Media Studies

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Introduction to Semiology (Semiotics)

The aims of this Factsheet are to AQA/WJEC/OCR?
• introduce the concept of semiology and show how it can be Semiology is a way to help you analyse the media language of
used to assist with analysis and evaluation of media texts media texts. In exams and coursework, regardless of the awarding
• define key semiological terminology and provide examples of body, you will need to consider how media language
their use within a media studies context communicates meaning to its audience and what the effect of
• identify how semiology can help the analysis of media texts media language choices are. In an exam you would not have to
in relation to a range of media concepts describe this approach or even use the word ‘semiology’. You
can demonstrate your understanding of the concept by using
the terms that follow in your work. In addition, when producing
Semiology is an approach that can be used to understand how
your practical work, you can improve the effectiveness of your
media texts make meaning for their audiences. There will be no exam
products by considering the semiological meanings of your media
question on semiology but it is a useful set of ideas to help you
approach the analysis of any media text. The approach can be applied
to all forms of media texts from newspapers and magazines to A number of different images could have been used to signify
documentaries and soap operas. Semiology provides a way of vegetarian food. The ‘no naked flame’ sign in the red circle could
thinking about media texts which can help you consider how media be adapted to do this by including an image of a cow or a burger
texts make meaning and it provides a vocabulary which will help inside the red circle. This would communicate the same meaning –
you discuss this in essays and textual analysis. that the food contains no meat – as the green V.

Signs The sign used to indicate that food is suitable for vegetarians is
All media texts are constructed using a variety of signs. Everything visually very simple. However, the way it constructs meaning for
that can be seen or heard on a screen or that is on a page is a sign. the reader is very sophisticated and the meanings go beyond the
A sign is a discrete unit of meaning. Signs are not limited to words fact that the food contains no meat.
but also include images, gestures and sounds - essentially all of the
ways in which information can be communicated within a media • Although it is meant to represent the letter V (for vegetarian)
text. the sign also looks like a tick

In Media Studies, all the many media language choices that combine • The image is usually reproduced in green
together to make the finished media text are signs:
• In paper based media, both text and images are signs • The right hand side of the V is embellished with a shape that
• In moving image media, text all aspects of mis en scene, looks like a leaf
camerawork, editing and sound can be considered as signs
These elements combine together to create the sign are all extremely
Every sign that we see has been carefully chosen by the media important in creating, not only a literal meaning (the sign identifies
producer and, therefore, we need to accept that these signs have a vegetarian food), but also deeper meanings for the sign.
meaning and/or a specific purpose.
• The tick is a positive image – it is used to show when something
Activity is correct
Which of the following signs would you include in an advert
where you wanted to: • In our culture, green holds a range of associations. Primarily we
a) warn your audience about the dangers of fire associate green with nature
b) show that your ready meal was suitable for vegetarians
c) identify that your film had received excellent reviews • The leaf adds to our associations of nature and, of course,
represents plants or, importantly here, vegetables

The sign draws in ideas of health and nature and appears very
positive. All of these aspects combine when we look at the image
and interpret what it means.

note – the note – the first four stars note - the circle and
symbol is green are yellow and the fifth the diagonal line are
grey red

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Denotation and Connotation

Already a range of ideas from semiology are being used when discussing these images. An important concept in semiology is that all signs
hold different levels of meaning – the denotative level and to connotative level:
1. Denotation – the denotational level
• Denotation is the literal meaning/description of a word/object
o The ‘no naked flame’ sign consists of a red circle with a diagonal bar through it and an image of a lit match
2. Connotation – the connotational level
• Connotations are the associations that are made when interpreting a sign
o Red is a colour associated with danger
o The ‘no naked flame’ sign is similar in shape to ‘no smoking’ signs

Exam Hint: - Examiners’ reports often focus on the fact that higher grades can be achieved where ‘analysis outweighs description’.
An essay which focuses only on denotations will be purely descriptive and, therefore achieve poorer grades. An essay that discusses
connotations is providing an analysis. In your work mention denotations but discuss connotations.

