Notice

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the Department of Transportation in the interest of information exchange. The
United States government assumes no liability for its contents or use thereof.
Gravel Roads
Maint enance and Design Manual

Ken Skorseth
Ali A. Selim, Ph.D., P.E.
Acknowledgement s i

Acknow ledgement s

T he need for a comprehensive manual that addresses most issues that deal with gravel
road maintenance has been recognized by several entities across the states and the world.

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) asked the South Dakota Local Transportation
Assistance Program (SD LTAP) to put together a new Gravel Road Manual that can be used
by all regions of the United States and even other countries. The SD LTAP formed a technical
review committee to help guide the project. They critiqued several versions of this manual at
various stages of development.

Our sincere appreciation is extended to the following committee members:

Dan Cady, Nebraska LTAP
Pete Coughlin, Maine LTAP
Alan Gesford, Pennsylvania LTAP
Mark Hoines, South Dakota Division, Federal Highway Administration
John Hopkins, Idaho LTAP
Arlie Long, South Dakota LTAP
Jody Paden,Oklahoma LTAP

The support and encouragement of Mr. Raymond McCormick of the Federal Highway
Administration in greatly appreciated. The assistance of Marv Espeland,FHWA (retired),
and Gene Calvert, formerly with Wyoming LTAP, is also appreciated.

The graphic illustrations were made possible through the assistance of SDSU graduate student
Muhammed S. Ali. The Office of University Relations at South Dakota State University put the
Manual into its final form.

Ali Selim, Ph.D., P.E., Director, SD LTAP

Ken Skorseth, Field Operation Manager, SDLTAP
ii Table of Cont ent s

Table of Cont ent s

Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i Areas of Concern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Dealing with Corrugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Table of Cont ent s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Definit ion of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv Intersection with Paved Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
List of Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Bridge Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Superelevation in Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Rail Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Driveways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii Cattle Guards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Soft and Weak Subgrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Int roduct ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Sect ion II: Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Section I: Routine Maintenance Ditches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
and Rehabilit ation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Culverts and Bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Understanding Road Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Underdrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Routine Shaping Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Sect ion III: Surface Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Operating Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Moldboard Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 What is Good Gravel? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Moldboard Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Difference in Surface Gravel and Other Uses. . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Motorgrader Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Good Gradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Articulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Benefit of Crushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Windrows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Recycled Asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Crown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 The Benefit of Testing Aggregates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Reasons for Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Road Shoulder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
High Shoulders (Secondary Ditches) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Sieve Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Causes of High Shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fines and Plasticity Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Recovering and Spreading on Roadway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Breaking up Sod and Reduced Blading and Maintenance Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Vegetation in Recovered Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Process for Obtaining Good Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Pulling and Covering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Establish Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Benefit of Mowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Communicate with Suppliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Gravel Road Rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Handling Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Reshaping Surface and Shoulder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Pit/Quarry Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Reshaping Entire Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Loading from Stockpiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Erosion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Roadway Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Calculating Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Hauling and Dumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Windrowing, Equalizing and Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Table of Cont ent s iii

Sect ion IV: Dust Cont rol/St abilizat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Types of Stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Chlorides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Appendix A: Gravel Road Thi ckness
Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Natural Clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1
Asphalts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Appendix B: Gradat ion and P.I. Det erminat ion . B1
Soybean Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Appendix C: Quant it y Calculat ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C1
Other Commercial Binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Appendix D: When To Pave a Gravel Road . . . . . . . D1
Benefits of Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Reduced Dusting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Appendix E: Walk-around Grader Inspect ion . . . E1
Reduced “ Whip Off” of Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Index
Reduced Blade Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Application Tips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Need for Good Surface Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Road Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Applying the Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Optimum Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Test Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Sect ion V: Innovat ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Changes in Gravel Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Changing Conditions—Equipment, Trucks, Cars . . . . . . . . . 57
New Innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Innovative Equipment and Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Windrow Pulverizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
New Cutting Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Shouldering Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Grader-Mounted Dozer Blade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Grader-Mounted Roller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Rakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Other Tractor-Mounted Blading Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
iv Definit ion of Terms

Def init ion of Terms

Articulation: As used in this manual, it refers to a machine Optimum Moisture: The percentage of water (by weight) in
with a jointed main frame. This assists in steering the machine, material that allows it to be compacted to achieve greatest
allowing it to work in an angled configuration, yet move density.
forward in a straight line.
Paved Road: Any road that has a semi-permanent surface
Ballast: Extra weight added to a machine such as iron weights placed on it such as asphalt or concrete. Gravel surfaced
mounted to the wheels or frame. Liquid material such as a roads are virtually always referred to as unpaved roads.
water/calcium chloride solution placed in the tires can also
serve as ballast. Pit: An area where a natural deposit of stone, sand and/or
fine material is removed from the earth.
Density: The weight of material in pounds or kilograms per
unit of volume (cubic feet or meters). Quarry: An area where solid stone is removed from the
earth generally by ripping, drilling and/or blasting. The stone
Grader: Any device either self-propelled or mounted on is then crushed and processed into useable sizes.
another machine used for final shaping and maintenance of
earth or aggregate surfaces. Occasionally, a simple, towed Segregation: A problem that arises when the coarse and
drag-type device is referred to as a grader. fine material separates and no longer forms a uniform blend
of material.
Gravel: A mix of stone, sand and fine-sized particles used
as sub-base, base or surfacing on a road. In some regions, Windrow: A ridge or long, narrow pile of material placed
it may be defined as aggregate. by grader while performing construction or maintenance
operations.
Moisture Content: (in percent) That portion of the total
weight of material that exists as water.

Moldboard: The part of the grader that is actually used to

cut, mix, windrow and spread material.

Motor Grader: Any self-propelled machine designed primarily

for the final mixing and shaping of dirt or surfacing material.
Sometimes referred to as a maintainer, patrol, or simply a
“ blade.”
List of Acronyms v

List of Acronyms

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

ADT Average Daily Traffic
ASTM American Society of Testing and Materials
∆PSI Allowable serviceability loss
DOT Department of Transportation
EBS Elastic modulus of aggregate base layer
ESB Elastic modulus of aggregate sub-base layer
ESAL Equivalent single axle load (18,000 lbs.)
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
LL Liquid Limit
LTAP Local Transportation (Technical) Assistance Program
MR Resilient Modulus
MUTCD Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
PI Plasticity Index = LL – PL
PCF Pounds per cubic foot
PL Plastic Limit
PSI Pounds per square inch
RD Allowable rutting in surface layer
ROW Right-of-Way
vi List of Figures

List of Figures

1 The components of the roadway cross section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Illustration of an articulated motorgrader. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Proper shape of controlled intersection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4 Proper shape of an uncontrolled intersection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

5 Illustration of a gravel road intersecting a paved road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

6 Illustration of the transition from a normal crown to

the superelevated shape needed in a curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

7 Improper matching of driveway and road edge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

8 Proper matching of driveway and road edge.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

9 Stack of sieves for testing the graduation of aggregates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

10 The Six Climatic Regions in the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2

11 Design Chart for Aggregate-Surfaced Roads Considering Allowable Serviceability Loss. . . . . . . . A5

12 Design Chart for Aggregate-Surfaced Roads Considering Allowable Rutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A6

13 Chart to Convert a Portion of the Aggregate Base Layer Thickness to an

Equivalent Thickness of Sub-base. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A6

14 Total Damage versus Thickness for Serviceability and Rutting Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A9

15 Standard Analysis Sheet from the South Dakota Department of Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1

16 Gravel Road Maintenance Cost Per Mile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D6

17 Paving Options (Costs and road life are estimates and may vary). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D6

18 Impacts of Gravel Surfaces on Users Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D7

19 Walk-around Inspection Diagram.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E2

20 Motorgrader Preventative Maintenance Check List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E3

List of Tables vii

List of Tables

1 Example of Gradation Requirements and Plasticity for Two Types of Materials. . . . . . . . . A2

2 Suggested Seasons Length (Months) for Six U.S. Climatic Regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3

3 Suggested Seasonal Roadbed Soil Resilient Moduli, MR (psi),

as a Function of the Relative Quality of the Roadbed Material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A3

4 Chart for Computing Total Pavement Damage (for Both Serviceability

and Rutting Criteria). Based on a Trial Aggregate Base Thickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A4

5 Aggregate Surfaced Road Design Catalog: Recommended Aggregate

Base Thickness (in Inches) For Six U.S. Regions, Five Relative Qualities
of Roadbed Soil, and Three Traffic Levels.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A10

6 Suggested Gravel Layer Thickness for New Or Reconstructed Rural Roads. . . . . . . . . . . . A11
viii Forward

Forw ard

T here are over 1.6 million miles of unpaved roads (53% of all roads) in the United States.
In some nations, the road network is predominantly unpaved and generally consists of
gravel roads. This manual was developed with a major emphasis on the maintenance of gravel
roads, including some basic design elements.

Gravel roads are generally the lowest service provided to the traveling public and are usually
considered greatly inferior to paved roads. Yet,in many rural regions, the volume of traffic is
so low that paving and maintaining a paved road is not economically feasible. In many cases,
gravel roads exist to provide a means of getting agricultural products in and out of farm fields,
timber out of forests, or as access to remote areas such as campgrounds and lakes. Many
gravel roads serve rural residents as well. Many of these roads will remain unpaved due to
very low traffic volume and/or lack of funds to adequately improve the subgrade and base
before applying pavement layer(s).In some countries, economic constraints mean gravel
roads are the only type that can be provided.

The purpose of this manual is to provide clear and helpful information for doing a better job
of maintaining gravel roads. It is recognized that very little technical help is available to small
agencies that are responsible for managing these roads. Gravel maintenance has traditionally
been “ more of an art than a science” and very few formal standards exist. This leads to many
arguments between grader operators, managers, and motorists over questions such as:What
is enough surface crown? What is too much? What causes corrugation? This manual contains
guidelines to help answer these and other questions about the maintenance of gravel roads.

This manual is designed for the benefit of elected officials, managers, and grader operators
who are responsible for designing and maintaining gravel roads. The information provided in
this manual is as nontechnical as possible without sacrificing clear guidelines and instructions
on how to do the job right.
Int roduct ion ix

Int roduct ion

G ood gravel road maintenance or rehabilitation depends on two basic principles:

proper use of a motorgrader (or other grading device) and use of good surface gravel.
The use of the grader to properly shape the road is obvious to almost everyone, but the quality
and volume of gravel needed is not as well understood. It seems that most gravel
maintenance/rehabilitation problems are blamed on the grader operator when the actual
problem
is often material related. This is particularly true when dealing with the problem of corrugation
or “ washboarding.” The problem is often perceived as being caused by the grader but is
primarily caused by the material itself. This manual will help provide a better understanding
of what makes good surface gravel.

Another important matter to consider is the dramatic change in the vehicles and equipment
using low volume roads. Trucks and agricultural equipment are increasing in size and
horsepower. The trend is toward even larger machinery. The effect of larger and heavier
vehicles
on our paved roads is well understood. There is a definite need to build stronger bases and
pavements. But the effect on gravel roads is just as serious and often is not recognized. For
this reason, a section on the design of gravel roads is included. The strength of the subgrade
and depth of the material needed to carry today’s heavy loads must be considered.Proper
drainage is also important.

The final section of the manual covers innovations in the gravel road maintenance/
rehabilitation industry. Change is constant in almost every aspect of this modern world
and maintaining gravel roads is no exception. There are new ways of stabilizing roads, new
methods of dust control, new and different kinds of equipment available for maintenance/
rehabilitation of gravel roads, and even new surface materials such as recycled asphalt being
used. Not all of these innovations may be available or practical for every local government
entity, but everyone is encouraged to take an objective look at each of them. Then an informed
decision can be made about changing the way gravel roads are designed and maintained
within a particular jurisdiction.
Sect ion I: Rout ine Maint enance and Rehabilit at ion 1

Sect ion I:
Rout ine Maint enance
and Rehabilit at ion

Underst anding Road

Cross Sect ion
Everyone involved in gravel road main-
tenance must understand the correct
shape of the entire area within the
road’s right-of-way. Figure 1 shows a
typical cross section of a gravel road.
If states have minimum standards or
policies for low-volume roads, they Figure 1: The components of the roadway cross section.
must be followed.

In order to maintain a gravel road prop-

erly, operators must clearly understand
the need for three basic items: a
roadway keeps its shape for an indefi- Keeping the foreslope and ditch estab-
crowned driving surface, a shoulder
nite period of time. Gravel roads are lished and shaped is often the mainte-
area that slopes directly away from
quite different. Unfortunately, many of nance operator’s responsibility as well.
the edge of the driving surface, and a
them are not constructed well initially. Obviously, the whole idea here is to
ditch. The shoulder area and the ditch
In addition, gravel roads tend to rut keep water drained away from the
of many gravel roads may be minimal.
more easily in wet weather. Traffic also roadway. Standing water at any place
This is particularly true in regions with
tends to displace gravel from the sur- within the cross section (including the
very narrow or confined right-of-ways.
face to the shoulder area and even to ditch) is one of the major reasons for
Regardless of the location, the basic
the ditch during dry weather. Managers distress and failure of a gravel road.
shape of the cross section must be
and equipment operators have the con- There is sometimes a need for special-
correct or a gravel road will not perform
tinual responsibility of keeping the ized equipment to do major reshaping
well, even under very low traffic.
roadway properly shaped. The shape of the cross section,especially in very
of the road surface and the shoulder wet conditions. However, the operator
Paved roads are usually designed and
area is the equipment operator’s of routine maintenance equipment must
then constructed with careful consider-
responsibility and is classified as do everything possible to take care of
ation given to correct shape of the cross
routine maintenance.
section. Once paving is finished, the
2 Underst anding Road Cross Sect ion

This road, located in Poland, has very poor cross section with no
ditches. Consequently, water drains down the roadway itself and
after many years of erosion,the roadway is several feet lower
than its original elevation. (Courtesy of Mary O’Neill,Office of
Remote Sensing, South Dakota State University)

This well-traveled road in Ecuador performs

well in a region that receives approximately
200 inches average annual rainfall.
(Courtesy of Ron Anderson, Tensar
Earth Technologies, Inc.,USA)
Underst anding Road Cross Sect ion 3

the roadway since budgets often do not

allow for the use of extra equipment
and manpower on gravel roads.

The recommended shape of each part

of the cross section will be discussed in
detail later in this manual.When a
gravel road is maintained properly, it
will serve low volume traffic well.
Unfortunately, most gravel roads will
fail when exposed to heavy hauls even
when shaped properly. This is due to
weak subgrade strength and marginal
gravel depths which are often problems
with gravel roads. The low volume of
normal traffic does not warrant recon-
struction to a higher standard. However,
improper maintenance can also lead
Example of a gravel road with good shape of cross section. Notice crown in driving surface and
to very quick deterioration of a gravel
proper shape of shoulder and ditch.
road, especially in wet weather. The
maintenance equipment operators must
always work at maintaining the proper
crown and shape.

An example of a well shaped gravel road shoulder that slopes away from the driving surface
and drains water to the inslope and ditch.
4 Rout ine Shaping Principles

Rout ine Shaping Principles

The distortion that was cut into this road

surface is the result of operating a motorgrader
too fast.The angle of the depressions which
match the angle of the moldboard reveal this.
This is not the same as “ washboarding,” which
has different causes.

Grader operator cleaning a ditch and restoring

shape to the foreslope and backslope.

T he primary focus of this section

will be the use of the motorgrader
for gravel road maintenance. However,
there are other devices used for the
job that can work well. Front or rear
mounted grading attachments for
tractors, road rakes, and other devices
of various designs are used in some
areas of the country. The principles of
shaping are the same no matter what
machine is used.

Operat ing Speed

Operating speed in blading operations
must not be excessive. This has caused moisture, material, and subgrade stab- Moldboard Angle
problems on many roads. It is virtually ility vary; therefore, the maximum speed The angle of the moldboard is also criti-
impossible to do good work above a for good maintenance can vary. cal to good maintenance. This angle is
top speed of 3 to 5 mph.When the fixed on some grading devices, but on
machine begins to “ lope” or bounce, However, in virtually any condition, it is motorgraders it can be easily adjusted.
it will cut depressions and leave ridges difficult to exceed 5 mph and still do a It is important to keep the angle some-
in the road surface. Conditions including good job. where between 30 and 45 degrees. It is
a challenge to recover loose aggregate
Rout ine Shaping Principles 5

This is an example of poor use of the grader.

The moldboard is pitched back too far and is
not angled enough.Notice the gravel builds up
and does not fall forward to give a good mixing
action.Also, the loss of material from the toe
of the moldboard will create a high shoulder,
which destroys good drainage across the
shoulder to the ditch.

