⎠

In other words, if the load is purely reactive, then the input

impedance will likewise be purely reactive, regardless of the
line length A .

Z in = j X in Z0 , β ZL=jXL

Note that the opposite is not true: even if the load is purely
resistive (ZL = R), the input impedance will be complex (both
resistive and reactive components).

Q: Why is this?

A:

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 Transmission Line Input Impedance.doc 8/9

5. A  λ

If the transmission line is electrically small—its length A is

small with respect to signal wavelength λ --we find that:

2π A
βA = A = 2π ≈0
λ λ
and thus:

cos β A = cos 0 = 1 and sin β A = sin 0 = 0

so that the input impedance is:

⎛ Z L cos β A + j Z 0 sin β A ⎞
Zin = Z 0 ⎜ ⎟
Z
⎝ 0 cos β A + j Z L sin β A ⎠
⎛ Z (1) + j Z L (0) ⎞
= Z0 ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ Z 0 (1) + j Z L (0) ⎠
= ZL

In other words, if the transmission line length is much smaller

than a wavelength, the input impedance Zin will always be equal
to the load impedance Z L .

This is the assumption we used in all previous circuits courses

(e.g., EECS 211, 212, 312, 412)! In those courses, we assumed
that the signal frequency ω is relatively low, such that the
signal wavelength λ is very large ( λ  A ).

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 Transmission Line Input Impedance.doc 9/9

Note also for this case ( the electrically short transmission

line), the voltage and current at each end of the transmission
line are approximately the same!

V (z = −A) ≈ V (z = 0) and I(z = −A) ≈ I (z = 0) if A  λ

If A  λ , our “wire” behaves exactly as it did in EECS 211 !

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

 1/26/2005 Example Input Impedance.doc 1/5

Example: Input Impedance

Consider the following circuit:

ZL =
Zin Z0 = 1 Z 0 = 1. 5 2 Z 0 = 2.0
−j 3 1+ j2

A=λ A=λ A=λ

2 4 8

If we ignored our new µ-wave knowledge, we might erroneously

conclude that the input impedance of this circuit is:

2
ZL =
Zin
−j 3 1+ j2

Therefore:
− j 3 (2 + 1 + j 2 ) 6− j9
Zin = = = 2.7 − j 2.1
−j 3 + 2 + 1 + j 2 3− j

Of course, this is not the correct answer!

We must use our transmission line theory to determine an

accurate value. Define Z1 as the input impedance of the last
section:
ZL =
Z1 Z 0 = 2.0
1+ j2

A=λ
8

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 Example Input Impedance.doc 2/5

we find that Z1 is :

⎛ Z L cos β A + j Z 0 sin β A ⎞
Z1 = Z 0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Z 0 cos β A + j Z L sin β A ⎠

= 2⎜
( )
⎛ (1 + j 2) cos π + j 2 sin π ⎞
4 4 ⎟ ( )
⎝ ( )
⎜⎜ 2 cos π + j (1 + j 2) sin π ⎟⎟
4 4 ⎠ ( )
⎛1+ j 4⎞
= 2⎜ ⎟
⎝ j ⎠
=8− j2

Therefore, our circuit now becomes:

Zin Z0 = 1 Z 0 = 1. 5 2 Z1 = 8 − j 2
−j 3
A=λ A=λ
2 4

Note the resistor is in series with impedance Z1. We can

combine these two into one impedance defined as Z2:

Z 2 = 2 + Z 1 = 2 + (8 − j 2) = 10 − j 2

Zin Z0 = 1 Z 0 = 1. 5 Z 2 = 10 − j 2
−j 3
A=λ A=λ
2 4

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 Example Input Impedance.doc 3/5

Now let’s define the input impedance of the middle transmission

line section as Z3:

Z3 Z 0 = 1. 5 Z 2 = 10 − j 2

A=λ
4

Note that this transmission line is a quarter wavelength

( A = λ ). This is one of the special cases we considered earlier!
4
The input impedance Z3 is:

Z 02
Z3 =
ZL
Z 02
=
Z2
1.52
=
10 − j 2
= 0.21 + j 0.043

Thus, we can further simplify the original circuit as:

Zin Z0 = 1 Z 3 = 0.21 + j 0.043

−j 3
A=λ
2

Now we find that the impedance Z3 is parallel to the capacitor.