An Example – The Brokeback Mountain Film Poster • One character is wearing a black hat, the other a white one. In
westerns this was used to indicate the hero and the villain.
Looking at the poster, this seems to indicate that the character
in the black hat causes the conflict for the other man. This is
reinforced by the positioning of the characters, the man in the
black hat is in the background and this connotes an idea of him
being an influence on the other character

Activity:
If you have seen Brokeback Mountain, consider how this
http://www.moviemaze.de/media/wallpaper/1825/brokeback-mountain.html connotational reading of the poster links to the content and
Denotation themes of the film itself.
This picture denotes the following:
• The background of a blue sky with a large white cloud Exam Hint : Notice how this analysis of the film poster is leading
• A mountain range and a forest on the horizon across the centre to discussions on other media concepts: genre, narrative and
of the image representation specifically. Using this method and focussing
• The reflections of the mountains and the forest in a lake or river on connotational readings, a deeper analysis of a range of
media concepts can be developed and this is required in
• Two young men in denim jackets and hats looking downwards
most assessments.
and facing away from each other
Connotations Those Hats
The signs used for this poster also hold a range of connotations. There is no reason why white should represent goodness,
Here are some examples. You may be able to come up with some more: innocence or purity but in our culture these are some of the
• The landscape connotes a natural environment. Mountains, connotations of that colour. The ‘meaning’ of colours has been
forests and lakes are specifically associated with vast, open mentioned several times here and this highlights another important
areas of the countryside and this has connotations, not just idea within semiology. The meaning of many signs is arbitrary.
of nature, but also of freedom There is no cause and effect link between white and innocence or
• The colours used in the poster are all ‘natural’: blues, greens red and danger. The meanings these colours hold are, however,
and browns. Again this adds to the idea of the countryside clearly understood by members of our culture. We have agreed
and nature this is what the colours represent and interpret them accordingly.
• The clothes worn by the characters are associated with This is called a negotiated meaning. Negotiated meanings are
cowboys shared by people within the same culture but may vary between
• Cowboys are associated with the western genre in film. cultures or groups. Wearing black at a funeral in China would be
However, the other signs used are not like a western: the interpreted (read) as being disrespectful. White is the norm for
lettering is different, the colours associated with a western funeral clothing in a number of cultures, but the opposite is the
are golds and browns as the landscape used in a western is case here. Clearly the meaning of colours has been negotiated
more usually a desert differently in the different cultures, demonstrating that this is
• The connotations of the body language of the characters are arbitrary. There is no colour that is actually disrespectful – this
quite negative. Their facial expressions are serious and sombre has been determined by the cultures’ different histories and
and the way they look down connotes some form of problem traditions. The people who share an understanding of these
– perhaps a conflict, shame or sorrow associations are called the language culture. They have a cultural
• The fact that the characters are not looking at each other agreement as to the appropriate way to interpret the meaning of
reinforces the idea of a conflict. The way they are positioned colours.
suggests that the conflict is between them but it is not a
conflict based on anger and violence as they are positioned Similarly, not all signs mean only one thing. Where red can represent
close together. This images connotes a more emotional danger, it can also represent passion, romance or love. A sign that
conflict has a number of potential meanings is called polysemic. So, how
do we know which interpretation to make?
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Context and Anchorage

Context
The correct way to interpret the colour red is often based on the This exercise indicates how important the consideration of
context it is shown in. Red’s connotation of danger is used in many anchorage is when analysing media texts as meaning can be altered
warning signs and so the circle with a diagonal bar is the context of by the way media language elements are chosen. Media producers
our interpretation. Anchorage is a term used to describe how the use anchorage to attempt to direct the readers’ interpretations and,
combination of elements in a sign work together to fix meaning and therefore, to create meaning.
interpretation. (Of course, the circle with a diagonal bar on its own
does not mean danger – it was an arbitrary choice that has been
adopted by our language culture to mean a specific thing). Where
Activity
red is used in heart shapes at the start of a romance film (the context),
the audience would not interpret this as a warning, more an indication
of the romantic content of the film to come. http://
lingerie.alinassecrets.com/
Anchorage wallpaper_detail.php?ix=721
Anchorage is the way that different media language elements
combine to help fix meaning. Print based media texts will use
anchorage to help readers interpret the photographs they use to
illustrate their stories and articles. You may have noticed that
photographs often have captions or appear close to headings and
headlines. This is used to attempt to ensure that the audience
[cropped image]
interpret the picture as the newspaper or magazine intended.
This image was originally reproduced in black and white but the
Activity bra is in colour and it is red.
Look at this picture of Tony Blair and George Bush. There is
not enough information in the image itself to know for sure As an advert, the image suggests that the bra is the product
what is going on and so the image is polysemic and could be being sold. In the cropped image, there is no specific selling
interpreted in many different ways by the reader. point other than the fact that the model looks good in it.
However, look at the full advert below. What does the phrase
Create a number of headings or captions for the image that ‘Who needs mistletoe?’ add to the readers’ understanding of
will create different meanings for the picture. the text? How has anchorage been applied here to help lead
the reader understand the message of the advert?
e.g. Blair and Bush Announce Ceasefire
The cropped image denotes a model in her underwear. The
facial expression, body language and use of red all connote
sexuality. The model’s arms are raised above her head
connoting submission. The positioning of her head suggests
flirtation and seduction.