Moldboard pitch or “ tilt” refers to how much the

moldboard is tipped forward or backward.The
right pitch ranges from aggressive cutting (1), to 1
spreading (2),to light blading or dragging action
(3) for maintenance of gravel roads.

2 3

This is the other extreme of pitching the

moldboard too far forward.The material will not
roll across the face of the moldboard and does
not mix.In addition to this, the cutting edge will
not easily penetrate a hard surface, making it
hard to trim out even light depressions in the
road surface. It simply tends to skip along the
surface with no real benefit.
6 Rout ine Shaping Principles

Notice these examples of good pitch and angle. The gravel

falls forward and moves across the moldboard very well.
The cutting edge is close to vertical from the road surface,
which makes a nice light trimming action for routine
maintenance, and the angle is good,not allowing
material to spill from the toe of the moldboard.

from the shoulder of the roadway with-

out spilling material around the leading
edge (toe) of the moldboard. Operating
without enough angle is a primary
cause of this spilling.

Moldboard Pit ch
Along with correct angle, it is important
to understand proper pitch or “ tilt” of a
moldboard. If the moldboard is pitched
back too far, the material will tend to recovering material from the shoulder separate from the sand and the fine-
build up in front of the moldboard and and moving it across the roadway, level- sized material.At the same time, small
will not fall forward and move along to ing and smoothing it in the process. This potholes and an uneven surface will
the discharge end of the blade. This also mixing action is part of routine mainte- develop. It is the job of the maintenance
causes excess material loss from the toe nance. Traffic tends to loosen material operator to recover the material, mix it
of the moldboard.It also reduces the from the road surface and displace it to again as it rolls along the face of the
mixing action that is desirable when the shoulder area as well as between moldboard and restore good surface
the wheel tracks. The stone will tend to shape.
Rout ine Shaping Principles 7

Figure 2:Illustration of an articulated motorgrader. (An illustration showing additional components of a motorgrader and
recommended walk-around checks is shown in Appendix E.)

Mot orgrader St abilit y capacity is sometimes done to increase

It can sometimes be hard to keep a traction, weight and stability of the
machine stable, especially while carry- grader. The ballast often used is a
ing a light load of material. Counter- solution of calcium chloride and water.
acting machine bounce or “ loping” Stability problems that are constant and
requires experience in knowing the severe should be brought to the atten-
cause and then finding a solution.If tion of your equipment dealer and/or
a motorgrader begins to rock from side tire supplier.
to side — often called “ duck walking”
in the field — it is usually caused by Art iculat ion
blade angle that closely matches the Virtually all modern motorgraders are
angle from corner to corner of the tires equipped with frame articulation. It can
on the rear tandems. The solution is be an advantage to slightly articulate
generally to stop, change angle slightly the machine to stabilize it even in a
on the moldboard and slowly resume common maintenance operation.
blading. Simply reducing speed will
often eliminate the loping effect of a
machine. Experimenting with different
tire inflation pressures can also help
stabilize a machine as well as leaning
the front wheels in the direction that
material is being moved. Filling tires
with liquid ballast to about 70%
8 Rout ine Shaping Principles

Windrows accepted practice in some regions. In cult to define what is acceptable and
In some areas of the country, particular- others, it is disapproved of and depart- what is an excessive windrow. The
ly arid or semiarid regions, it is common ments may even have policies forbid- windrow should also be placed near the
to leave a small maintenance windrow, ding windrows. This is often true in edge of the roadway to allow as great
sometimes referred to as an inventory regions with narrow right-of-ways and a width for travel as possible. In the
windrow. This leaves a small amount of narrow driving surfaces. Operators absence of a policy on this matter, be
material to be picked up next time and should follow department policy at all aware of the commonly accepted prac-
worked back across the road for filling times. For those who allow the use of tices in your region and try to deviate
small depressions. This is a commonly windrows, it is very important to keep as little as possible.
them to a minimum. It can be very diffi-

If a maintenance windrow is allowed

by policy and used, try to keep it as
light as possible. These examples
show a light windrow being placed
at the edge of the roadway and an
obviously excessive windrow being
left at the roadside. In the latter case,
multiple passes should have been
made to work out the vegetation
and spread more of the material
on the roadway, or perhaps some
mechanical means of breaking up
the lumps of sod such as a disk
should have been used to allow
more of the material to be
spread on the roadway.
Crown 9

Crow n
E stablishing proper crown in the
gravel surface probably generates
more controversy than any other aspect
of good maintenance. How much crown
is enough? Can one get too much?
What is a recommended crown? These
are frequently asked questions by local
officials, the traveling public, and equip-
ment operators.

First of all,problems develop quickly

when a gravel road has no crown.
Water will quickly collect on the road
surface during a rain and will soften the
crust. This will lead to rutting which can
become severe if the subgrade also
begins to soften. Even if the subgrade
remains firm, traffic will quickly pound
out smaller depressions in the road
where water collects and the road will A road that lacks good crown.There is also centerline corrugation (washboarding),a problem
develop potholes. A properly drained that will grow worse when there is inadequate crown.
gravel road should have crown.

Yet an operator can also build too much

crown into the road surface. This can
lead to an unsafe condition in which
the driving public does not feel comfort-
able staying “ in their lane” or simply
staying on the right side of the road.
Because of the excessive crown,drivers
begin to feel a slight loss of control of
the vehicle as it wants to slide towards
the shoulder. There is additional risk
driving on gravel roads with excessive
crown in regions that experience snow
and ice cover. For these reasons drivers
will tend to drive right down the middle
of the road regardless of how wide it is.

A gravel road with a 26-foot driving surface, yet everyone drives in the middle. The primary rea-
son is excessive crown.
 10 Crown

What then is recommended crown?

Recommendations from supervisors
and skilled operators across the country
indicate that at least 1/2 inch of crown
per foot (approximately 4%) on the
cross slope is ideal. It is also recognized
that it is virtually impossible for any
operator to maintain an absolutely
uniform crown. However, try to deviate
as little as possible. There are crown
gauges available which can be used to
determine existing crown. There are
also very sophisticated electronic slope
controls available for graders. These
are found more often in construction
operations than in maintenance, but
certainly can be used for maintenance.

There is one further problem with

crown that needs to be discussed.
The ideal shape is a straight line from
This road located in New Zealand does not have adequate crown to drain water to the roadside.
Consequently, potholes form. (Courtesy of Ken Skorseth,SD LTAP) the shoulder up to the centerline of
the road. This gives the road the same
shape as the roof of a house, often
referred to as a flat “A” shape. However,
this shape can sometimes become
rounded. The engineering term for this
is “ parabolic crown.” This is virtually
always a problem. The middle portion
of the road will have considerably less
crown than the outer edges. Water will
not drain from the middle and potholes
and ruts will form. The greatest cause
Problems from center wear in cutting edge.
of parabolic crown is excess wear at
the center of the cutting edge. This is
normal wear and will vary with types
of gravel, width of road, wheel path
location and other factors. A good
operator will make an effort to avoid
the parabolic shape on a roadway by
keeping the cutting edge straight.
Crown 11

A simple method is to use a cutting

torch and straighten the cutting edge
whenever 1/2 to 3/4 inch or more of
center wear exists. Another method
is to use a thicker, harder section of
Roadway with parabolic crown.The outer edge of the road slopes too much. Gouging causes cutting edge in the middle of the
high shoulder, and center 1/3 of the road tends to be flat. moldboard to resist wear. This will
retard excess center wear, but
generally will not eliminate it.

Another option is to use the modern

carbide-tipped bits on the cutting
edge. These are extremely wear-
resistant and dramatically reduce
center wear. There are also carbide
insert or carbide-faced cutting edges
that are very wear-resistant.

In summary, the recommended

crown is a straight line from the
shoulder to the centerline that rises
approximately 1/ 2 inch per foot
(or approximately 4%).

This road in New Zealand performs remarkably well because of good crown and good gravel
quality in a region that receives nearly 150 inches of moisture a year! (Courtesy of Ken Skorseth,
SD LTAP)
12 Road Shoulder

Road Shoulder
T he road shoulder serves several
essential functions. It is there to
support the edge of the traveled portion
of the roadway. But another important
function is to provide a safety area for
drivers to regain control of vehicles if
forced to leave the road surface. Yet
another important function is to carry
water further away from the road
surface to the foreslope and ditch.

In order for the shoulder to perform

all of these functions, its shape is
critical. First of all, the shoulder should
meet the edge of the roadway at the
same elevation. In other words, the
shoulder should be no higher or no
The photos above and below show good examples of gravel shoulders that match the edge of
lower than the edge of the roadway. the roadway very well and drain water to the ditch.
By maintaining this shape, the low
shoulder or drop-off is eliminated
which is a safety hazard and also
reduces roadway edge support.
But the other extreme, which is a
high shoulder, should also be avoided.
This will be discussed later.

It is also recognized that gravel roads

in some regions, particularly those with
very narrow right-of-ways, have very
little shoulder area. In some cases, the
edge of roadway is actually the begin-
ning of the foreslope down to the ditch.
But here again, it is important that
there is not a steep drop-off or a ridge
of soil to block drainage. Maintaining
shoulders is a critical part of gravel
road maintenance.
Road Shoulder 13

A common condition along the edge of many

gravel roads:the secondary ditch.

High Shoulders
(Secondary Dit ches)
This problem can be seen along
gravel roads almost anywhere
people travel. There are many slang
terms used in the field such as “ berms”
or “curbs.” The engineering term for
this condition is “ secondary ditch” and
it is a good description of the condition.
When a gravel road develops a high
shoulder, it destroys the drainage of
water directly from the surface to the
real ditch. This causes several problems.
In relatively level terrain,the water
collects here and seeps into the sub-
Secondary ditch over six inches deep.
grade, often causing the whole roadway
to soften. In rolling and rugged terrain, eroding into the subgrade. This also
the water quickly flows downhill along creates a serious safety hazard. There
the secondary ditch,often eroding away are many reasons to work hard to
a large amount of gravel and even eliminate secondary ditches.
14 Road Shoulder

Causes of High Shoulder s

What causes secondary ditches to form?
There are several causes. They can
develop from improper maintenance
such as losing material from the toe of
a grader’s moldboard,which builds up a
high shoulder, or from cutting too deep
at the shoulder line with the toe of the
moldboard. This is a particular problem
when the cutting edge is not kept
reasonably straight. But there are other
causes, such as excessive “ whip-off” of
loose material from fast traffic,which
tends to build up along the shoulder
line. Also, heavy loads on gravel roads
with weak subgrades can cause this.
When heavy vehicles have to travel
Here, water has run down a secondary ditch
near the shoulder while meeting other vegetation on the shoulder, simply or high shoulder and then eroded through
vehicles, the roadway can rut while extend the moldboard out into the the shoulder material at the bottom of a hill.
the shoulder area shoves upward. Yet This creates a hazardous condition.
shoulder material and begin to pull it
another cause is the buildup of sand in onto the roadway. If the amount of
northern regions where winter ice/snow material is light, you may be able to do
control requires some winter sanding this in one pass. The material recovered
operations on gravel roads. An expert is often good gravel that needs to be
in the field once made this statement: returned to the roadway surface.
“ It is difficult to completely eliminate
secondary ditches, but it pays to work
hard to keep them to an absolute
minimum.” This is excellent advice.
The time spent in dealing with a high
shoulder (secondary ditch) will result
in a road that is easier to maintain
afterwards. But the real challenge is
getting the job done.

Recovering and
Spreading on Roadway
If a motorgrader is the only piece of
equipment used on the job, generally
more than one pass will be required to
recover material from high shoulders.
It is wise to place standard MUTCD
warning signs such as “ Road Work
Ahead” since this is more than routine Using grader to recover material from a high
maintenance. If there is little or no shoulder and restore correct shape to the
shoulder.
Road Shoulder 15

Breaking up Sod
and Veget at ion in
Recovered Mat erial
Quite often, the material pulled out
onto the roadway from the shoulder is
very hard to spread because of the veg-
etative material in it. It will require mul-
tiple passes with the grader to get the
job done. Many agencies are turning to
other mechanical means of breaking up
the material to make the road safe for
traffic. This can range from something
as simple as a disk or drag to sophisti-
cated pulverizing equipment.

Windrow pulverizer fabricated

by the Hyde County Highway
Department of Highmore,
South Dakota.

A commercially manufactured pulverizer.

A small rear-mounted tandem disk on a mower tractor.

A commercially manufactured rock rake,

normally used in farming operations.
16 Road Shoulder

Pulling Shoulders material loose, pull it onto the roadway under the carpet” is used. The following
and Covering and then load and remove it. However, photo sequence shows how “ sweeping
this can be very expensive. It is some- it under the carpet” is done.
The material from a high shoulder is
times acceptable to pull the material
not always suitable to be reused on
and cover it. In several areas of the Make sure that the soils are suitable
the roadway. It may be best to cut the
country, a method called “ sweeping it to be used as base material under the
edge of roadway and shoulder before
doing this. If you’re not absolutely sure,
try this on a test section of 1000 ft.
or less to see how it performs. This
method works best when there is a lot
The existing surface of sandy soil both in the subgrade of
gravel is cut loose the roadway and also in the material
and windrowed to
the opposite side of
recovered from the high shoulder. The
the road. sand will be unsuitable to recover and
spread onto the roadway, but will be
reasonably easy to cut and place under
the gravel that will be placed back
over it. If the road is scheduled to be
regraveled, it is an excellent time to
do shoulder work to get the roadway
back into good shape.

The existing
secondary ditch is
Again, this is much more than routine
then cut slightly maintenance and signs should be
deeper and the placed to warn motorists of roadwork
material is placed being done. A better option would be
in the roadway.
to close the section of road being
worked on if possible.

The windrowed gravel is then brought back

The material from the high shoulder is then pulled into the cut that has just been made. over the recovered material and the roadway
Generally, this material will have to be worked several times with the grader to break it up is restored to proper crown and shape. The
enough to spread evenly. high shoulder has been eliminated.
Road Shoulder 17

Benefit of Mowing
Any of the procedures discussed for
dealing with high shoulders are much
easier to accomplish if a good job of
mowing is done in advance. This is true
even in routine maintenance operations.
When grass or other vegetation grows
high along the edge of the roadway, it
becomes difficult to maintain a clean,
uniform shoulder line. In a survey of
operators in the state of Iowa, mowing
the shoulders on gravel roads ranked as
one of four primary functions needed to
maintain a good gravel road! (Keeping
proper shape, drainage, and straight
cutting edges were the other three.)

The frequency of mowing depends on

the region of the country and the cli- Notice the dramatic difference in the road shoulders shown above and below. It becomes so
mate. However, the cost of mowing is much easier to recover gravel that has drifted to the edge of the roadway when the vegetation
has been cut cleanly. It is particularly important to get rid of the vegetation prior to a shoulder-
often offset by reduced costs of other pulling operation.
maintenance as well as safer roads.
In northern plains regions, there is
yet another great benefit to mowing.
By removing the standing vegetation,
drifting snow will not be trapped on
the roadway and snow removal costs
can be drastically reduced. The best
equipment for this is rotary or flail
mowers, which do a good job of
shredding the vegetation and are
not as easily damaged or plugged
by roadside trash.
18 Gravel Road Rehabilit at ion

Gravel Road Rehabilit at ion

G ravel roads are generally main-
tained by routine blading and
adding gravel as needed either by
“ spot graveling” or regraveling entire
sections. However, almost any gravel
road will gradually begin to show dis-
tress that requires more than routine
maintenance to correct. The most com-
mon problems that develop are
“ berms” or secondary ditches that build
up along the shoulder line and the shift-
ing of material from the surface to the
shoulder area and even onto the inslope
of the grade. This comes from gravel
being displaced by traffic, winter plow-
ing operations, erosion of material dur-
ing heavy rain and sometimes from
poor routine blading techniques. This
often causes major problems with This gravel road shows severe distress after being subjected to a heavy haul from trucks hauling
wheat to a grain elevator. The problem was made worse by an unusually wet season.
drainage. At certain intervals, virtually
every gravel road requires some major
rehabilitation. (35, 36)

Reshaping Surface Reshaping Ent ire available, but certainly make the job
and Shoulder Cross Sect ion easier. The field supervisor’s knowledge
These can usually be corrected with Severe rutting,loss of crown, gravel and the operator’s skill in knowing how
the motorgrader alone. Spring is the loss and deep secondary ditches — to rebuild the cross section becomes
best time for this as there is minimal a combination of any two or more of very important. These projects seldom
vegetative growth and moisture is these calls for a major reshaping. This have the benefit of much planning or
present. The reshaping of the driving requires a much greater effort.It often technical assistance. There is seldom
surface and the road shoulder can be occurs after a gravel road has been any surveying or staking done. But it is
done by cutting material with the subjected to an unusually heavy haul. very important to rebuild a uniform
motorgrader and relaying it to the This will be worse if a heavy haul cross section and pay attention to
proper shape and crown.If possible, occurs during wet weather. restoring good drainage. Only after this
the use of a roller for compaction will is done — and done correctly — should
greatly improve the finished surface. Major reshaping often has to be done good surface gravel be replaced.
This will leave a denser, stronger, on the entire cross section and it may
smoother surface that will be easier have to be done immediately regardless
to maintain. of the vegetative growth. Motorgraders,
disks, pulverizers/mixers and rollers are
often needed. These are not always
Gravel Road Rehabilit at ion 19

• Keep disturbed areas small. The

more earth you disturb, the greater
will be the risk of soil erosion. Set
work boundaries and don’t let work
crews get outside of them.