We can combine the two impedances and define the result as
impedance Z4:

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 Example Input Impedance.doc 4/5

Z 4 = − j 3 (0.21 + j 0.043)
− j 3(0.21 + j 0.043)
=
− j 3 + 0.21 + j 0.043
= 0.22 + j 0.028

Now we are left with this equivalent circuit:

Zin Z0 = 1 Z 4 = 0.22 + j 0.028

A=λ
2

Note that the remaining transmission line section is a half

wavelength! This is one of the special situations we discussed in
a previous handout. Recall that the input impedance in this case
is simply equal to the load impedance:

Zin = Z L = Z 4 = 0.22 + j 0.028

Whew! We are finally done. The input impedance of the original

circuit is:

Zin Z in = 0.22 + j 0.028

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

 1/26/2005 Example Input Impedance.doc 5/5

Note this means that this circuit:

0.22
Z in =
0.22 + j 0.028 j 0.028

and this circuit:

2 ZL =
Z in =
Z0 = 1 Z 0 = 1. 5 Z 0 = 2.0
1+ j2
0.22 + j 0.028 −j 3

A=λ A=λ A=λ

2 4 8

are precisely the same! They have exactly the same impedance,
and thus they “behave” precisely the same way in any circuit
(but only at frequency ω0 !).

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 The Reflection Coefficient Transformation.doc 1/7

The Reflection Coefficient

Transformation
The load at the end of some length of a transmission line (with
characteristic impedance Z0 ) can be specified in terms of its
impedance ZL or its reflection coefficient ΓL .

Note both values are complex, and either one completely

specifies the load—if you know one, you know the other!

ZL − Z0 ⎛ 1 + ΓL ⎞
ΓL = and ZL = Z0 ⎜ ⎟
ZL + Z0 ⎝ 1 − ΓL ⎠

Recall that we determined how a length of transmission line

transformed the load impedance into an input impedance of a
(generally) different value:

Z0 , β Z in Z0 , β Z L

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 The Reflection Coefficient Transformation.doc 2/7

where:

⎛ Z L cos β A + j Z 0 sin β A ⎞
Zin = Z 0 ⎜ ⎟
Z
⎝ 0 cos β A + j Z L sin β A ⎠
⎛ Z + j Z 0 tan β A ⎞
= Z0 ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ Z 0
+ j Z L tan β A ⎠

Q: Say we know the load in terms of its reflection coefficient.

How can we express the input impedance in terms its reflection
coefficient (call this Γin )?

Z0 , β Γ in = ? Z0 , β ΓL

A: Well, we could execute these three steps:

1. Convert ΓL to ZL:
⎛ 1 + ΓL ⎞
ZL = Z0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 − ΓL ⎠

2. Transform ZL down the line to Zin :

⎛ Z L cos β A + j Z 0 sin β A ⎞
Zin = Z 0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Z 0 cos β A + j Z L sin β A ⎠

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 The Reflection Coefficient Transformation.doc 3/7

3. Convert Zin to Γin :

Zin − Z 0
Γin =
Zin + Z 0

Q: Yikes! This is a ton of complex arithmetic—isn’t there an

easier way?

A: Actually, there is!

Recall in an earlier handout that the input impedance of a

transmission line length A , terminated with a load ΓL , is:

V ( z = −A ) ⎛ e + j β A + ΓL e − j β A ⎞
Zin = = Z0 ⎜ + j βA ⎟
I ( z = −A ) ⎝e − ΓL e − j β A ⎠

Note this directly relates ΓL to Zin (steps 1 and 2 combined!).

If we directly insert this equation into:

Zin − Z 0
Γin =
Zin + Z 0

we get an equation directly relating ΓL to Γin :

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 The Reflection Coefficient Transformation.doc 4/7

Z 0 (e + Γ L e − j β A ) − (e + j β A − Γ L e − j β A )
+ j βA

Γin =
Z 0 (e + j β A + Γ L e − j β A ) + ( e + j β A − Γ L e − j β A )
2 ΓL e − j β A
=
2e + j β A
= ΓL e − j β A e − j β A
= ΓL e − j 2 β A

Q: Hey! This result looks familiar. Haven’t we seen something

like this before?