In the full advert, anchorage

has been used to promote a
desired reading and the
function and purpose of the
advert is clear. The advertiser’s
www.guardian.co.uk
use if the phrase “Who needs
… but what if the picture was accompanied by the following mistletoe?” implies that the
caption? Wonderbra provides all a
woman needs to make her
Bush to Blair: ‘I know it’s red, white and blue. But tell me sexually alluring. This prompts
again, which flag is mine?’ the reader to associate the
product with desirability and
The image has not changed but the meaning it holds has. You should help persuade the target
can probably come up with several more ways to anchor the audience to desire and,
image to create different meanings and, therefore, hopefully, purchase the
interpretations of this image. product.

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012. Introduction to Semiology (Semiotics) Media Studies
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Words on the Page

Image analysis is an important aspect of Media Studies, but so too is the analysis of words as identified by the impact of anchorage. It is
important for Media students to understand how the words used in media texts construct meaning and semiology can help here too,
whether it is in the analysis of dialogue in moving image texts or in the written word in paper based Media.

A Practical Example – A Headline from The Times

The headline reads: ‘Terrorist gang held in hunt for killers of British hostage’.
http://www.thebunce.co.uk/basuism/the-times-newspaper-front-cover.jpg

Each word has been carefully chosen by the writer to:

a) communicate a summary of the main point of the story to follow
b) to construct a very specific set of meanings regarding the event reported

The individual words can be analysed for their connotational meaning:

Word Used Connotational Interpretation

Terrorist The word ‘terrorist’ holds negative connotations. Terrorists are associated with evil violent acts and connotations
include unpredictable fanatical behaviour which is often religiously motivated, and seen as irrational and illogical
Gang This word also holds negative connotations. Gangs are associated with violence and, as a group, are seen to
threaten the law abiding

Held This is an active verb that has subtle associations with violence or force
Hunt for Killers The connotations of the words are wholly negative and this phrase is interesting as the word ‘hunt’ has reduced
the suspects to the position of animals. The word ‘killers’ also dehumanises as the people are not seen as complex
people with beliefs and motivations but they are defined solely by an act
British Hostage Given the fact that this is a British newspaper the use of this phrase enable to audience to identify with the captives

Through an analysis of the connotations of the words chosen it is clear that the language has ideological meaning in its connotations.
To make this clearer, it is useful to take a step back to the denotational meaning of the words used.

Word Used Denotational Meaning

Terrorist One who uses violence against largely non military target – usually driven by religious or ideological beliefs and
in retaliation against a larger, dominant force
Gang A group of individuals who share a common identity
Held To be occupied or in the control of others
Hunt for Killers Search for those who terminate life
Hostage A prisoner who is held to ensure that specified terms will be met

Given that there are always many ways to say the same thing in culture. Different choices may have the same denotational
English, the headline could have been constructed in several ways meanings, but the connotations would create different
whilst still holding the same denotational meaning: interpretations on the event being reported.
• Rebels group detained in murder investigation
• Freedom fighters captured in search for executioners …and, Activity
depending on your viewpoint…. Take a headline from a daily newspaper or a magazine and
• Heroes arrested for questioning over death of a political detainee replace words with others that have similar denotational
This analysis is not intended to question the moral position taken meaning. Create two or three new headlines in this way and
by the newspapers in their choice of language but simply to point identify how the meaning of the headlines change because
out that there is one. Each word in the headline holds connotations of the differences in the connotational meaning of the words
based on the negotiated meaning understood by the language you have selected.

Summary
• Semiological analysis provides a range of ways of thinking about media language which can help identify more than just the surface
meaning of the words and images of a media text. This can provide an understanding of the way the media language constructs
meaning for the audience
• These techniques can help a textual analysis deal with wider media issues such as genre, narrative, representation and ideology.
• This approach recognises the active nature of the audience in using their cultural knowledge and understanding to construct meaning
• The approach identifies the active nature of the producing institutions in creating meaning within their media texts
Acknowledgements: This Media Studies Factsheet was researched and written by Steph Hendry and Elizabeth Kemp