• Consider stabilization of disturbed

areas. Silt fences, mulching, erosion
control blankets and other means
should be considered.

• Keep water velocity low. Removing

vegetative cover and topsoil generally
increases the amount and speed of
runoff. Keep slopes as shallow or
gentle as possible. Keep ditch slope
as gentle as possible. Shorten
drainage runs and work to get
The same road as shown on the previous page approximately three months after the heavy haul vegetative cover reestablished
was finished.The road was restored to remarkably good shape simply with the use of motor-
as soon as possible after work
graders doing a complete reshaping of the inslope, shoulder and surface with a small amount
is finished.
of surface gravel added.

• Keep sediment within work bound-

Erosion Cont rol ditches, pollution of streams and lakes, aries. Sediment can be retained by
Having discussed the importance and eroded slopes which can shorten filtering water as it flows (as through
of reshaping a gravel road, there is the life of improvements. You may be a silt fence), and ditch checks will
another issue that must be addressed. found in violation of state and federal retain dirty runoff water for a period
When major reshaping is done out- regulations. Damage claims and law- of time until the soil particles settle
side of the traveled way, vegetation suits may be filed. out.
and ground cover will obviously be
disturbed. This can lead to erosion of The solution to this issue is not to • Inspect recent work. This is vital to
soil. The problem will vary depending cancel plans for gravel road improve- make sure channels haven’t formed
on the region. In arid and semi-arid ment,but to plan your work carefully in ditch bottoms or on slopes, or
areas, the problem is small or non- and use methods of reducing or around and under controls that
existent.Areas which receive frequent eliminating erosion. Here are some were used. Be particularly vigilant
rains, have rolling or rugged terrain, things to consider: after heavy rains.
and have highly erodible soils, are
particularly vulnerable. When vegetative • Some regions have certain times in
cover is disturbed,there are problems the year when frequent and heavy
that can arise. While trying to eliminate rainfall can be expected. Try to avoid
problems, new ones can be created major reshape work during those
such as clogged culverts and blocked periods of time.
20 Areas of Concern

Areas of Concern
It is impossible to deal effectively with
this problem if you do not understand
the causes. Motorgraders are often
blamed, but in reality, they seldom
cause the problem.

There are three primary causes: the

driving habits of people, lack of mois-
ture, and poor quality of gravel. Driving
habits are clearly evident when you
observe washboarding at intersections,
going up or down steep hills, leading
into or out of sharp curves and some-
times even near driveways. These are all
places where drivers tend to accelerate
hard or brake aggressively. This is a
major cause of washboarding. (24,33,
35, 36)

Lack of moisture will encourage wash-

board formation and prolonged dry
This type of corrugation,“ washboarding,” is caused by lack of moisture, hard acceleration, weather can really aggravate the
aggressive braking, and poor quality gravel. problem. This is because the crust that

T here are special situations in gravel

road maintenance that should be
addressed. These are common to nearly
all gravel roads and it is important to
understand how to deal with them.
These concerns are unique to gravel
roads and practical solutions are
recommended for each of these.

Dealing wit h Corrugat ion

The technical term is corrugation, but
virtually everyone in the field refers to
the problem as washboarding. This
problem can bring more complaints
than any other. It is very annoying to
the driver and, when it becomes severe,
can lead to loss of vehicle control.

This type of washboarding appears at an angle across the roadway with ridges and depressions
two to three feet apart.It is caused by excess grader speed.
Areas of Concern 21

forms on the surface of a good gravel

road will tend to loosen in dry weather.
This allows the stone and sand-sized
particles of gravel to “ float” and the
material can easily align itself into
the washboard pattern under traffic.

The two causes just mentioned are

completely out of the control of gravel
maintenance operators and managers.
The third primary cause — the quality
of the gravel — is the cause we need
to concentrate on. Good quality sur-
face gravel is thoroughly discussed
It is a good practice to loosen,mix, reshape gravel in a washboard-prone area while it is moist. in Section II of this manual. Simply
put, good gravel must have the right
blend of stone, sand, and fines. The
stone should be fractured and the
fine-sized particles should have a
binding characteristic, technically
called “ plasticity.” This type of gravel
resists washboarding. However, the
maintenance operators also must do
their part.

Virtually any gravel will develop some

washboard areas under traffic. The key
for the maintenance operator is to
strive to keep the material blended.
Another washboard-prone area is at the transition from paved to gravel sections as shown in
this photo. In dry conditions, the operator can
only smooth the road temporarily.
When moisture is present, it pays
to quickly get out and rework these
areas. The material should be cut to
a depth of one inch or more below
the depressions, mixed and relayed to
the proper shape. If time allows, using
the machine to apply wheel compaction
to material will help reform the crust.
If possible, use of a roller will improve
the compaction.

With the best of maintenance, wash-

boarding can never be completely elimi-
nated.However, the key to reducing it is

An effective tool for dealing with washboard areas is the front dozer equipped with carbide bits.
22 Areas of Concern

to work hard at obtaining quality gravel

with a good binding characteristic. The
operator can then reshape trouble spots
when moisture is present and most
roads will perform quite well.

If a motorgrader causes washboarding,

it is almost always the result of running
at too great a speed. The ridges and
depressions will be spaced further
apart.

The solution to the problem is simple

— reduce grading speed! Another
problem can be improper tire inflation
pressure or defective tires. This will
cause a motorgrader to bounce or oth- Figure 3: Proper shape
erwise operate in an unstable manner. of a controlled intersection.
Notice through-road retains
crown;side roads which
Int ersect ions have stop or yield signs
There is one important thing to under- are shaped to match the
edge of through road.
stand in knowing how to shape a gravel
intersection: is it a controlled or uncon-
trolled intersection? This means: does
traffic have to stop or yield from side
roads? If so, it is a controlled intersec-
tion as shown in Figure 3. The primary
road on which traffic passes through
should retain its crown and the inter-
secting roads should have crown gradu-
ally eliminated beginning approximately
100 feet before the intersection.At the
point of intersection, the side roads are
virtually flat to match the primary road.
When the intersection is uncontrolled
as shown in Figure 4,the roads should
all have the crown gradually eliminated
beginning approximately 100 feet from
the intersection. The intersection itself
becomes virtually flat, allowing vehicles Figure 4: Proper shape of
to pass through without feeling a an uncontrolled intersection.
Eliminate crown from all
noticeable hump or dip from any
directions approaching the
direction. Be careful not to make intersection.
the intersection lower so that water
collects there.
Areas of Concern 23

Int ersect ions wit h

Paved Roads
The rule for shaping these intersections
is always the same. Begin to eliminate
crown on the gravel road approximately
100 feet from the edge of the pavement.
At the intersecting point, the gravel
should match the paved surface. This
requires continual attention since pot-
holes can easily develop at the edge of
pavement. However, be careful not to
push gravel out onto the pavement
since this causes a dangerous loss of
skid resistance on the pavement.(35,
Figure 5: Illustration of a gravel road inter- 36) The technique of “ backdragging” is
secting a paved road. Gradually eliminate useful in these operations. In order to
the crown on the gravel road to match the fill a pothole at the edge of pavement,
edge of the pavement.
extra material may spill onto the pave-
ment. Simply pick up the moldboard and
set it down in front of the material, then
back up and spread the excess back on
the gravel road.

Hand work with a shovel is necessary

at times to complement grader work.
24 Areas of Concern

Bridge Approaches
Once again, the rule for shaping a
bridge approach is always the same.
Approximately 100 feet from the bridge,
begin to gradually take the crown out
of the gravel road so that you can
match the bridge deck as closely as
possible. Potholes can easily form at
the edge of the deck. Keep them filled,
but don’t push gravel onto the deck.
(35, 36)

The grader must fill potholes and depressions

formed near the bridge approach.

Nice job of blade work to shape road to match

bridge deck.

The technique of backdragging

can save time.
Areas of Concern 25

Superelevat ion at Curves

This is one of the biggest challenges in
gravel road maintenance and a situa-
tion that is not understood very well by
many operators. This is sometimes
called “ banking a curve” in the field.
The outer edge of the roadway is higher
than the inside edge and the road sur-
face is shaped straight from the upper
to the lower edge.

Once again, as the operator approaches

a curve, adjustments should be made
with the blade to take out the normal
crown and begin to transition into a
straight, superelevated surface. This
shape should be maintained uniformly
throughout the curve. A gentle transi-
tion is then made made at the other
end back to a normal crowned road
surface when you are once again on
Figure 6: Illustration of the transition from a normal crown to the superelevated
shape needed in a curve.

This photo shows lack of superelevation which can lead to accidents.

26 Areas of Concern

This superelevated road

section makes driving safer.

a straight section of road. This requires The correct amount of slope or “ bank-
constant attention during each mainte- ing” of a curve can only be determined
nance pass over the road. Traffic will by engineering analysis. There is also
tend to displace the gravel towards the a device available for determining
upper end of the road and the inside of the safe speed of a curve called a
the curve will become lower. Curves can ball bank indicator. If you are unsure
very easily go out of proper shape. (1, 5, of correct shape on a curve, get pro-
7, 21, 24, 29, 36) fessional advice if at all possible.

This road in Ecuador has

excellent superelevation in
the curve. It also has good
shoulder drainage and ditch-
es on both sides of the road.
(Courtesy of Ron Anderson,
Tensar Earth Technologies,
Inc.,USA)
Areas of Concern 27

Railroad Crossings
Maintaining a road that intersects a
rail crossing is very similar to bridge
approaches or intersections with paved
roads. Always begin to eliminate crown
approximately 100 feet away and shape
the road to match the crossing.A spe-
cial consideration is to be extremely
careful about keeping gravel out of the
flangeways along the rails. This can
cause a derailment — particularly when
it combines with snowpack in northern
regions of the country. Also, be extreme-
ly careful not to strike the rails them-
selves. In some cases, this could slightly
Grader working at a rural railroad crossing. The material that has been pushed into the flange- displace the rails and again could cause
way should be removed. a major disaster. If you snag or strike
a rail with your equipment, report it
immediately to your supervisor and
the railroad. (35, 36)

Driveways
The public road should always retain its
normal crowned shape while passing
driveways. Too often the gravel builds
up on the road at a driveway entrance
as shown in Figure 7. This changes the
shape of the roadway itself, which can
cause loss of control of vehicles. These
situations need to be reshaped. The
driveway entrance should always match
Figure 7: Improper matching of driveway and road edg e
the edge of the public road as shown
in Figure 8. (35, 36)

In heavily populated areas with gravel

roads, poor installation of driveways
can be a real problem. To reduce main-
tenance problems, implement a permit-
ting process. It should address the
proper control of grade to match road
edge, adequate width, and drainage.

The solution to the problem shown in

Figure 8 is demonstrated in a simple
three-step operation which is shown
Figure 8: Proper matching of driveway and road edge on the next page.
28 Areas of Concern

St ep 1. The operator restores the crown

on the public road by removing excessive
material extended from the driveway.
Note the drop off created by
this operation.

St ep 2. The operator proceeds

to correct the drop off at the
end of the driveway by cutting
the material loose and spreading
it back on the driveway.

St ep 3. The above two steps result in a

well-shaped driveway that matches
the edge of the public road.
Areas of Concern 29

Cat t le Guards
A simple structure called a cattle guard
is common in parts of the high plains
and mountain west in the US. These
devices are commonly found on low
volume roads in national forests and on
public lands where cattle or other live-
stock are allowed to graze on open
range. The cattle guard allows traffic to
pass from one parcel of land to another
without opening and closing gates. The
cattle guard is a series of heavy iron
bars or pipes placed across the road-
way, that generally appear like a heavy
grate. There is a cavity below the bars
or pipes that is generally twelve to
eighteen inches deep. These structures
confine cattle and other livestock since,
by instinct, they will not cross them for
Example of good work
fear of falling through the grate. done to reshape a
roadway approaching
Cattle guards are a special maintenance a cattle guard and
maintaining a very
challenge when installed on gravel
smooth crossing.
roads. The approach to them should be
treated much like blading up to a bridge
deck. Begin to eliminate normal crown
50-100 feet from the guard. The road
must then be shaped to match the
cattle guard. However, gravel must
never be spilled into the cavity below
the grate. If this is done repeatedly, the
hollow area below will be filled with
gravel and cattle will simply walk out.
Stop the grader two to three feet from
the guard and backdrag loose material
away from the structure. Then, hand-
work will often have to be done at the
edge of the cattle guard to maintain
a smooth crossing for traffic.
30 Areas of Concern

Soft and Weak Subgrade

Although it is extremely important to
remove surface and subsurface water
from the roadways, there are situations
where water simply cannot be kept
away. A good example is a section of
road that passes through swampland
or wetlands which naturally occur and
cannot be drained. These areas will
very often have weak subgrades, which
cannot support heavy loads. Sometimes
it is even hard to maintain the road for
light traffic. The road will rut and pot-
holes will be formed very quickly due
to very poor soil support.

This gravel road with narrow right-of-way has turned to mud during wet spring conditions. It
This requires more than routine main-
represents low-volume roads commonly found in several parts of the world.
tenance and reshaping if the problem
is to be fixed permanently. Generally,
there are only two solutions. One is to
excavate and remove the weak, wet
soil. Occasionally, the existing roadway
is wide enough that after adding select
material and shaping, the top width of
the finished surface is adequate. In this
case, undercutting will not be necessary.
This “ select material” will vary depend-
ing on what is available in the region.
One thing is critical: it must be clean
and drainable. It is also advisable to
get engineering advice from consul-
tants to make sure that materials
are adequate before starting this
rehabilitation challenge.
A decision was made to stabilize the above road.A road crew is shown rolling out a fabric over
the existing road surface.
The second method is similar, except
a product called a geotextile or geo-
synthetic is added. These products are the weak soil and the new material passes over the surface and the road
often called “ fabrics” and “ grids” in placed above it. The five photos shown deflects under the load.Pressure from
the field. Here the procedure is virtually on this and the next page demonstrate the load will cause water in the sub-
the same as described before, but a the proper sequence of placing geotex- grade to rise to the surface and carry
fabric and/or grid is placed over the tiles as explained in the following para- fine soil particles with it. This will
subgrade soil before the select material graphs. This prevents very fine, wet silt contaminate and weaken the new
is brought in.A woven or nonwoven and clay type soils from pumping or material very quickly and make it
fabric (geotextile) placed on the sub- migrating up into the new material. weak, undrainable, and unstable.
grade becomes a separator between The pumping action occurs when traffic A fabric prevents this by filtering
Areas of Concern 31

A truck is shown back-dumping a select,

granular material onto the fabric.

out the fine soils while allowing water

to pass through it and drain out of
the clean, granular material above.

A grid can also be used either in

combination with or without fabrics.
Grids are very strong geosynthetics
which, in simplest terms, confine the
material placed on them and do not
allow lateral movement or “ shoving”
of the material.Grids have been rolled
out over swamps and roads built over
them with remarkably good results.
The crawler/loader The ability to carry and distribute the
was used to spread soil and traffic load is referred to as
the material over a snowshoe effect.Grids can also be
the fabric and is
placed within layers of select material.
now being used to
pull a grid roller to There are many types and variations
smooth the surface. of these products. It is wise to get good
engineering advice when dealing with
difficult soil stabilization problems.

Once the subgrade has been strength-

ened, a good coat of surface gravel
can be placed and the road can be
maintained as any other gravel road.
The initial cost of stabilizing a weak
road section can be expensive, but it
will result in low maintenance costs
thereafter, and will often make these
projects cost effective.