A: Absolutely! Recall that we found that the reflection

coefficient function Γ ( z ) can be expressed as:

Γ ( z ) = Γ 0 e 2γ z

Now, for a lossless line, we know that γ = j β , so that:

Γ (z ) = Γ0 e j 2β z

Evaluating this function at the beginning of the line (i.e., at

z = z L − A ):
Γ (z = z L − A ) = Γ0 e
j 2 β (z L − A )

= Γ 0 e j 2 β zL e − j 2 β A

But, we recognize that:

Γ 0 e j 2 β zL = Γ ( z = z L ) = Γ L

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 The Reflection Coefficient Transformation.doc 5/7

And so:
Γ ( z = z L − A ) = Γ 0 e j 2 β zL e − j 2 β A
= ΓL e − j 2 β A

Thus, we find that Γin is simply the value of function Γ ( z )

evaluated at the line input of z = z L − A !

Γin = Γ ( z = z L − A ) = Γ L e − j 2 β A

Makes sense! After all, the input impedance is likewise simply

the line impedance evaluated at the line input of z = z L − A :

Zin = Z ( z = z L − A )

It is apparent that from the above expression that the

reflection coefficient at the input is simply related to ΓL by a
phase shift of 2β A .

In other words, the magnitude of Γin is the same as the

magnitude of ΓL !

j (θ Γ −2 β A )
Γin = Γ L e
= Γ L (1)
= ΓL

If we think about this, it makes perfect sense!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 The Reflection Coefficient Transformation.doc 6/7

Recall that the power absorbed by the load Γin would be:

2
V0+
Pabs
in
=
2 Z0
( 1 − Γin
2
)
while that absorbed by the load ΓL is:

2
V0+
Pabs
L
=
2 Z0
(1 − Γ ) L
2

Z0, β Pa bi ns Z0, β Pa bL s ΓL

Recall, however, that a lossless transmission line can absorb no

power! By adding a length of transmission line to load ΓL , we
have added only reactance. Therefore, the power absorbed by
load Γin is equal to the power absorbed by ΓL:

Pabs
in
= Pabs
L

2 2
V0+ V0+
2 Z0
(1 − Γ ) = 2 Z (1 − Γ )
in
2

0
L
2

2 2
1 − Γin = 1 − ΓL

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 The Reflection Coefficient Transformation.doc 7/7

Thus, we can conclude from conservation of energy that:

Γin = Γ L

Which of course is exactly the result we just found!

Finally, the phase shift associated with transforming the load

ΓL down a transmission line can be attributed to the phase shift
associated with the wave propagating a length A down the line,
reflecting from load ΓL , and then propagating a length A back up
the line:

Z0, β Γ in = e − jβ A
Γ Le − jβ A
Γ L

φ = βA

To emphasize this wave interpretation, we recall that by

definition, we can write Γin as:

V − (z = z L − A )
Γin = Γ ( z = z L − A ) = +
V (z = z L − A )
Therefore:

V − ( z = z L − A ) = Γin V + ( z = z L − A )
= e − j β A ΓL e − j β A V +
(z = zL − A )

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/27/2005 Power Flow and Return Loss.doc 1/5

Power Flow and

Return Loss
We have discovered that two waves propagate along a
transmission line, one in each direction (V + ( z ) and V − ( z ) ).

V0+ − j β z
I (z ) = ⎡⎣e − ΓL e + j β z ⎤⎦ IL
Z0

+ +
V (z ) =V0 ⎡⎣e
+ − j βz
+ ΓL e + j βz
⎤⎦ ZL
VL
- -

A
z = −A z = 0

The result is that electromagnetic energy flows along the

transmission line at a given rate (i.e., power).

Q: How much power flows along a transmission line, and

where does that power go?