The road now performs very well after

the stabilization was completed.
32 Areas of Concern

Workers are shown using a combination

of grid and fabric being placed over an
extremely weak subgrade. This is in a region
of Ecuador that receives average annual
rainfall of nearly 200 inches. Approximately
twelve inches of select, clean sand-type
material will be placed over the grid to serve
as a base. The fabric will be wrapped over
the side of the sand layer to keep the edge
from eroding away. Then another layer of
grid will be placed and covered with approxi-
mately ten inches of crushed surface gravel
which will become the driving surface.

A section of the same road during

construction.Select material is being
placed over the grid and fabric. Notice
the evidence of extremely weak
subgrade shown by the rut at the
bottom of the photo. This rut was
left by a light vehicle which traveled
beyond the stabilized section.
Yet this road will have to carry
oil field traffic when finished.

Here is the finished road which has performed

remarkably well while being used to carry
extremely heavy loads during construction
and equipment for oil field development.
It is a good example of how an extremely
weak subgrade can be stabilized and a gravel
road built over it with minimum disturbance
to the surrounding terrain and the environment.

(Photos on this page are courtesy of Ron

Anderson, Tensar Earth Techologies, Inc.,USA)
Drainage 33

Sect ion II:

Drainage

A n often-repeated adage in the

road construction and mainte-
nance business is that “ The three
most important things to under-
stand in building and maintaining
roads are drainage, drainage, and
drainage!” This certainly does get an
important message across. But, too
often, this critical issue is ignored when
building and maintaining local roads.
When drainage is poor, the best efforts
to rehabilitate or maintain roads will
bring disappointing results. When water
can be drained off of road surfaces and
out of roadbed soils, the road will
invariably become easier to maintain.

This can hardly be emphasized enough.

But this is not a drainage manual and
therefore the discussion will only cover Lack of a roadside ditch has caused major drainage problems on this road.(Courtesy of Road
Research Ministry of Roads/Transportation,Sweden)
basic drainage matters. A good refer-
ence is Roadway and Roadside
Drainage by the Cornell Local Roads tions for maintenance, a maintenance
Program at Cornell University. (27) operator must do what it takes to
Call the LTAP center in your state to reestablish and/or keep drainage work-
obtain a copy. ing on gravel roads. Previous sections
of this manual have already discussed
Too often the maintenance team deals the road profile which is the first line
with surface problems that really come of defense for good drainage. The
from wet and weak soil conditions discussion will now continue with
below the road. Since gravel roads three more basic drainage topics:
generally carry low volumes of traffic ditches, culverts, and underdrains.
and do not have large budget alloca-
34 Drainage

This road located in Poland has very poor cross

section.Consequently, drainage and overall
driving conditions are bad. (Courtesy of
Mary O’Neill, Office of Remote Sensing,
South Dakota State University, USA)

Remarkable difference in these two roads

that carry similar volumes of traffic. They are
located in the same region of the country and
the photos were taken on the same day. The
major difference is drainage. The upper photo
shows a well-drained road while the lower
photo shows a poorly maintained ditch that
resulted in a poor performance.
Dit ches 35

Dit ches
T he most important and common
drainage structure needed is the
roadside ditch. Every effort must be
made to maintain a minimal ditch.
If the ditch becomes obstructed from
eroded soil or debris, it must be
cleaned. Sometimes this can be a major
project requiring loaders, excavators,
trucks or other equipment. However,
during a dry period, a maintenance
operator with nothing more than a
grader can do wonders to restore
ditch drainage.

An example of work with a grader to reshape a ditch on a mountain road.

A nicely reshaped ditch that meets the shoulder

line of the road and allows good drainage.

An Egyptian gravel road which is heavily travelled with

limited access. Notice that despite the lack of ditches
the surface performs well.The reason is that in the
arid region of Egypt rainfall averages less than three
inches per year. (Courtesy of Ali Selim,SD LTAP, USA)
36 Culvert s and Bridges

Culvert s and
Bridges
T hese drainage structures are critical
to carry the natural flow of water
under the road so that it may continue
on its natural course. Small pipes and
box culverts can easily become plugged
from eroded soil and debris. It becomes
part of road maintenance to inspect
them at reasonable intervals and clean
them so that drainage is unobstructed.
Eventually, they will have to be
replaced.A good maintenance and
replacement program is too often
lacking on gravel roads. (15, 27)

New culverts installed well and at correct elevation are essential for carrying water under a
road.A reasonable maintenance schedule is required to keep them functioning well.

This road could fail if debris is not cleared before the next heavy rain.
Underdrains 37

Underdrains
W hen a road is built over water
bearing soils or over natural
springs which continually want to
wick water upward toward the surface,
the road is invariably weak and will
perform poorly. It may be cost effective
to consider installing either a “ fabric,”
technically known as a geotextile, to
stabilize the road, or a perforated pipe
to carry water out of the roadbed. The
use of fabrics has been discussed earlier
in this manual. This discussion will
briefly focus on the use of perforated
drainage pipe.
Example of a machine called a tile plow that is commonly used in some regions to install
This method has been used in several polyethylene pipe into farm fields for drainage purposes. This type of machine has also been
areas throughout the country. It is used to plow drain tile into gravel roads with great success in some areas.
similar to field tile used for drainage of
wet farmland. The product most com-
monly used is a flexible polyethylene
pipe. The pipe is installed longitudinally,
generally on the center line of the gravel
road. It is often plowed into the road-
bed with a laser-leveling device to keep
the machine on grade. This method
generally works best when the pipe
has a fabric wrap or “sock” to keep
very fine soils from infiltrating the pipe
and plugging it.A trench can also be
excavated to grade, pipe placed and
small stone or clean fine gravel placed
around the pipe. A geotextile lining in
the trench can enhance the long-term
performance of these drains. In either
case, the pipe has to be brought out
to an open end at or near the ditch
bottom. Therefore, this method will not
work if the ditch itself frequently fills
with water and holds it for a period of
time. This can actually cause the pipe to
work backwards and carry water back
under the road and weaken it further.

This drainage method may not be

effective in all soil types, however it
has proven effective in many areas.
38
Sect ion III: Surf ace Gravel 39

Sect ion III:

Surf ace Gravel

What is Good Gravel?

T he answer to this question will
vary depending on the region, local
sources of aggregate available and
other factors. Some regions of the
country do not have good sources of
gravel (technically called aggregate).
A few coastal regions use seashells
for surface material on their unpaved
roads. However, this section of the
manual will discuss the most common
sources of material. They are quarry
aggregates such as limestone, quartzite
and granite; glacial deposits of stone,
sand, silt and clay; and river run gravels
that generally are a mix of stone and
base courses will generally have larger
sand. One thing should be stressed:
top-sized stone and a very small per-
it pays to use the best quality material
centage of clay or fine material. This
available. (31)
is necessary for the strength and good
drainability needed in base gravels. This Notice the good blend of stone, sand and
Difference in Surface Gravel material will not form a crust to keep fine-sized particles tightly bound together
and Ot her Uses the material bound together on a gravel on this road surface.
Too often surface gravel is taken from road. It will become very difficult to
stockpiles that have actually been maintain. Other gravel could have been and drain away from under building
produced for other uses. For instance, produced simply as fill material for use foundations and parking lots. But
the gravel could have been produced at building sites. This material often has the same material will remain loose
for use as base or cushion material for a high content of sand-sized particles and unstable on a gravel road.What
a paved road. There are two major which make it very drainable. This is a a gravel road needs is sufficient fine
differences between surface gravel and desirable characteristic in fill material material that has a plastic or “ binding”
base (cushion) material. Good gravel for since water can quickly flow through it characteristic.
40 What is Good Gravel?

Good Gradat ion

Gravel is a mixture of three sizes or
types of material: stone, sand and fines.
This will be discussed further in the next
section.Without a good blend of these
three sizes, the gravel will perform
poorly. Unfortunately, poor performing
gravel will often be blamed on the
maintenance operator. But the operator
cannot make good gravel out of bad
gravel. Bad or poorly graded gravel
can not be changed to good gravel
without additional costs, but it is
often well worth it.

One common practice of improving

surface gravel is to add new, clean,
virgin fine gravel. Good surface gravel Example of a good blend of material for gravel surfacing. (Courtesy of Road Research Ministry of
needs a percentage of stone which Roads/Transportation,Sweden)
gives strength to support loads —
particularly in wet weather. It also Benefit of Crushing Recycled Asphalt
needs a percentage of sand-sized
In a few cases the gravel may simply be As more of our asphalt pavements wear
particles to fill the voids between
loaded onto trucks without processing. out, many of them are recycled. This is
the stones and give stability. But a
This is often referred to as “ bank run” usually done by milling or crushing.
percentage of good, plastic fines are
or “ pit run” gravel. There are few Sometimes the material is available for
also needed to bind the material
natural deposits of material that have use on a gravel road. It can be a good
together which allows a gravel road to
an ideal gradation without being surface, but there are pitfalls. In this
form a crust and shed water. In many
processed. In some areas of the country material, the bituminous portion of
regions of the country, this is a natural
it is still common to process gravel the old pavement becomes the binder.
clay which gives the gravel a strong
simply by screening to a maximum When placed on a road in hot weather,
cohesive characteristic and keeps a
top size. A great benefit is gained from the recycled asphalt can take on the
reasonably tight surface especially
processing the material by crushing. characteristic of pavement. But it will be
during periods of dry weather. Some of
This means that a good percentage a weak pavement. It will often develop
the fine material in surface gravel will
of the stone will be fractured in the potholes and will be hard to maintain
be lost, under traffic action, in the form
crushing process. The broken stones with simple blade maintenance. To help
of dust that rises from the surface and
will embed into the surface of a overcome this problem,the material
simply blows away. This can be
gravel road much better than rounded, should be placed at a minimum three
compensated for by specifying a higher
natural-shaped stone. It also means that inch compacted depth and only on
percentage of fines in the new gravel.
the material resists movement under a road that has a strong subgrade.
However, no gravel surface will perform
loads better and gives better strength A better option is to mix the recycled
like pavement! There will be some loose
or stability. This will vary throughout the asphalt 50/50 with virgin gravel. This
aggregate or “ float” on the surface of
country, but bank run gravels are nearly will generally provide a material that
virtually all gravel roads. But striving to
always improved through the crushing still has a good binding characteristic,
get as good a material as budgets and
process. Quarry gravels are considered but remains workable for maintenance
local sources allow will improve the
very good material since they are com- and reshaping. Recycled asphalt has
performance of a gravel road.
posed of virtually all fractured particles. also been mixed with crushed, recycled
concrete and the performance has
been good.
The Benef it of Test ing Aggregat es 41

The Benef it of Test ing Aggregat es

I t is very important to understand
that all gravels are not the same.
One can tell a little about them by
visual inspection or by running your
hands through the material but real
quality can only be determined by
testing.

Reasons For Test ing

All managers and decision makers
in local government need a good
understanding of the benefit of testing
aggregates in order to work towards
better quality in road and street
maintenance. Not everyone needs
to understand how to do the testing.
Testing requires special knowledge
and equipment which is generally not
available or affordable to most local
governments. We simply need to
recognize the benefits of knowing
more about the aggregate that is
used in construction and maintenance
operations. This knowledge gives power
to decision makers to specify good
materials, to know when to accept or
reject materials, and to communicate
better with crushing contractors,
consultants, DOT, and others involved
in the business of building and
maintaining roads.

Often an objection is raised to sampling

and testing because the cost is too
high. This claim can be countered with
the argument that if several thousand
tons of aggregate are going to be Figure 9: Stack of sieves used for testing the gradation of aggregate.
purchased or crushed, is it not wise to
invest a few hundred dollars in testing
the material to insure that the right Sampling getting good test results from a lab.
aggregate is used? It is a good practice Another issue critical to testing Poor sampling techniques have led to
to test the aggregate before placing it aggregate is obtaining a good sample more controversy in aggregate testing
on the road.Also, if the tests fail, you of the material to be tested.Knowing than any other factor. Every effort must
can work with the crushing contractor how to get a good representative be made to make sure that the sample
to try to blend and improve or reject the sample from a crushing operation, brought to a lab is truly representative
material. This becomes even more a stockpile, a windrow, or a paving of the material in the field. It is wise
critical in producing material for operation is absolutely critical to to follow national standards such as
pavement or base.
42 The Benef it of Test ing Aggregat es

ASTM for aggregate sampling.A good Table 1. Example of Gradation Requirements and Plasticity for Two Types of Materials.
video titled Sampling Aggregates, Requirement Aggregate Base Course Gravel Surfacing
produced for the Michigan DOT, covers Sieve Percent Passing Percent Passing
several interesting topics on the subject.
1" 100
This video should be available from
any state’s LTAP center. It is always 3/4" 80-100 100
advisable to work with an experienced 1/2" 68-91
sampler if you are not familiar with No. 4 46-70 50-78
sampling. No. 8 34-54 37-67
No. 40 13-35 13-35
What then are the benefits of testing
No. 200 3-12 4-15
aggregate? The primary concern here
should be gradation of material. (18, Plasticity Index 0-6 4-12
From South Dakota Standard Specifications. (16)
31, 34)

Sieve Analysis allows up to 20% of the stone to be of plastic fines in base gravel will
Gravel is made up of three groups retained on the 3/4 inch sieve. While cause problems. If moisture gets under
of aggregate: stone, sand,and fines. this could make excellent base gravel, it the paved surface, the base will lose
Depending on what the material is to would likely perform poorly if used as its strength and stability and cause
be used for, the ideal blend of these gravel surfacing. There would be too rutting or even failure of the pavement.
three groups varies greatly. For example, much large stone resulting in very Too often the same gravel is used for
good surface material for a gravel road difficult blade maintenance. both base work and surface gravel.
would need more material passing a Generally, it will be good for one
#200 sieve than a good base material. Also, the high percentage of coarse purpose or the other, but will not
There is also a difference in the need material would make a rough driving work for both applications.
for plastic or cohesive material.Surface surface. Yet, a percentage of large
gravel needs some good natural clay stone is needed for strength in the Appendix D contains a sample of a
which gives a “ binding characteristic.” base course. complete Screen Analysis and PI
The chart adjacent is an example of one Worksheet typical of those used by
state’s base and gravel surfacing speci- Fines and Plast icit y Index testers across the country. Once again,
fications. Most states have their own Notice also the difference in the fine it should be stressed that only by
specifications and therefore it is highly material and the plasticity index (PI). sampling and testing the aggregate can
recommended that state specifications While gravel surfacing allows 4% one really determine the quality of the
be consulted. and up to 15% of the material to pass material. Simple visual inspection can
a #200 sieve, base course can have be misleading. One thing in particular
Local governments are not held to as little as 3%, but not more than that is very hard to determine without
these specifications when doing their 12% passing the same sieve. More testing is plasticity. This is a laboratory
own construction and maintenance importantly, the PI can fall to 0 in base test which, in simplified terms, tells you
work without state or federal funding course and rise to no more than 6. The whether the fines are clays or silts. If
and oversight. Yet, it is wise to be same index can rise as high as 12 or you are not familiar with this testing,
familiar with them and follow them be no less than 4 in surface gravel. the whole process may appear very
whenever possible. Even if you choose There is good reason for this. Good confusing. Yet, it really pays to increase
to modify the specifications to suit a surface gravel needs a percentage of your knowledge of these matters in
local material source or project, it is plastic material, usually natural clays, order to be a better manager.
best to begin with a state specification. which will give the gravel a “ binding”
characteristic and hence a smooth Every local road/street department
Notice the major differences in the driving surface. This is critical during manager has a big job and there is
above specification in the top-sized dry weather. During wet weather, the never enough money to cover all of the
material and the smallest sized material. surface may rut a bit, but will quickly needs. It is imperative that money
The base course requires 100% of the dry and harden in sunny and windy should be spent wisely.
material to pass a 1 inch sieve, but weather. However, any great quantity
Process f or Obt aining Good Gravel 43

Reduced Blading and maintenance. Problems with excess

Maint enance Cost s washboarding,rutting in wet weather,
By spending some money to test or loosening (floating) in dry weather,
material for quality, overall maintenance will be greatly reduced. It is well worth
costs will be reduced. Good gravel that the effort to better understand the
has good gradation and plasticity will benefits of aggregate testing.
compact well. It will develop a tightly
bound surface that needs less

Process f or Obt aining Good Gravel

A n agency must strive to locate and
use good gravel even if it costs a
little extra. The long term benefits in
terms of less maintenance will often
pay for the extra cost. The initial cost
should not be the primary consideration
when purchasing gravel.

Est ablish Specificat ions

Gravel for local roads is often bought
from a local supplier at a negotiated
price for an estimated quantity. There
may be some assurance that the gravel
will perform well on the road based
on past experience. However, material
sources can change rapidly as the
material is removed. The only real
assurance of getting good quality
material is to establish a specification
and then sample and test the product
to make sure these specifications
are met.

A local agency generally would not

be held to state specifications when
doing maintenance work.However,
this is what crushing contractors and
aggregate suppliers are usually
familiar with.
These two roads show remarkable contrast in surface condition due to the quality of gravel.
They carry virtually the same volume and type of traffic in an agricultural community. The top
If one is confident in knowledge of photo shows a good surface gravel with a nice blend of material,particularly some plastic fines
surface gravel and wishes to change which keep the surface tightly bound.The bottom photo shows a road surface that has too much
the specifications, that is fine; but it is stone and sand in proportion to the fine material. Consequently, the gravel remains loose and is
hard to maintain.
wise to use the state specification as a
benchmark to work from. For example,
44 Handling Gravel

state specifications may show a Class I aggregate suppliers can provide test good natural clay material was mixed
Surface Aggregate designation for data from their stockpiles to show the as the gravel was being crushed. The
surface gravel. You may want a higher gradation of their material. They may result was good surface gravel that
minimum requirement for plasticity or have further data such as plasticity has a very nice blend of stone, sand
perhaps a smaller top size on the rock. index, percentage of fractured faces, and good plastic fines which make a
State clearly in your specification that soundness, etc. You simply have to ask strong, tightly bound gravel surface.
you want a Modified Class I Surface for it.It is wise to occasionally sample The material was more expensive up
Aggregate and then clearly indicate to verify their data. Good suppliers front, but resulted in reduced frequency
what your modifications are. It is wise welcome this. of blade maintenance and longer
to familiarize yourself with your state intervals between regraveling. Total
specifications. Good material is seldom the cheapest. expense of maintenance over a five-
An interesting example in Lawrence year period was considerably less than
Communicat e wit h County, South Dakota, is a case in point. purchasing cheap gravel,blading it
Suppliers Local materials crushed to the state’s more frequently and having to regravel
Many problems are quickly solved Gravel Surfacing Specification did not more often. None of this is possible if
when people make an effort to explain perform well.After developing a mod- the manager does not understand what
clearly what their problems or needs ified specification and communicating good gravel is or does not communicate
are. In regard to the specifications clearly to crushing contractors what and cooperate with the supplier to
just discussed, many commercial was needed,some very high quality provide it.
surface gravel was produced. Some

Handling Gravel
I t is not common for maintenance
operators or field supervisors to
be involved in actually producing the
gravel that is used on their roads. Yet
it is very helpful to understand how
the material should be handled from
the time it is taken from the quarry
face or the gravel bank in a pit. There
are certain problems that can arise from
the time the material is first removed
from the earth until it is finally placed
on the road.It may be wise to visit the
site where your gravel is being produced
to see if it is being handled well.

Pit /Quarry Operat ions

It is very important to remove topsoil
and vegetation from the surface of
the material source before beginning
Here is an example of a poorly managed pit operation.The top soil pile shown at the center of
to process the material. Topsoil will
the photo was not placed far enough beyond the working face of the pit. As additional material
contain organic matter which is never was removed from the face of the pit, materials from the top soil pile fell into the working area.
good for a road surface. Furthermore, This will lead to contamination of the gravel with organic material and,even worse, noxious
in some agricultural regions of the weeds.
country, the spread of noxious weeds
can occur when parts of growing plants
Handling Gravel 45

and/or the seeds are hauled out with

the gravel and spread on rural roads.
Several states have laws which allow
authorities to quarantine material
sources and stockpile sites to prevent
the spread of weeds. Under these laws,
the gravel cannot be removed even
though your agency may already have
ownership of it. It becomes very hard to
guarantee that all problems have been
eliminated before beginning to remove
material again. The solution is to make
sure the topsoil is removed and placed
well out of the way.

The next area of concern is how the

material is being removed from the face
of the quarry or pit.Almost any material
source will have variations in the layers
A very good example of working a gravel bank.Large loaders are being used to feed a crushing
of gravel. Good crushing contractors
plant.Notice the good effort to work a broad area of the gravel bank.The operator virtually
will remove the material by working a never takes a bucket of material from the same spot twice. This assures a good blend of
broad area of the face. This is essential material going into the crusher.
to have material that is blended well
as it goes into the crusher. Even a pit
or quarry that appears to have very
uniform layers of material will still have
variations such as clay or silt seams
which can suddenly change in thick-
ness. This can really affect the overall
gradation of the gravel.Good loader
or dozer operators are key players in
getting a good blend of gravel right
at the start of processing.

A good example of topsoil and vegetation that has been

stripped from the surface of a gravel pit and placed
beyond the working area. It can later be placed back over
the bottom of the pit as part of the reclamation process.
It will once again grow grass.

The discharge conveyor from a crushing plant is in the foreground.

Notice how badly segregated the material is as it is carried up to the
stockpile on a belt stacker. This invariably leads to problems illustrated
in the following two photos.
46 Handling Gravel

Notice the dramatic difference in the two

sides of the stockpile. The inside of the
pile (top photo) has an excess of fine
material while the back side has excess
stone (bottom photo).This could have
been prevented by eliminating segregation
on the stacker belt.

Another problem commonly encoun-

tered is in the processing plant itself.
These plants are made of different
types and sizes and the detailed
operation of each is beyond the scope
of this manual.

The problem here is the segregation

of material during processing.When
segregation occurs, large-sized particles
tend to group together and get isolated
instead of being blended well with the
rest of the material. This will lead to
inconsistency in the material as well as
difficulty in compaction.Surface areas
containing an unusual amount of coarse
particles will remain loose and unstable,
while other areas, rich with fines, may
rut excessively during prolonged wet
weather. When a stockpile is segregated
as badly as the one just illustrated,it is
almost impossible to blend the material
again before it is hauled out onto the
road. One option would be to use a
bulldozer and rework the stockpile to
blend it. Some agencies require their
stockpiles to be constructed in layers
so that these problems do not occur in
the first place. Work with suppliers to
reduce these problems. Segregated
material is always a problem.(18, 33) This road is located about 50 miles from Cairo, Egypt.It displays segregation problems in several
spots. (Photo courtesy of Ali Selim,SD LTAP, USA)
Handling Gravel 47

Loading From St ockpiles

Good loader operators who observe
the stockpile and work hard to blend
material evenly are essential in getting
good gravel delivered to the road.In
many small maintenance operations,
every truckdriver may operate the
loader to load his/her own truck.
It then becomes important that every
driver understand the need to observe
the pile and load material uniformly. If
large stockpiles have been placed with
belt stackers, it is always best to work
into the end of the pile and work the
face of the pile uniformly. Again, as
the loader places material in the trucks
it is wise to get each bucket of material
from a different location across the
face of the pile. (18, 33)
A good example of loader operation — working uniformly across the end of the stockpile.
Note also a very level stockpile site and a well maintained loading area on which the loader
Roadway Preparat ion and trucks work.This demonstrates pride in doing a good job of handling material.
When fresh gravel is to be placed on
a road, it is vital that the road be in
good shape. For example, a washboard
area needs to be cut out and reshaped
prior to placing new gravel over it.
Otherwise, the washboard distress will
quickly reflect right up into the new
surface and the problem quickly
reappears. Another critical matter is
to take care of any surface drainage
problems. If the road has lost crown,
has potholed areas, high shoulders or
severe rutting, all of these problems
need to be eliminated. Then fresh gravel
can be placed at a uniform depth and
the road becomes easier to maintain.
Generally it is not wise to simply fill
these problem areas with new gravel.
It can become very expensive and the This road has been badly damaged from a heavy haul. It would be useless to begin hauling and
gravel will not have uniform depth. placing fresh gravel until the entire roadway has been reshaped.

Preparing a road for new gravel can be

as simple as cutting out a few potholes sure the crown and shape of the road
or a washboard area to reshaping the is as close as possible to the way the
entire cross section. Even if the existing road needs to look after regraveling is
road is smooth and hard, it is often finished. That is the only way a com-
wise to lightly scarify the surface to pletely uniform layer of new gravel
get a good bond. One final tip: be can be placed.
48 Handling Gravel

Calculat ing Quant it y

The procedure for determining how
much gravel needs to be hauled to
add a predetermined depth to a road
is not always well understood. One
thing that is often overlooked is the
shrinkage in volume that occurs from
ordinary compaction. Ordinary com-
paction means the shrinkage that
occurs from the material being placed,
absorbing moisture from rainfall and
then having traffic passing over it.
In many parts of the country, this
will result in 30% or greater reduction
in volume.

Keep in mind some people often cal-

culate the volume of material only as it
is carried in the truck or as it exists in These two photos depict a the good job of spreading done by a county highway department
the stockpile. Material in the stockpile using tandem end-dump trucks. The skill of the drivers makes this job look easy. Notice also the
grader is ready to begin processing the material.
is very loose and has very low density.
Remember to allow for shrinkage when
calculating how much gravel depth is
needed after the job is compacted and
finished. Calculation then should be
made for the distance that each truck
can spread its load. This is not always
done in maintenance operations, but it
is recommended.It’s the only way to
really know for sure how much material
is being placed.Appendix C of this
manual has two charts to help in
calculating quantities.

Hauling and Dumping

Traffic control is sometimes neglected
in rural areas while the work is being
done. It is not common in most areas
of the country to place signs during
routine blade maintenance. It is a
mobile work area and the warning Once hauling begins, it is wise to have
lights on the machine give adequate a motorgrader present to process and
notice that maintenance work is being place the gravel immediately. The skill
done. But hauling and spreading gravel of the truck drivers can really make a
should be treated as a work zone and regraveling operation work smoothly.
signed as such. The Manual on Uniform When drivers are able to dump the
Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) or the load evenly and within the correct
state’s uniform signing manual should length that was marked, the grader
be used as a guide to select appropriate operator’s job becomes much easier.
warning signs. (38)
Handling Gravel 49

Windrowing, Equalizing
and Spreading
Once the gravel is dropped on the road,
the grader operator should pick up the
material and place it in a windrow. This
will usually take more than one pass. It
is called equalizing. This accomplishes
two important things when handling
gravel. It gives a final blending and
mixing of the gravel, and it makes
a windrow of very uniform volume.
Once equalized, the material should
be spread by the grader evenly on the
roadway. Care must be taken not to
carelessly cast material off the edge
of the roadway where it cannot be
recovered.When the material is finally
placed across the roadway, it leaves a
uniform depth of well-blended material The motorgrader operator has done a good job of picking up the fresh gravel and equalizing it
into a very uniform windrow.
that becomes the new gravel surface
for the public to drive on. It all works
better when everyone understands
his/her job. While it is not possible
everywhere, adding water and using
rollers for compaction invariably makes
a better gravel road. It is recommended
whenever possible. (32)

Only after completely windrowing and equalizing does the operator begin to place the material
at a uniform depth across the roadway.
50
Sect ion IV: Dust Cont rol and St abilizat ion/Types of St abilizers 51

Sect ion IV:

Dust Cont rol and St abilizat ion

A ll gravel roads will give off dust

under traffic.After all, they are
unpaved roads that typically serve a low
residences located near the road and
traffic is high.
The cost can be prohibitive if traffic
volume is low. On the other hand, if
traffic is high, the cost of dust control
volume of traffic, and dust is usually The quality and type of gravel also can more than pay for itself with the
an inherent problem. The amount of has some effect on the amount of benefits of reduced material loss and
dust that a gravel road produces varies dust. Some limestone gravels can dust reduced need for blade maintenance.
greatly. In areas of the country that severely while some glacial deposits of (28) At this point, many agencies will
receive a high amount of moisture, gravel with a portion of highly plastic face pressure to pave the road. It may
the problem is greatly reduced.Arid clay can take on a strong binding actually be a good economic decision in
or semi-arid regions such as the desert characteristic that will resist dusting the long run, especially if there is good
southwest and much of the great plains remarkably well. Still, in prolonged dry indication that traffic will continue to
region in the USA are prone to long weather, there will be dust! Whether increase in the future. However, never
periods of dry weather. Similar regions to provide some type of dust control pave a road before it is ready! There
around the globe can have similar or not can be a hard decision to make. is good information on making this
weather patterns. Dust can really bring Virtually all methods of dust control decision in Appendix D.
complaints in these areas if there are require annual treatment.

Types of St abilizers
Chlorides are hygroscopic products which, in by-product of the pulp milling industry.
These are the most commonly used simplest terms, means they draw The product is sometimes called “ tree
products across the country. They fall moisture from the air and keep the sap” in the field. These products work
into three categories: Calcium Chloride road surface constantly damp. They best when incorporated into the surface
in flake or liquid form, Magnesium are reasonably simple to use. gravel. They then provide cohesion to
Chloride generally in liquid form, and bind the soil particles together.
Sodium Chloride (road salt). Sodium Resins
is seldom used and is the least effective. These are products available under vari- Nat ural Clays
Calcium and Magnesium Chloride can ous commercial names. The basic com- Some regions of the country have
be very effective if used properly. They position is lignin sulfonate which is a excellent deposits of natural clay that
52 Benefit s of St abilizat ion

are highly plastic and provide strong or kerosene in these products, they have of the gravel that effectively reduces
cohesion when added in the right been banned in many places. Some dust when it is used properly.
quantity to gravel.However, in pro- emulsified asphalts may work for this
longed dry weather, these roads will purpose, but their use is very limited. Ot her Commercial Binders
seldom be completely dust free. It can The product must be applied with There are too many of these to mention
be difficult as well to haul the clay special asphalt application equipment. individually. They are marketed under
onto the road and mix it into the gravel. various trade names across the country.
Because it is highly plastic,it tends to Soybean Oil It is always wise to try a test section of
stick to the truck boxes and requires This product is known technically as no more than 1000 feet in length to see
quite an effort to mix with the gravel. Acidulated Soybean Oil Soapstock. how any of these products work with
It is a by-product of the caustic refining your gravel. One caution: do not use
Asphalt s process of soybean oil. It is a biode- waste products such as crankcase
The use of cut-back liquid asphalts gradable material that has many of drain oil from engines. This is harmful
to surface-treat gravel roads was once the characteristics of a light petroleum- to the environment and is in violation
popular for dust control. However, based oil. It will penetrate a gravel of EPA rules.
because of the great amount of fuel oil surface and provide a light bonding

Benefit s of St abilizat ion

O nce a road is stabilized there are
several benefits. On high volume
roads, these benefits can make stab-
products are working well, the fine
material in the gravel cannot loosen
and dust away. This also means that
are applied.While extra blading, shap-
ing and mixing is needed to prepare
a road for dust control, the overall
ilization very cost effective. the stone portion of the gravel will need for blade maintenance should
tend to remain embedded in the surface be greatly reduced. This can be a great
Reduced Dust ing and will not be lost to the edge of the savings in equipment expense and
It may be hard to justify the use of any road or even whipped off onto the labor. A county highway official once
of these products for dust control alone. inslope from heavy traffic. Studies commented:“ I don’t react to dust
However, when the products are work- have shown that as much as one ton complaints. All gravel roads have dust.
ing well, the added benefit of a stabi- of aggregate per mile is lost each year But I do react to high maintenance
lized surface that controls the loss of for each vehicle that passes over a road costs. When we have to regravel a road
fines through dusting is a great eco- daily. This means that a road carrying frequently and do blade maintenance
nomic benefit.When the fines are lost 200 vehicles per day will experience frequently, then it’s time to look at
from a gravel surface, the stone and the loss of 200 tons of aggregate per stabilizing the surface with Magnesium
sand-sized particles that remain will mile each year. (7) Obviously this will Chloride. Reduced maintenance is
tend to remain loose on the surface, vary with the amount of rainfall what we’re after. Dust control is just
leading to some distresses like wash- received, the quality of the gravel a bonus!”
boarding and reduced skid resistance. and other factors. Retaining aggregate
It will become very hard to maintain. is a good added benefit to dust control.
Fresh gravel with a higher percentage
of fines needs to be hauled in. This Reduced Blade Maint enance
becomes very expensive. A road surface that remains tightly
bound and stable will require much less
Reduced “ Whip Off” blade maintenance. The manufacturers
of Aggregat e of some dust control products highly
recommend that the surface should
This is another economic bonus to not be bladed at all after their products
dust control when it is working well.
As mentioned earlier, when dust control
Applicat ion Tips 53

Applicat ion Tips

T here is not enough space to cover
application tips for all products. Since
the Chlorides are the most commonly
used products, we will address the use
of those. However, some or all of these
tips would apply to the use of most
other products as well.