A: We can answer that question by determining the

power absorbed by the load!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/27/2005 Power Flow and Return Loss.doc 2/5

The time average power absorbed by an impedance ZL is:

1
Pabs = Re {VL I L ∗ }
2
1
= Re {V (z = 0) I (z = 0)∗ }
2
=
1
2 Z0 {(
Re V0+ ⎡⎣e − j β 0 + ΓL e + j β 0 ⎤⎦ ) (V 0
+
⎡⎣e −j β 0
− ΓL e +jβ0
⎤⎦ )}
∗

2
V0+
=
2 Z0
{
Re 1 − ( ΓL ∗ − Γ L ) − Γ L
2
}
2
V0+
=
2 Z0
(1 − Γ )L
2

The significance of this result can be seen by rewriting the

expression as:

2
V0+
Pabs =
2 Z0
(1 − Γ ) L
2

2 2
V0+ V0+ ΓL
= −
2 Z0 2 Z0
2 2
V0+ V0−
= −
2 Z0 2 Z0

The two terms in above expression have a very definite physical

meaning. The first term is the time-averaged power of the
wave propagating along the transmission line toward the load.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/27/2005 Power Flow and Return Loss.doc 3/5

We say that this wave is incident on the load:

2
V0+
Pinc = P+ =
2Z 0

Likewise, the second term of the Pabs equation describes the

power of the wave moving in the other direction (away from
the load). We refer to this as the wave reflected from the
load:

2 2 2
V0− Γ L V0+ 2
Pref = P− = = = Γ L Pinc
2Z0 2Z 0

Thus, the power absorbed by the load is simply:

Pabs = Pinc − Pref

or, rearranging, we find:

Pinc = Pabs + Pref

This equation is simply an expression of the conservation of

energy !

It says that power flowing toward the load (Pinc) is either

absorbed by the load (Pabs) or reflected back from the load
(Pref).

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/27/2005 Power Flow and Return Loss.doc 4/5

Pabs

Pinc Pref ZL

2
Note that if Γ L = 1 , then Pinc = Pref, and therefore no power is
absorbed by the load.

This of course makes sense !

The magnitude of the reflection coefficient ( ΓL ) is equal to

one only when the load impedance is purely reactive (i.e., purely
imaginary).

Of course, a purely reactive element (e.g., capacitor or inductor)

cannot absorb any power—all the power must be reflected!

Return Loss

The ratio of the reflected power to the incident power is known

as return loss. Typically, return loss is expressed in dB:

⎡P ⎤ 2
R .L. = −10 log10 ⎢ ref ⎥ = −10 log10 ΓL
⎣ Pinc ⎦

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/27/2005 Power Flow and Return Loss.doc 5/5

For example, if the return loss is 10dB, then 10% of the

incident power is reflected at the load, with the remaining 90%
being absorbed by the load—we “lose” 10% of the incident
power

Likewise, if the return loss is 30dB, then 0.1 % of the incident

power is reflected at the load, with the remaining 99.9% being
absorbed by the load—we “lose” 0.1% of the incident power.

Thus, a larger numeric value for return loss actually indicates

less lost power! An ideal return loss would be ∞ dB, whereas a
return loss of 0 dB indicates that Γ L = 1 --the load is reactive!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 VSWR.doc 1/3

VSWR
Consider again the voltage along a terminated transmission line,
as a function of position z :

V ( z ) = V0+ ⎡⎣e − j β z + Γ L e + j β z ⎤⎦

Recall this is a complex function, the magnitude of which

expresses the magnitude of the sinusoidal signal at position z,
while the phase of the complex value represents the relative
phase of the sinusoidal signal.