Need for Good Surface Gravel

Keep in mind the Chlorides are not
binders. They simply draw moisture
from the air. The gravel itself must have
a good gradation — particularly a good
percentage of fine material with some
plasticity. This will give the gravel a
natural binding char-acteristic. The
Chlorides then will take over and keep
the surface damp and it will remain The carbide-tipped bits on a cutting edge can be a valuable tool in preparing a road for Chloride
tightly bound. It will not give up its treatment.They penetrate the road and give a shallow scarifying effect to loosen and mix the
fines in the form of dust. This point existing gravel.This leaves a nice uniform loose layer of material on the surface.
cannot be emphasized enough.If good
gravel is not present on the road,it will
be wise to haul in good fresh gravel
prior to treatment. The cost of the
Chloride treatment has been virtually
wasted on some roads when the gravel
was poor and very short-lived dust
control resulted.

Road Preparat ion

This is another critical point in prepar-
ing for dust control treatment.Make
sure the road has a good crown in the
driving surface. Also, make sure there
is good shoulder drainage. Standing
water anywhere in the roadway will
cause the surface to soften and fail.
It will leave a pothole in an otherwise
good, stabilized roadway. These can This road has been prepared well for a liquid
be hard to correct afterwards with- the roadway. This allows the Chloride Magnesium Chloride treatment.Notice the
out disturbing the stabilized surface to penetrate evenly and quickly into uniform, loose and nicely crowned surface
looking over the hilltop. There is also good
around it.Another key to preparation the gravel. shoulder drainage as well.This is an excel-
is to loosen a minimum of one to lent example of road preparation.
two inches of the existing surface and Do not compact the surface at all prior
leave it loose at a uniform depth across to applying chlorides.
54 Applicat ion

Applying t he Product
The most important need here is for
equipment that can be calibrated accu-
rately and that will apply either the liq-
uid or flakes evenly across the surface.
Then a good application rate needs to
be selected. This will vary with the type
of gravel being treated and the length
of time dust control is needed.Check
with vendors and experts in your area
to see what recommended rates are.
Next, watch the weather! If rain is
forecast or appears to be likely, don’t
take a chance. Rain on a freshly treated
surface will leach out and dilute the
Chloride and cause it to run off the
road. It can temporarily harm grass on Example of a good piece of application equipment.This truck has a pressurized spray bar with
adjacent areas. But the bigger problem a computerized application system that meters the liquid Chloride with extreme accuracy.
will be very poor performance after-
wards. Also, it is ideal to keep traffic off
of the road for up to two hours after
application. This is not always possible,
but it is very helpful. It is recommended
that one side of the road be treated at
a time. Rolling can be helpful, but is
not essential. If rollers are used, pneu-
matic ones are best, and watch to see
that the gravel does not start picking
up from the surface. If that happens,
wait until the surface cures a bit before
finishing rolling.

This photo shows part of the

spray bar with spraying nozzles.

A very effective, yet simple

method of applying flake
Chloride accurately with an
old farm fertilizer spreader.
These machines can be cali-
brated with great accuracy.
Quick cleanup afterward is
important since Chloride is
corrosive to equipment.Once
it is bound in the gravel,
corrosive effect on vehicles
is very low.
Applicat ion 55

Opt imum Moist ure

It is important to have the gravel close
to optimum moisture just before apply-
ing Chlorides. This will cause the prod-
uct to be absorbed much more quickly
and evenly into the gravel.Never apply
the Chloride to dry gravel. It will not be
evenly absorbed and may show failure
in spots.

Test Sect ions

It is always wise to try a test section
of dust control/stabilization treatment
if this type of work has not been done
before. If there is uncertainty about the
suitability of the gravel being used or
if there is doubt about the equipment,
and/or other products being applied,
the process can be tried on a 500-1000
A water truck being used to prewet some very dry gravel just prior to treatment.This dramati-
foot road test section. If the process cally improves the success of the treatment.
fails at the test section level, then only
a small investment and time are lost.
Also you have less public complaint.

The outcome from the failed test

section will present an opportunity to
analyze what may have gone wrong.
Another test section can then be tried
with a modified process and/or mate-
rials. If field performance proves
satisfactory, the process can then be
applied to larger jobs.
56
Sect ion V: Innovat ions 57

Sect ion V:
Innovat ions

Changes in Gravel Maint enance

M any people feel that gravel
maintenance really hasn’t
changed much since the grader and
drag were invented. This is not true.
The use of our gravel roads has
changed dramatically in many ways.
In much of the Great Plains region of
the country, the amount of traffic has
actually declined as farms and ranches
get larger. Even though the volume of
traffic is less, the vehicles and equip-
ment are much larger. Larger trucks use
gravel roads everywhere in the country.
This has forced a change in the way
roads are maintained and some of
the processes used.
Example of very large trucks used
Changing Condit ions — today. These can often be found
on gravel roads. Today’s gravel
Equipment , Trucks, Cars roads are exposed to these
While trucks and equipment on gravel heavy loads and therefore a
more intensive maintenance
roads are larger, cars have become program is required.
smaller. It is important to be aware of
this in maintenance operations. For
Another change to consider. Smaller
example, when harvest begins, mainte- vehicles cannot cross large windrows
nance crews will often have to maintain of material on the roadway. A greater
gravel roads more frequently because effort has to be made to warn as well
of increased rutting and distress from as to control traffic on these gravel
roads while doing maintenance.
58 Innovat ive Equipment and Met hods

heavy loads. In contrast to this are Innovat ions are sometimes remarkably innovative
the smaller-sized vehicles such as mini- An ancient writer said,“ There’s nothing with simple ways to change a machine
vans that use gravel roads. It is critical new under the sun.” That’s true in a or a process. Evaluate what you see.
to consider this when pulling large sense. But one needs to look at differ- It may work for you, or perhaps you
windrows of material out into the ent ways of doing work, of making one can adapt it further. For example, new
roadway during major reshaping. Larger piece of equipment do more things, of products are becoming available that
cars of 25 years ago and more could trying different means of strengthening actually change the properties of soils.
pull through these windrows as long weak road base, etc. This section will Evaluate these products as they become
as they reduced their speed and drove show and discuss a few things, but available in your region.It may be
prudently. The same condition could always be alert for things that can worth trying on a short section of
send a smaller car out of control. make the maintenance better and/or road and then evaluating it for a
more efficient. Maintenance operators period of time.

Innovat ive Equipment and Met hods

Windrow Pulverizers
The need to reshape a gravel road
periodically to restore overall shape
and drainage has been stressed.
The need becomes even more urgent
under heavy traffic when the road
begins to rut and fail. But this often
means pulling vegetation onto the
road. This could come from cleaning
a ditch or simply eliminating a high
shoulder. Sometimes the material
has to be removed and loaders and
excavators may be needed. But some-
times the material is primarily recovered
A machine made in Canada pulverizes gravel windrows into usable material on the roadway.
gravel that can be used on the road.
How do you deal with the chunks of
sod that come with it? At least one
machine is on the market which is
designed to quickly pulverize this
material.

A machine fabricated specially by Hyde County in South Dakota to pulverize heavy windrows
of recovered gravel and grass from the shoulder. It quickly breaks down windrows for reuse
on the road.
Innovat ive Equipment and Met hods 59

New Cut t ing Edges

There have been several types of
carbide-tipped bits adapted for use
on the cutting edges of graders. For
example, these will help an operator
cut out a washboard area with less
time and effort than a conventional
cutting edge. They also do a better
job of mixing material as it is cut from
the road. They do not work for every
situation in maintenance but do some
special jobs very well.

Carbide-faced cutting edges are also

available. Although expensive, they are
extremely resistant to abrasive wear
and are a great help in reducing center
wear on the cutting edge.
Examples of different
types of replaceable bits
for cutting edges.

An example of a carbide-faced blade

after 650 hours of use. The center
sections had been exchanged with the
outer sections once during this time.
60 Innovat ive Equipment and Met hods

Shouldering Disks
Eliminating high shoulders that develop
along the edge of gravel roads is
always important. Special shouldering
disks have been developed for use on
motorgraders or tractors to make this
job easier.

The use of a shouldering disk helps mulch up

the sod and vegetation before it is pulled
onto the roadway either to be removed or
recycled on the road as reusable gravel.

Same machine mounted on a farm tractor to help break up material on shoulder.

Grader-mount ed Dozer Blade

Modern motorgraders are often equipped
with parallel lifts for front attachments.
This is particularly common in northern
regions for carrying snowplows. A grader
becomes even more versatile if a dozer
blade is attached for summer use. A
bonus is the small amount of added
weight that helps stabilize the machine
for routine blading.

This dozer blade is also equipped with carbide

bits which allows the operator to use it for
particularly hard cutting such as taking out
washboard areas on the road.The operator
then uses the grader’s moldboard with a
conventional cutting edge to shape the area.

The dozer attachment allows this operator to push a load of

rocks into a frost boil with the grader. Without this option, a
loader would likely have to be brought to the job.
Innovat ive Equipment and Met hods 61

Grader-mount ed Roller
In some rural regions of the country
where more space is available for
turning and maneuvering, a grader-
mounted roller may be feasible. It is an
efficient way to combine blading and
compaction operations when budgets
are tight and extra personnel are not
available. When adequate moisture is
present, the use of such a machine
will definitely produce a tighter and
smoother surface. These can be used
in routine maintenance operations
as well as in placing fresh gravel.
A grader-mounted roller
Rakes being used on a rural
The rake attachment is not new, but gravel road.This depart-
ment owns three of
some methods of using it certainly are.
these units.
Rakes are now available for pickup
trucks and skid steer loaders. They work
well for light maintenance — particu-
larly in quarry-type gravels. They also
work very well for lightly opening the
surface to help dry out roads during
the spring thaw when conventional
equipment such as the grader are too
heavy for the weak roads.

Ot her Tract or-mount ed

Blading Devices
Simple blades attached to tractors have
been used for a long time. But recent
changes improve the concept. The device
illustrated below prevents the material
from spilling from the sides of the blade
and allows the operator to carry enough
gravel along the way to fill small pot-
holes and depressions. Skillful use of
these will allow the performance of
many types of light maintenance,
especially in tight quarters. A simple front-mounted
rake attachment for a
pickup truck.The vehicle
can be used daily for
A rear-mounted blading device on a farm other work such as sign
tractor. The attachment can quickly be maintenance, either while
removed and the tractor can be used for using the rake or after the
other purposes such as mowing. These rake has been removed.
work well for tight quarters such as
alley maintenance in towns.
62 Summary

Summary

T he first and most basic thing to understand in road maintenance is proper shape of the
cross section. The road surface must have enough crown to drain water to the shoulder,
but not excessive crown, which makes the road hard to travel safely. Then, the shoulder
area must not be higher than the edge of the traveled portion of the road.A high shoulder
prevents water from draining to the ditch and therefore needs to be eliminated. Finally, a
ditch must be established and maintained to drain water away from the roadside. Culverts
and bridges at the right location and elevation are essential for carrying water under and
away from the road.

Once the correct shape is established on a roadway and drainage matters are taken care of,
attention must be given to obtaining and properly placing good gravel.It is very important
to understand the makeup of good gravel. Simply stated, it is a proper blend of stone, sand
and fine-sized particles. Materials vary greatly from region to region, but it is wise to use the
best material available. Gravel must also be handled properly. Avoiding segregation while
processing and handling material is important to maintain the quality of gravel.Calculating
the volume of material and allowing for shrinkage from compaction is also needed to get
the desired depth of surfacing on the road.

When proper shape is established and good surface gravel is placed, many gravel road main-
tenance problems simply go away and road users are provided the best service possible from
gravel roads.
References 63

Ref erences

1. Field Guide for Unpaved Rural Roads. Wyoming Technology Transfer Center, March, 1997.
2. “ Rural Road Condition Survey Guide,” SD95-16-G1,ERES Consultants, Inc., September, 1995.
3. “ Rural Road Design,Maintenance, and Rehabilitation Guide,” SD95-16-G2, ERESConsultants, Inc., September, 1995.
4. “ Rural Road Management Guide,” SD95-16-G3, ERESConsultants, Inc., September, 1995.
5. Blading Aggregate Surfaces. National Association of County Engineers, Training Guide Series, 1997.
6. “ Earth and Aggregate Surfacing Design Guide for Low Volume Roads,” USDA Forest Service, FHWA-FLP-96-001,
September, 1996.
7. “ Maintenance of Aggregate and Earth Roads,” Office of Implementation, Research, Development, and Technology,
FHWA-TS-90-035,June, 1987.
8. Gravel-Paser Manual, Pavement Surface Evaluation and Rating. Transportation Information Center, University of
Wisconsin-Madison, May, 1989.
9. Thickness Design for Soil-Cement Pavements. Engineering Bulletin, Portland Cement Association,1970.
10. “ The Deterioration and Reliability of Pavements,” USArmy Engineer Waterway Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.
Project 4A762719AT40, Task A2, Work Unit 011, Q6, July, 1978.
11. “ Geotextile Selection and Installation Manual for Rural Unpaved Roads,” Center for Local Government Technology,
Oklahoma State University, Report No. FHWA-RT-89-050,April, 1989.
12. Local Low Volume Roads and Streets. American Society of Civil Engineers, November, 1992.
13. “ Minnesota’s Design Guide for Low Volume Aggregate Surfaced Roads,” MN/RD-92/11, Minnesota Department
of Transportation, July, 1992.
14. “ Motor Grader Operator Maintenance of Granular Surfaced Roads,” Tips From Iowa Operators. Iowa State University,
Iowa Transportation Center, May, 1991.
15. Basics of a Good Road. Cornell Local Roads Program,Report #96-5, January, 1996.
16. Standard Specifications for Roads and Bridges. South Dakota Department of Transportation, 1998.
17. “ Unpaved Roads Maintenance Management (A Guide for Counties, Cities, and Towns in Indiana),” Publication
No. H-87-3, 1987.
18. Aggregate Inspection. Idaho Transportation Department Training and Development.
19. Motor Grader Operator Short Course Operator Handbook. Iowa Transportation Center, April,1992.
20. The Benefit of Testing Aggregates. South Dakota Local Transportation Assistance Program, Special Bulletin #33, June, 1999.
21. Motor Grader Operator Short Course Operator Handbook. Nebraska Technology Transfer Center, 1992.
22. Montana Association of County Road Supervisors Motor Grader Operator’s Handbook, Local Technical Assistance Program,
Third Edition, September, 1995.
64 References

23. Maintaining Gravel Roads Training Manual. Maine Local Roads Center, 1999.
24. Problems Associated with Gravel Roads. Federal Highway Administration, FHWA-SA-98-045, May, 1998.
25. Field Guide for Unpaved Rural Roads. Federal Highway Administration,FHWA-SA-97-107, March, 1997.
26. “ Classifying and Managing Low-Volume Roads,” Cornell Local Road Program, CLRD Report No. 96-6. March, 1996.
27. “ Roadway and Roadside Drainage,” Cornell Local Road Program, CLRP Report No. 98-5.August, 1998.
28. “ Effectiveness and Environmental Impact of Road Dust Suppressants,” Mountain Plains Consortium, MPC Report No. 94-28,
December, 1993.
29. “ Incremental Safety Improvements for Unpaved Rural Roads,” Mountain Plains Consortium, MPC Report No. 97-87,
November, 1997.
30. Metric Guide for Federal Construction. National Institute of Building Sciences, Second Printing, March, 1992.
31. Road Construction Materials – Workshop Notes. Cornell Local Roads Program,April, 1990.
32. “ H-Series Motor Graders Application Guide,” Publication #AEGQ 0945, Caterpillar, 1997.
33. Problems Associated with Gravel Roads. 55 Minutes. Video by Federal Highway Administration, 1997.
34. Sampling Aggregates. 26 Minutes. Video by Michigan Department of Transportation.
35. Blading Unpaved Roads. 22 Minutes. Video by FHWA/NACE.
36. Pavement Structures Repair Techniques. Only the 27 Minute Portion called “ Maintenance of Gravel Roads.”
Federal Highway Administration,August, 1989.
37. How to Get More out of Your Motorgrader. 38 Minutes. Video by Deere & Co.
38. Manual On Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Federal Highway Administration,1988 Edition.
39. AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Chapter 4 (II-69), 1993.
40. Pavement Analysis and Design. Yang H. Huang. Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632, 1993.
41. “ Deflection Criteria for Flexible Pavement and Design of Overlays,” N.W. Lister. Ann Arbor, MI, 1972.Proceedings,
Third International Conference on Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements.
Appendix A: Gravel Road Thickness Design Met hods A1