Let’s look at the magnitude only:

|V ( z )| = |V0+| |e − j β z + Γ L e + j β z |
= |V0+||e − j β z ||1 + Γ L e + j 2 β z |
= |V0+||1 + Γ L e + j 2 β z |

ICBST the largest value of |V (z)| occurs at the location z

where:
ΓL e + j 2β z = ΓL + j 0

while the smallest value of |V (z)|occurs at the location z

where:
ΓL e + j 2β z = − ΓL + j 0

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 VSWR.doc 2/3

As a result we can conclude that:

V ( z ) max = V0+ (1 + Γ L )

V ( z ) min = V0+ (1 − ΓL )
The ratio of V ( z ) max to V ( z ) min is known as the Voltage
Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR):

V ( z ) max 1 + ΓL
VSWR  = ∴ 1 ≤ VSWR ≤ ∞
V ( z ) min 1 − ΓL

Note if Γ L = 0 (i.e., Z L = Z 0 ), then VSWR = 1. We find for this

case:
V (z ) max = V (z ) min = V0+

In other words, the voltage magnitude is a constant with

respect to position z.

Conversely, if Γ L = 1 (i.e., Z L = jX ), then VSWR = ∞ . We find

for this case:

V (z ) min = 0 and V (z ) max = 2V0+

In other words, the voltage magnitude varies greatly with

respect to position z.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

1/26/2005 VSWR.doc 3/3

As with return loss, VSWR is dependent on the magnitude of ΓL

(i.e, |ΓL|) only !

|V(z)|
∆z = λ
2
|V(z)|max

|V(z)|min

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 The Tranmission Coefficient T.doc 1/8

The Transmission
Coefficient T
Consider this circuit:
I1(z) I2(z)

+ +
V1 (z) Z 1 , β1 Z 2 , β2 V2 (z) Z L=Z 2
- -

z
z = 0

I.E., a transmission line with characteristic impedance Z1

transitions to a different transmission line at location z =0.
This second transmission line has different characteristic
impedance Z2 ( Z 1 ≠ Z 2 ) . This second line is terminated with a
load ZL = Z2 (i.e., the second line is matched).

Q: What is the voltage and current along each of these

two transmission lines? More specifically, what are
V01+ , V01− , V02+ and V02− ??

A: Since a source has not been specified, we can only

determine V01− , V02+ and V02− in terms of complex constant
V01+ . To accomplish this, we must apply a boundary
condition at z =0!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 The Tranmission Coefficient T.doc 2/8

z < 0

We know that the voltage along the first transmission line is:

V1 ( z ) = V01+ e − j β z + V01− e + j β z
1 1
⎡⎣for z < 0 ⎤⎦

while the current along that same line is described as:

V01+ − j β z V01− + j β z
I1 ( z ) = e −
1
e 1
⎡⎣for z < 0 ⎤⎦
Z1 Z1

z > 0

We likewise know that the voltage along the second

transmission line is:

V2 ( z ) = V02+ e − j β z + V02− e + j β z
2 2
⎡⎣for z > 0 ⎤⎦

while the current along that same line is described as:

V02+ − j β z V02− + j β z
I2 ( z ) = e −
2
e 2
⎡⎣for z > 0 ⎤⎦
Z2 Z2

Moreover, since the second line is terminated in a matched

load, we know that the reflected wave from this load must be
zero:

V2− ( z ) =V02− e − j β z = 0 2

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 The Tranmission Coefficient T.doc 3/8

The voltage and current along the second transmission line is

thus simply:

V2 ( z ) = V2+ ( z ) = V02+ e − j β z 2
⎡⎣for z > 0 ⎤⎦

V02+ − j β z
I2 ( z ) = I ( z ) =
+
e 2
⎡⎣for z > 0 ⎤⎦
2
Z2

z=0

At the location where these two transmission lines meet, the

current and voltage expressions each must satisfy some specific
boundary conditions:
I1(0) I2(0)

+ +
Z 1 , β1 V1 (0) V2 (0) Z 2 , β2 Z L=Z 2
- -

z
z = 0

The first boundary condition comes from KVL, and states that:

V1 ( z = 0 ) = V2 ( z = 0 )
V01+ e − j β ( 0 ) +V01− e + j β ( 0 ) = V02+ e − j β
1 1 2 ( 0)

V01+ +V01− = V02+

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 The Tranmission Coefficient T.doc 4/8

while the second boundary condition comes from KCL, and states
that:
I1 ( z = 0 ) = I2 ( z = 0 )
V01+ − j β ( 0 ) V01− + j β ( 0 ) V02+ − j β ( 0)
e 1
− e 1
= e 2

Z1 Z1 Z2
V01+ V01− V02+
− =
Z1 Z1 Z2

We now have two equations and two unknowns (V01− and V02+ ) ! We
can solve for each in terms of V01+ (i.e., the incident wave).

From the first boundary condition we can state:

V01− = V02+ −V01+

Inserting this into the second boundary condition, we find an

expression involving only V02+ and V01+ :

V01+ V01− V02+

− =
Z1 Z1 Z2
V01+ V02+ −V01+ V02+
− =
Z1 Z1 Z2
2V01+ V02+ V02+
= +
Z1 Z2 Z1

Solving this expression, we find:

⎛ 2Z 2 ⎞ +
V02+ = ⎜ ⎟V01
Z
⎝ 1 + Z 2 ⎠

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 The Tranmission Coefficient T.doc 5/8

We can therefore define a transmission coefficient, which

relates V02+ to V01+ :

V02+ 2Z 2
T0  + =
V01 Z 1 + Z 2

Meaning that V02+ =T V01+ , and thus:

V2 ( z ) = V2+ ( z ) = T V01+ e − j β z
2
⎡⎣for z > 0 ⎤⎦

We can likewise determine the constant V01− in terms of V01+ . We

again start with the first boundary condition, from which we
concluded:
V02+ = V01+ +V01−

We can insert this into the second boundary condition, and

determine an expression involving V01− and V01+ only:

V01+ V01− V02+

− =
Z1 Z1 Z2
V01+ V01− V01+ +V01−
− =
Z1 Z1 Z2
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ + ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ −
⎜ − V =
⎟ 01 ⎜ + ⎟V01
Z
⎝ 1 Z 2 ⎠ Z
⎝ 1 Z 2 ⎠

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 The Tranmission Coefficient T.doc 6/8

Solving this expression, we find:

⎛ Z2 − Z1 ⎞ +
V01− = ⎜ ⎟V01
Z
⎝ 2 + Z 1 ⎠

We can therefore define a reflection coefficient, which relates

V01− to V01+ :

V01− Z 2 − Z 1
Γ0  + =
V01 Z 2 + Z 1

This result should not surprise us!

Note that because the second transmission line is matched, its

input impedance is equal to Z1 :

Zin = Z 2 Z 2 , β2 Z L=Z 2

z
z = 0

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 The Tranmission Coefficient T.doc 7/8

and thus we can equivalently write the entire circuit as:

I1(z)

+
V1 (z) Z 1 , β1 Z2
-

z
z = 0

We have already analyzed this circuit! We know that:

V01− = ΓLV01+
⎛ Z − Z1 ⎞ +
=⎜ 2 ⎟V01
Z
⎝ 2 + Z 1 ⎠

Which is exactly the same result as we determined earlier!

The values of the reflection coefficient Γ 0 and the transmission

coefficient T0 are not independent, but in fact are directly
related. Recall the first boundary expressed was:

V01+ +V01− = V02+

Dividing this by V01+ :

V01− V02+
1+ + = +
V01 V01

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 The Tranmission Coefficient T.doc 8/8

Since Γ 0 =V01− V01+ and T0 =V02+ V01+ :

1 + Γ 0 = T0

Note the result T0 = 1 + Γ 0 is true for this particular circuit, and

therefore is not a universally valid expression for two-port
networks!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Example Boundary Conditions.doc 1/11

Example: Applying
Boundary Conditions
Consider this circuit:
I1(z1) + VL - I2(z2)

ZL IL
+ +
Z0 , β V1 (z1) V2 (z2) Z0, β
- -

z1 z2
z1 = 0 z2 = 0
I.E., Two transmissions of identical characteristic impedance
are connect by a series impedance ZL . This second line is
eventually terminated with a load ZL = Z0 (i.e., the second line is
matched).

Q: What is the voltage and current along each of these

two transmission lines? More specifically, what are
V01+ , V01− , V02+ and V02− ??

A: Since a source has not been specified, we can only

determine V01− , V02+ and V02− in terms of complex constant
V01+ . To accomplish this, we must apply a boundary
conditions at the end of each line!