Appendix A:
Gravel Road Thi ck nessDesi gn Met hods

A lthough this manual was developed with emphasis on

the maintenance and operation of gravel roads, this
Appendix is provided to discuss some aspects of design.
A. Predict ed Fut ure Traffic (W18)
Any pavement must be designed to accommodate accumu-
lated traffic for several years into the future. Due to the
Once the design is understood by a local official, estimating
presence of mixed traffic on the road, i.e. passenger cars,
the amount of materials required to construct a section of
semi-trailers, busses, etc., accumulated traffic volume must
road can be accomplished with ease, as can budgeting and
be presented in terms of a standard Equivalent Single Axle
prioritization. This section is provided to offer a taste, for those
Load (ESAL).AASHTO defines ESAL as 18,000 lbs.; it is
who are interested, of how thickness design is determined.
denoted in the literature by the symbol (W18). Conversion
Theories of thickness design of unpaved roads can be rather factors are available to express axle loads other than 18,000
complicated and cumbersome, but this guide has selected lbs. in terms of ESAL and are presented in Appendix D of
some simple and user-friendly approaches to illustrate how AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. (39)
the thickness of a gravel mat can be determined.It is highly
recommended that local governments seek the services of B. Roadbed Soil Resilient Modulus (MR) in PSI
professional engineering consultants before a final decision All material exhibits some deformation (strain) when subjected
is made concerning thickness. to loads per unit area (stress).As long as the stress is less
than the strength,no failure is likely to occur. The relationship
Several factors are known to affect road surface performance
between the stress and strain can be expressed as resilient
during its life span.Some of these factors are: axle load,
modulus (MR). It is well known that most paving materials
which is referred to as the 18-kip equivalent single axle load
experience some permanent deformation after each load
(ESAL); cover aggregate characteristics; surface/subsurface
application. This might lead to rutting of asphalt pavements
drainage; freeze/thaw; subgrade properties; resilient modulus;
or cracking of concrete pavements. Therefore the value of
and moisture change, to name a few. The ESAL factor is con-
resilient modulus of different materials and supporting soils
sidered vital to gravel road thickness design and must be
is desired,as well as that of the pavement mixture itself. (40)
calculated. Private automobiles and light weight trucks do
not seem to have any influence in thickness determination.
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation C. Lengt h of Season
Officials (AASHTO) recommends the use of a maximum of One of the factors that affects pavement performance is
100,000 ESAL applications, while the practical minimum level length of season. Figure 1 shows how the United States is
(during a single performance period) is 10,000 ESAL (39). divided into six different climatic regions and the environ-
mental characteristics associated with each region. Based on
The following two approaches will illustrate the proper these different climatic characteristics, Table 2 is used to deter-
procedure for the determination of gravel thickness. The mine the season lengths for measuring the effective roadbed
first approach is based on theories and relies on charts and soil resilient modulus. Table 3 is used to find the roadbed soil
nomographs, while the second approach is based on design resilient modulus values for aggregate surfaced road (41).
catalogs.
D. Elastic Modulus of Aggregate Sub-Base
I. Design Chart Procedure Layer (ESB) and Aggregat e Base Layer (EBS)
To completely understand this method of design it is impe- in PSI
rative that the user be familiar with the following terms. For materials subjected to significant permanent deformation
Their values must be determined before the design procedure under loads, elastic modulus is a fundamental property that
is pursued. must be considered. Resilient modulus defines the material’s
A2 Design Chart Procedure

stress-strain behavior under normal pavement loading condi- between Pt and Po , (= DPSI) has a great influence in the
tions. Here the notation MR is used only for roadbed resilient design of aggregate surfaced road and therefore must be
modulus while other notations such as (EBS) and (ESB) are used determined as part of the design.(39)
for modulus of base and sub-base respectively (40).
F. Allowable Rut ting (RD) in Surface Layer
E. Design Serviceabilit y Loss (∆PSI) Rutting is bound to occur in aggregate surfaced road, and
Serviceability is the ability of a specific section of pavement to is considered as performance criteria. If the rut is too high,
serve traffic in its existing conditions. The present serviceability then it is very difficult to drive on the road surface due to
index (PSI) is the primary measure of serviceability. PSI ranges the creation of channels along wheel paths. This rutting
from 0 to 5 where 0 means the existing road condition is will ultimately lead the road into permanent deterioration.
impossible for driving, and 5 means the road is in perfect A certain amount of rutting, however, can be tolerated with-
condition for driving. The lowest serviceability motorists can out causing any hazards. The designer should decide upon
tolerate, before rehabilitation, resurfacing or reconstruction,is an allowable rut depth before applying the design procedures.
called terminal serviceability (Pt). Common values for terminal The typical value of allowable rut depth for designing an
serviceability index are Pt =2.5 or higher when used for the aggregate surfaced road falls between 1.00 and 2.00 inches.
design of major highways and Pt=2.0 when used for low (39)
volume roads. The minimum level of serviceability is mostly
dependent on people’s acceptance. There are some minimum G. Aggregat e Loss of Surface Layer
levels of Pt , which are obtained from AASHTO road tests, and It is inevitable that gravel roads will lose some of the surface
which are given below: aggregate due to several factors like the action of traffic
Terminal serviceability level (Pt ) 3.0 2.5 2.0 loads, erosion, precipitation,etc.As a result,the load carrying
capacity is reduced and the road becomes thinner;this leads
Percent of people stating unacceptable 12% 55% 85%
to surface deterioration. This aggregate loss must be accounted
For minor highways like aggregate surfaced roads where funds for during the design of the aggregate surfaced roads. It is
or economy is the main factor, the design is done by reducing important to estimate the total thickness that will be lost
the traffic or design life rather than reducing the terminal during the design period and the minimum thickness of
serviceability to a number lower than 2.00. In designing new aggregate which will keep a maintainable working surface
roads the terminal serviceability is set up based on original for the roads. (33)
or initial serviceability Po . It is observed that the difference

Region I Wet,no freeze

Region II Wet,freeze-thaw cycle
Region III Wet,hard-freeze, spring thaw
Region Dry, no freeze
Region V Dry, freeze-thaw cycling
Region VI Dry, hard freeze, spring thaw

Figure 10: The Six Climatic Regions in the United States. (39)
Design Chart Procedure A3

Table 2: Suggested Seasons Length (Months) for Six U.S.Climatic Regions. (39)
Season (Roadbed Soil Moisture Condition)
Winter Spring/Thaw Spring/Fall Summer
U.S.CLIMATIC REGION (Roadbed Frozen) (Roadbed Saturated) (Roadbed Wet) (Roadbed Dry)

I 0.01 0.0 7.5 4.5

II 1.0 0.5 7.0 3.5
III 2.5 1.5 4.0 4.0
IV 0.0 0.0 4.0 8.0
V 1.0 0.5 3.0 7.5
VI 3.0 1.5 3.0 4.5
1 Number of month for the season

Table 3: Suggested Seasonal Roadbed Soil Resilient Moduli, MR (psi), as a Function of the Relative Quality of the Roadbed Material. (39)
Season (Roadbed Soil Moisture Condition)
RELATIVE QUALITY OF Winter Spring/Thaw Spring/Fall Summer
ROADBED MATERIAL (Roadbed Frozen) (Roadbed Saturated) (Roadbed Wet) (Roadbed Dry)
1
Very Good 20,000 2,500 8,000 20,000
Good 20,000 2,000 6,000 10,000
Fair 20,000 2,000 4,500 6,500
Poor 20,000 1,500 3,300 4,900
Very Poor 20,000 1,500 2,500 4,000
1 Values shown are Resilient Modulus in psi

St eps in Thickness Design of Gravel Roads

According to the AASHTO design method, ten steps are St ep 3: Select seasonal resilient modulus for roadbed
followed to calculate the thickness of aggregate surfaced (MR) and elast ic modulus of aggregat e base mat erial
road. (39) The method is based on a trial-and-error approach. (EBS). Once the approximate seasonal roadbed resilient modu-
It assumes a thickness; then the expected damage due to lus (MR), from Table 3, and aggregate base resilient modulus
serviceability and rutting criterion is calculated. The thickness (EBS) are selected,they should be placed in columns 2 and 3
that yields a damage of 100% is the one selected as the of Table 4 respectively. These same numbers are used in each
design thickness. Details of the procedure are listed below: of the four or more trial sheets (Table 4).

St ep 1: Select t rial base t hickness. Normally four trial St ep 4: Det ermine project ed 18-kip. ESAL t raffic.
thicknesses are assumed (DBS) although additional trials might Seasonal 18-kip ESAL traffic is entered in column 4 of Table 4.
be needed. These thicknesses are recorded in the upper left- The length of the season, from Table 2, should be used to
hand corner of Table 4 (work sheet), which is used for this determine the proportion of the total projected traffic for
purpose. Several additional types of data are also recorded each season.
and used in subsequent calculations.
St ep 5: Det ermine allowable 18-kip EASL t raffic for
St ep 2: Select an allowable serviceabilit y loss (∆PSI), serviceabilit y crit eria. Within each of the four or more
and allowable rut t ing dept h (RD). These values need to tables, estimate the allowable 18-kip ESAL traffic for each of
be selected and recorded on the top of each of the four or the four seasons using the serviceability-based nomograph in
more trial Tables. Figure 11 and enter in column 5 of Table 4. For values falling
outside the nomograph assume a practical value of 500,000
18-kip ESAL.
A4 Design Chart Procedure

–
St ep 6: Det ermine allowable 18-kip EASL t raffic for St ep 8: Det ermine average base t hickness ( DBS).
rut t ing crit eria. Within each of the four tables, estimate Compute the total damage for both the serviceability and
the allowable 18-kip ESAL traffic for each of the four seasons rutting criteria by adding the seasonal damages. Once this is
using the rutting-based nomograph in Figure 12 and enter in accomplished for all four or more tables (corresponding to the
column 7. For values falling outside the nomograph assume four or more trial base thicknesses), a graph of total damage
a practical value of 500,000 18-kip ESAL. versus base layer thickness should be drawn. The average
base layer thickness, DBS, required is determined by interpol-
St ep 7: Det ermine seasonal damage (serviceabilit y ating in this graph for a total damage equal to 1.0. Figure 14
and rut t ing crit eria). Columns 6 and 8 carry values of provides an example, which will be explained later. Two values
seasonal damage under serviceability and rutting criterion of DBS can be found, one for serviceability criteria and the
–
respectively. Seasonal damage for the serviceability criteria is other for rutting criteria. The design DBS will be the greater
computed by dividing the projected seasonal traffic (column 4) of the two values.
by the allowable traffic in that season (column 5). Enter this
seasonal damage value in column 6 of Table 4. Follow the
same instructions for rutting criteria,i.e., divide column 4
by column 7 and enter in column 8.

Table 4: Chart for Computing Total Pavement Damage (for Both Serviceability and Rutting Criteria).Based on a Trial Aggregate
Base Thickness.(39)

TRIAL BASE THICKNESS, Serviceability Criteria Rutting Criteria

DBS = ______inches ∆PSI = RD ( Inches) =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 RUT
Season Roadbed Base Projected Allowable Seasonal Allowable 8
(Roadbed Resilient Elastic 18-kip ESAL 18-kip ESAL Damage, 18-kip ESAL Seasonal
Moisture Modulus Modulus Traffic, W18 Traffic W18/(W18) Traffic, Damage,
Condition) MR (psi) MR (psi) (W18)PSI PSI W18/(W18)
(W18)
Winter
(Frozen)

Spring/Thaw
(Saturated)

Spring/Fall
(Wet)

Summer
(Dry)

Total Traffic = Total Damage = Total Damage =

St ep 9: Correct average base aggregat e t hickness due St ep 10: Convert base t o equivalent sub-base
t o aggregat e loss. This step is important for aggregate sur- t hickness. This step helps to convert the aggregate base
face road. In this step, aggregate loss is calculated and deter- thickness to an equivalent thickness of sub-base. This step
mination of actual base thickness is accomplished by using the might be deemed necessary if base course material is very
following formula: expensive compared to that used in the sub-base. This is
–
DBS = DBS + 0.5 GL done with help of Figure 4.
Where GL = The total aggregate loss in inches.
DBS = Design Base Thickness in inches.
Obtained in step 8 above.
Design Chart Procedure A5

Figure 11: Design Chart for Aggregate-Surfaced Roads Considering Allowable Serviceability Loss. (39) From AASHTO Guide for
Design of Pavement Structures. Copyright 1993, by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington,
D.C. Used by permission.

Example: rate tables identical to Table 4 are completely filled. The

An aggregate surfaced road is to be designed using the follow- assumed trial thicknesses are 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 inches.
ing information:
18-kip ESAL repetitions (W18) = 35,000 St ep 2: Select an allowable serviceabilit y loss and
Gravel bed Resilient Modulus = Good allowable rut t ing dept h. Assume ∆PSI = 2psi and
Base Elastic Modulus (EBS) = 25,000 psi allowable rut depth RD = 2.0 inches.
Sub base Elastic Modulus (ESB) = 15,000 psi
Climatic region = VI St ep 3: Assume appropriat e seasonal resilient moduli
MR and base elast ic modulus EBS. The approximate sea-
sonal roadbed resilient modulus and aggregate base resilient
Solution: modulus EBS can be selected from Table 2 and Table 3.

St ep 1: Select t rial base t hickness. This method of thick- Season Winter Spring/Thaw Spring/Fall Summer
ness design is based on trial and error and therefore several MR (psi) 20,000 2,000 6,000 10,000
thickness trials are needed. Each trial will result in an answer
point that can be plotted with other points to form a curve of
total damage versus aggregate base thickness. Although the St ep 4: Det ermine project ed 18-kip ESAL t raffic.
more trials (and therefore the more points on the curve), the Total traffic = 35,000 (given). Using Table 1,W18 can be calcu-
better the curve fitting and therefore the more accurate the lated for each season.
design, about four trials will be considered adequate in most Item Winter Spring/Thaw Spring/Fall Summer
designs. In this example, five trial base thicknesses were need- W18 35,000 x (3/12) 35,000 x (1.5/12) 35,000 x (3/12) 35,000 x (4.5/12)
ed to determine the best probable solution. For this, five sepa- = 8,750 = 4,375 = 8,750 = 13,125
A6 Design Chart Procedure

Figure 12: Design Chart for Aggregate-Surfaced Roads Figure 13: Chart to Convert a Portion of the Aggregate Base
Considering Allowable Rutting. (39) From AASHTO Guide for Layer Thickness to an Equivalent Thickness of Sub-base. (39)
Design of Pavement Structures. Copyright 1993, by the American From AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. Copyright
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 1993, by the American Association of State Highway and Transpor-
Washington, D.C. Used by permission. tation Officials, Washington, D.C. Used by permission.