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Example Boundary Conditions.doc 2/11

z1 < 0

We know that the voltage along the first transmission line is:

+ j β z1
V1 ( z1 ) = V01+ e − j β z + V01− e
1
⎡⎣for z1 < 0 ⎤⎦

while the current along that same line is described as:

V01+ − j β z V01− + j β z
I1 ( z 1 ) = e − 1
e 1
⎡⎣for z1 < 0 ⎤⎦
Z0 Z0

z2 > 0

We likewise know that the voltage along the second

transmission line is:

V2 ( z 2 ) = V02+ e − j β z + V02− e + j β z
2 2
⎡⎣for z 2 > 0 ⎤⎦

while the current along that same line is described as:

V02+ − j β z V02− + j β z
I2 ( z 2 ) = e −2
e 2
⎡⎣for z 2 > 0 ⎤⎦
Z0 Z0

Moreover, since the second line is terminated in a matched

load, we know that the reflected wave from this load must be
zero:

V2− ( z 2 ) =V02− e − j β z = 0 2

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Example Boundary Conditions.doc 3/11

The voltage and current along the second transmission line is

thus simply:

− j β z2
V2 ( z 2 ) = V2+ ( z 2 ) = V02+ e ⎡⎣for z 2 > 0 ⎤⎦

V02+ − j β z
I2 ( z 2 ) = I ( z 2 ) =
2
+
e 2
⎡⎣for z 2 > 0 ⎤⎦
Z2

z=0

At the location where these two transmission lines meet, the

current and voltage expressions each must satisfy some specific
boundary conditions:

I1(0) + VL - I2(0)

ZL IL
+ +
Z0, β V1 (0) V2 (0) Z0, β
- -

z1 z2
z1 = 0 z2 = 0

The first boundary condition comes from KVL, and states that:

V1 ( z = 0 ) − I L Z L = V2 ( z = 0 )
V01+ e − j β ( 0 ) + V01− e + j β ( 0 ) − I L Z L = V02+ e − j β ( 0 )
V01+ +V0−1 − I L Z L = V02+

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Example Boundary Conditions.doc 4/11

the second boundary condition comes from KCL, and states that:

I1 ( z = 0 ) = I L
V01+ − j β ( 0 ) V01− + j β ( 0 )
e − e = IL
Z0 Z0
V01+ −V01− = Z 0I L

while the third boundary condition likewise comes from KCL, and
states that:
I L = I2 ( z = 0 )
V02+ − j β ( 0 )
IL = e
Z0
Z 0I L = V02+

Finally, we have Ohm’s Law:

VL = Z L I L

Note that we now have four equations and four unknowns

(V01− ,V02+ , VL ,I L ) ! We can solve for each in terms of V01+ (i.e., the
incident wave).

For example, let’s determine V02+ (in terms of V01+ ). We combine

the first and second boundary conditions to determine:

V01+ +V01− − I L Z L = V02+

V01+ + (V01+ − Z 0I L ) − I L Z L = V02+
2V01+ − I L ( Z 0 + Z L ) = V02+

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Example Boundary Conditions.doc 5/11

And then adding in the third boundary condition:

2V01+ − I L ( Z 0 + Z L ) = V02+
V02+
2V −+
01
Z0
( Z 0 + Z L ) = V02+

⎛ 2Z 0 + Z L ⎞
2V01+ = V02+ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Z 0 ⎠

Thus, we find that V02+ =T0 V01+ :

V02+ 2Z 0
T0  + =
V01 2Z 0 + Z L

Now let’s determine V01− (in terms of V01+ ).

Q: Why are you wasting our time? Don’t

we already know that V01− = Γ 0 V01+ , where:

ZL − Z0
Γ0 =
ZL + Z0

A: Perhaps. Humor me while I continue with our boundary

condition analysis.

We combine the first and third boundary conditions to

determine:

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Example Boundary Conditions.doc 6/11

V01+ +V01− − I L Z L = V02+

V01+ +V01− − I L Z L = Z 0I L
V01+ +V0−1 = I L ( Z 0 + Z L )

And then adding the second boundary condition:

V01+ +V01− = I L ( Z 0 + Z L )
(V +
−V01− )
V +V
+
01
−
01 =
01
(Z0 + ZL )
Z0
⎛ ZL ⎞ − ⎛ 2Z 0 + Z L ⎞
V01+ ⎜ = V
⎟ 01 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Z0 ⎠ ⎝ Z0 ⎠

Thus, we find that V01− = Γ 0 V01+ , where:

V01− ZL
Γ0  + =
V01 Z L + 2Z 0

Note this is not the expression:

ZL − Z0
Γ0 ≠
ZL + Z0

This is a completely different problem than the

transmission line simply terminated by load ZL. Thus, the
results are likewise different. This shows that you must
always carefully consider the problem you are attempting
to solve, and guard against using “shortcuts” with
previously derived expressions that may be inapplicable.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Example Boundary Conditions.doc 7/11

Æ This is why you must know why a correct answer is correct!

Q: But, isn’t there some

way to solve this using our
previous work?

A: Actually, there is!

An alternative way for finding Γ 0 =V01− V01+ is to determine the

input impedance at the end of the first transmission line:

ZL
Z0 , β Zin Z0, β

z1 z2
z1 = 0 z2 = 0
Note that since the second line is (eventually) terminated in a
matched load, the input impedance at the beginning of the
second line is simply equal to Z0.

ZL
Z0 , β Zin2=Z0 Z0, β

z1 z2
z1 = 0 z2 = 0

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Example Boundary Conditions.doc 8/11

Thus, the equivalent circuit becomes:

ZL
Z0 , β Zin Z0

z1
z1 = 0

And it is apparent that:

Zin = Z L + Z 0

As far as the first section of transmission line is concerned, it

is terminated in a load with impedance Z L + Z 0 . The current and
voltage along this first transmission line is precisely the same
as if it actually were!

I1(z1)

+
Z0 , β V1 (z1) ZL + Z0
-

z1
z1 = 0

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Example Boundary Conditions.doc 9/11

Thus, we find that Γ 0 =V01− V01+ , where:

Z ( z1 = 0 ) − Z 0
Γ0 =
Z ( z1 = 0 ) + Z 0

=
(ZL + Z 0 ) − Z0
(ZL + Z 0 ) + Z0
ZL
=
Z L + 2Z 0

Precisely the same result as before!

Now, one more point. Recall we found in an earlier handout that

T0 = 1 + Γ 0 . But for this example we find that this statement is
not valid:
2(ZL + Z 0 )
1 + Γ0 = ≠T0
Z L + 2Z 0

Again, be careful when analyzing microwave circuits!

Q: But this seems so

difficult. How will I
know if I have made a
mistake?

A: An important engineering tool that you must master is

commonly referred to as the “sanity check”.

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Example Boundary Conditions.doc 10/11

Simply put, a sanity check is simply thinking about your result,

and determining whether or not it makes sense. A great
strategy is to set one of the variables to a value so that the
physical problem becomes trivial—so trivial that the correct
answer is obvious to you. Then make sure your results likewise
provide this obvious answer!

For example, consider the problem we just finished analyzing.

Say that the impedance ZL is actually a short circuit (ZL=0). We
find that:

ZL 2Z 0
Γ0 = =0 T0 = =1
Z L + 2Z 0 ZL = 0
2Z 0 + Z L ZL = 0

Likewise, consider the case where ZL is actually an open circuit

(ZL=∞ ). We find that:

ZL 2Z 0
Γ0 = =1 T0 = =0
Z L + 2Z 0 Z L =∞
2Z 0 + Z L Z L =∞

Think about what these results mean in terms of the physical

problem:
I1(z1) + VL - I2(z2)

ZL IL
+ +
Z0 , β V1 (z1) V2 (z2) Z0, β
- -

z1 z2
z1 = 0 z2 = 0

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS

2/1/2005 Example Boundary Conditions.doc 11/11

Q: Do these results make sense? Have we passed the sanity

check?

A: I’ll let you decide!

What do you think?

Jim Stiles The Univ. of Kansas Dept. of EECS