St ep 5: Det ermine allowable 18-kip EASL t raffic for seasonal traffic (column 4) by allowable traffic in that season
serviceabilit y crit eria. For each trial base thickness the (column 5). The corresponding damage for the serviceability
allowable W18 ESAL can be calculated from the serviceability criteria is then calculated as (Damage) = 8,750/400,000 =
base nomograph of Figure 11. For example, the 11-inch trial 0.022 and recorded in column 6 as shown in the table of
thickness yields the following allowable W18 for the above the 1st trial. The same procedure is applied for rutting criteria
stated criteria: W18 = 400,000 for Winter season, 10,000 for where the seasonal damages are calculated by dividing
Spring/Thaw season, 32,000 for Spring/Fall season, and 90,000 column 4 by column 7 and recorded in column 8 as:
for Summer season as shown in the table of the 2nd trial. [Damage = 8,750/80,000 = 0.109].
These values are recorded in column 5 of Table 4.
St ep 8: Det ermine average base t hickness. Once the
St ep 6: Det ermine allowable 18-kip EASL t raffic for total damages for both serviceability and rutting criteria are
rut t ing crit eria. For each trial base thickness the allowable completed for the four trial thicknesses, two curves are
W18 ESAL can be calculated from the rutting depth-base developed as shown in Figure 14. The first curve represents
nomograph of Figure 12. From the nomograph, W18 = 80,000 the relationship between serviceability failure and base thick-
for Winter season, 7,300 for Spring/Thaw season, 23,000 for ness (DBS) and the other curve represent rutting failure and
Spring/Fall season, and 38,000 for Summer season as shown base thickness. Average base thickness for each damage
in the table of the 1st trial. These values are recorded in criteria is determined by interpolating the corresponding
column 7 of Table 4. base thickness value for a total damage of 1.0. From Figure 5
–
these values are DBS= 12.9 inches for rutting criteria and
St ep 7: Det ermine seasonal damage (serviceabilit y –
DBS= 10.6 inches for serviceability criteria. In this example
and rut t ing crit eria). The seasonal values of damages are rutting governs, so the design base thickness should be
calculated for serviceability criteria by dividing the projected 13 inches.
Design Chart Procedure A7

First Trial

TRIAL BASE THICKNESS, Serviceability Criteria Rutting Criteria

DBS (inches) = 10.00 ∆PSI = 2.5 RD (Inches) = 2.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 RUT
Season Roadbed Base Projected Allowable Seasonal Allowable 8
(Roadbed Resilient Elastic 18-kip ESAL 18-kip ESAL Damage, 18-kip ESAL Seasonal
Moisture Modulus Modulus Traffic, W18 Traffic (W18) W18/(W18) Traffic, Damage,
Condition) MR (psi) MR (psi) PSI PSI (W18) W18/(W18)
Winter
(Frozen) 20,000 25,000 8,750 400,000 0.022 80,000 0.109
Spring/Thaw
(Saturated) 2,000 25,000 4,375 18,500 0.643 5,800 0.754
Spring/Fall
(Wet) 6,000 25,000 8,750 25,000 0.350 19,000 0.461
Summer
(Dry) 10,000 25,000 13,125 67,000 0.196 31,500 0.417

Total Traffic = 35,000 Total Damage = 1.211 Total Damage = 1.741

Second Trial

TRIAL BASE THICKNESS, Serviceability Criteria Rutting Criteria

DBS (inches) = 11.00 ∆PSI = 2.5 RD (Inches) = 2.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 RUT
Season Roadbed Base Projected Allowable Seasonal Allowable 8
(Roadbed Resilient Elastic 18-kip ESAL 18-kip ESAL Damage, 18-kip ESAL Seasonal
Moisture Modulus Modulus Traffic, W18 Traffic (W18) W18/(W18) Traffic, Damage,
Condition) MR (psi) MR (psi) PSI PSI (W18) W18/(W18)
Winter
(Frozen) 20,000 25,000 8,750 400,000 0.022 80,000 0.109
Spring/Thaw
(Saturated) 2,000 25,000 4,375 10,000 0.438 7,300 0.599
Spring/Fall
(Wet) 6,000 25,000 8,750 32,000 0.273 23,000 0.380
Summer
(Dry) 10,000 25,000 13,125 90,000 0.146 38,000 0.345

Total Traffic = 35,000 Total Damage = 0.879 Total Damage = 1.433

A8 Design Chart Procedure

Third Trial

TRIAL BASE THICKNESS, Serviceability Criteria Rutting Criteria

DBS (inches) = 12.00 ∆PSI = 2.5 RD (Inches) = 2.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 RUT
Season Roadbed Base Projected Allowable Seasonal Allowable 8
(Roadbed Resilient Elastic 18-kip ESAL 18-kip ESAL Damage, 18-kip ESAL Seasonal
Moisture Modulus Modulus Traffic, W18 Traffic (W18) W18/(W18) Traffic, Damage,
Condition) MR (psi) MR (psi) PSI PSI (W18) W18/(W18)
Winter
(Frozen) 20,000 25,000 8,750 400,000 0.022 100,000 0.088
Spring/Thaw
(Saturated) 2,000 25,000 4,375 14,000 0.313 8,500 0.515
Spring/Fall
(Wet) 6,000 25,000 8,750 40,000 0.219 29,000 0.302
Summer
(Dry) 10,000 25,000 13,125 110,000 0.119 48,000 0.273

Total Traffic = 35,000 Total Damage = 0.673 Total Damage = 1.178

Fourth Trial

TRIAL BASE THICKNESS, Serviceability Criteria Rutting Criteria

DBS (inches) = 13.00 ∆PSI = 2.5 RD (Inches) = 2.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 RUT
Season Roadbed Base Projected Allowable Seasonal Allowable 8
(Roadbed Resilient Elastic 18-kip ESAL 18-kip ESAL Damage, 18-kip ESAL Seasonal
Moisture Modulus Modulus Traffic, W18 Traffic (W18) W18/(W18) Traffic, Damage,
Condition) MR (psi) MR (psi) PSI PSI (W18) W18/(W18)
Winter
(Frozen) 20,000 25,000 8,750 400,000 0.022 140,000 0.063
Spring/Thaw
(Saturated) 2,000 25,000 4,375 18,500 0.236 11,000 0.398
Spring/Fall
(Wet) 6,000 25,000 8,750 54,000 0.162 32,000 0.273
Summer
(Dry) 10,000 25,000 13,125 130,000 0.101 50,000 0.263

Total Traffic = 35,000 Total Damage = 0.521 Total Damage = 0.997

Design Chart Procedure A9

Fifth Trial

TRIAL BASE THICKNESS, Serviceability Criteria Rutting Criteria

DBS (inches) = 14.00 ∆PSI = 2.5 RD (Inches) = 2.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 RUT
Season Roadbed Base Projected Allowable Seasonal Allowable 8
(Roadbed Resilient Elastic 18-kip ESAL 18-kip ESAL Damage, 18-kip ESAL Seasonal
Moisture Modulus Modulus Traffic, W18 Traffic (W18) W18/(W18) Traffic, Damage,
Condition) MR (psi) MR (psi) PSI PSI (W18) W18/(W18)
Winter
(Frozen) 20,000 25,000 8,750 400,000 0.022 170,000 0.051
Spring/Thaw
(Saturated) 2,000 25,000 4,375 22,000 0.199 12,000 0.365
Spring/Fall
(Wet) 6,000 25,000 8,750 66,000 0.133 40,000 0.219
Summer
(Dry) 10,000 25,000 13,125 170,000 0.077 68,000 0.193

Total Traffic = 35,000 Total Damage = 0.431 Total Damage = 0.828

St ep 10: Convert base t o equivalent sub-base t hick-

ness. Occasionally the designer can place an inferior sub-base
material under the good gravel layer. This will lead, most of the
time, to savings in material cost. Therefore placing a sub-base
can reduce the thickness of the more expensive gravel layer.
To accomplish that,part of the good gravel layer can be con-
verted to an equivalent thickness of sub-base layer. This is done
with the help of Figure 13.Assuming that only 6 inches of
good base material will be placed instead of the proposed 13.5
inches obtained by the complete analysis as shown in step 9
above. The reduction of base thickness = 13.5 - 6 = 7.5 inches.
This 7.5 inches of good gravel base needs to be converted to
an equivalent sub-base layer. This is accomplished by entering
Figure 13 with 6 inches of good base thickness and moving up
to the ESB curve of 15,000, then turning right. Connect with
the decrease in base thickness of 7.5 inches and extend to the
Figure 14: Total Damage versus Thickness for Serviceability TL line. Connect the point on the TL line with the EBS of 25,000
and Rutting Criteria.
and extend to the required sub-base thickness line. Therefore
sub-base thickness = 11 inches. This approach yields a gravel
thickness that consists of 6 inches of good base gravel and
St ep 9: Correct ion of average base aggregat e
11 inches of sub-base gravel.
t hickness for aggregat e loss. This step is important
for aggregate surface road; in this step aggregate loss is
If the quality of roadbed soil is not good enough,i.e. is of poor
calculated.Actual base thickness is then determined by using
quality, then the roadbed resilient modulus will be smaller.
the following formula:
Table 3 shows that if the quality of roadbed is lower, seasonal
DBS = DBS+ 0.5 GL;Where GL is allowable aggregate loss. roadbed modulus will also be less. This will lead the road
In this example, corrected thickness is: surface to accommodate less traffic. In that case the base
DBS= 13.0 + 0.5* 1 = 13.5 inches thickness will be greater. So it is very clear that before
designing aggregate surface roads, high quality roadbed
soil should be given serious considerations.
A10 II. Design Cat alogs

II. Design Cat alogs

When not enough detailed information is available, the design Level 18-kip ESAL Traffic Load
catalog approach is recommended to design aggregate surface High 60,000 - 100,000
roads. Table 5 presents a catalog of aggregate base layer Medium 30,000 - 60,000
thickness that may be used for the design of low-volume Low 10,000 - 30,000
roads. The thicknesses shown are based on specific ranges
of 18-kip ESAL applications at traffic levels (39):

Table 5: Aggregate Surfaced Road Design Catalog: Recommended Aggregate Base Thickness (in Inches) For Six U.S. Regions,
Five Relative Qualities of Roadbed Soil, and Three Traffic Levels. (39)

Relative Quality of U.S. Climatic Region

Roadbed Soil Traffic Level
I II III IV V VI
High 8* 10 15 7 9 15
Very Good Medium 6 8 11 5 7 11
Low 4 4 6 4 4 6
High 11 12 17 10 11 17
Good Medium 8 9 12 7 9 12
Low 4 5 7 4 5 7
High 13 14 17 12 13 17
Fair Medium 11 11 12 10 10 12
Low 6 6 7 5 5 7
High ** ** ** ** ** **
Poor Medium ** ** ** 15 15 **
Low 9 10 9 8 8 9
High ** ** ** ** ** **
Very Poor Medium ** ** ** ** ** **
Low 11 11 10 8 8 9

* Thickness of aggregate base required (in inches) ** Higher type pavement design recommended
The Sout h Dakot a Cat alog Design Met hod A11

The Sout h Dakot a Cat alog Design Met hod

A similar approach to the above procedure is suggested for

local and other agencies in the state of South Dakota to deter-
mine gravel layer thickness. The method is rather crude
because it only relies on two parameters, heavy trucks and
subgrade support condition. Table 6 represents suggested
thicknesses. (3)

Table 6: Suggested Gravel Layer Thickness for New Or Reconstructed Rural Roads.

Estimated Daily Number of Heavy Trucks Subgrade Support Condition 1 Suggested Minimum Gravel Layer
Thickness,mm (in.)
Low 165 (6.5)
0 to 5 Medium 140 (5.5)
High 115 (4.5)
Low 215 (8.5)
5 to 10 Medium 180 (7.0)
High 140 (5.5)
Low 290 (11.5)
10 to 25 Medium 230 (9.0)
High 180 (7.0)
Low 370 (14.5)
25 to 50 Medium 290 (11.5)
High 215 (8.5)

Notes: 1 LowSubgrade support: CBR ≤3 percent;

Medium Subgrade support: 3 < CBR ≤ 10 percent;
High Subgrade support: CBR >10 percent.
Appendix B: Gradat ion and P.I. Det erminat ion B1

Appendix B:
Gradat ion and P.I. Det erminat ion

4
2

3
5

Figure 15: Standard Analysis Sheet from the South Dakota Department of Transportation (16)
B2 Appendix B: Gradat ion and P.I. Det erminat ion

Key t o Screen Analysis and P.I. Worksheet

1. This is important data, especially for the sake of others who index of 3 to assure a small percentage of true clays for
may use the information in the future. Proper data when binder. Good base gravel needs no plasticity and ideally
submitting the sample for testing is critical. Too often, should be clean and drainable to retain strength for sup-
certain information is missing from the heading of the porting the pavement above it.
analysis worksheet.Always check to see that the infor-
mation is correct. 5. This section is not as important for base or surface materials,
but is critical in determining the quality of material for
2. This section, along with the next section, gives the break- making asphalt concrete since it shows the durability or
down of size (gradation) of the material. This alone tells “ soundness” of aggregate. However, in some regions where
a lot about material. Is it too coarse or fine, or is the blend aggregate is known to be poor, this test is good even for
of stone, sand, and fines wrong? Notice that the top section surface gravel.
of gradation shows all material retained on the #4 sieve
and larger. This is the stone-size category. 6. This final section is very important when testing material
for use in asphalt or base. However, it can be very useful
3. The bottom left section gives the gradation breakdown of even in testing base or surface gravel because it shows
sand sized particles on the appropriate sieves from #8 what percentage of the stone has at least one fractured
through #80 as well as the percentage of fines which will face. When crushing pit-run type gravels, many of the small,
pass the #100 or 200 sieves. natural stones will go through the crushing plant without
being fractured. Gravel has more strength when there are
4. This section is important in determining the stability or more crushed particles since they will interlock better with
strength that the material will have when used as a base the particles surrounding them. Natural stone with a
material and also the “ binding characteristic” that material rounded shape will tend to shift and move under loads
will have as surface gravel. The PI or plasticity index is of more easily.
particular importance. Surface gravel needs a minimum
Appendix C: Qualit y Calculat ions C1

Appendix C:
Quant it y Calculat ions
Gravel Coverage Chart Showing Depth of Gravel in Inches**
Width of Road in Feet

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
400 2.45 2.05 1.75 1.53 1.32 1.23 1.12 1.02
500 3.07 2.56 2.19 1.92 1.70 1.53 1.39 1.28

600 3.68 3.07 2.63 2.30 2.05 1.84 1.67 1.53

700 4.30 3.58 3.07 2.68 2.39 2.15 1.95 1.79

800 4.91 4.09 3.51 3.07 2.73 2.45 2.23 2.05

900 5.52 4.60 3.94 3.45 3.07 2.76 2.51 2.30

1000 6.14 5.12 4.39 3.84 3.41 3.07 2.79 2.56

1100 6.75 5.63 4.82 4.22 3.75 3.38 3.07 2.81

1200 7.36 6.14 5.26 4.60 4.09 3.68 3.35 3.07

1300 7.99 6.66 5.71 4.99 4.44 4.00 3.63 3.33

1400 8.61 7.17 6.15 5.38 4.78 4.30 3.91 3.59

1500 9.19 7.65 6.56 5.74 5.10 4.59 4.18 3.83

2000 12.29 10.24 8.79 7.68 6.83 6.14 5.59 5.12

2500 15.36 12.80 10.97 9.60 8.53 7.68 6.98 6.40

3000 18.37 15.31 13.12 11.48 10.21 9.19 8.35 7.65

3500 21.47 17.89 15.34 13.42 11.93 10.73 9.76 8.95

4000 24.41 20.34 17.44 15.26 13.56 12.21 11.10 10.20

4500 27.42 22.85 19.58 17.13 15.23 13.71 12.46 11.40

5000 30.72 25.60 21.95 19.20 17.07 15.36 13.97 12.80

**This chart shows gravel depth with no compaction. Ordinary compaction from traffic and rainfall will cause most gravels to shrink a minimum of 20 percent.

How t o Use This chart

1. On the Coverage Chart, find the width of the road you 2. Go to the Spreading Chart (next page). In the left hand
will be graveling. Read down the column to the desired column, find the number of cubic yards per mile that you
depth of gravel you wish to add. Then check the left hand need.At the top of the chart,find the capacity in cubic
column to determine how many cubic yards per mile yards of the trucks you will be using. Then use the chart
you need. to find out how many feet each truck load will cover.
C2 Appendix C: Quant it y Calculat ions

Gravel Spreading Chart in feet per truckload

Truck Capacity in Cubic Yards

5 6 6.5 7 10 12

400 66.0 79.2 85.8 92.4 132.0 158.4

500 52.8 63.4 68.6 73.9 105.6 126.8

600 44.0 52.8 57.2 61.6 88 105.6

700 37.7 45.3 49.0 52.8 75.4 90.6

800 33.0 39.6 42.9 46.2 66 79.2

900 29.3 35.2 38.1 41.0 58.6 70.4

1000 26.4 31.7 34.3 36.9 52.8 63.4

1100 24.0 28.8 31.2 33.6 48.0 57.6

1200 22.0 26.4 28.6 30.8 44.0 52.8

1300 20.3 24.4 26.4 28.4 40.6 48.8

1400 18.9 22.6 24.6 26.4 37.8 45.2

1500 17.6 21.1 22.9 24.6 35.2 42.2

2000 13.2 15.8 17.2 18.5 26.4 31.6

2500 10.6 12.7 13.8 14.8 21.2 25.4

3000 8.8 10.6 11.4 12.3 17.6 21.2

3500 7.5 9.1 9.8 10.6 15 18.2

4000 6.6 7.9 8.6 9.2 13.2 15.8

4500 5.9 7.0 7.7 8.2 11.8 14.0

5000 5.3 6.3 6.9 7.4 10.6 12.6

(This chart originally provided to the SD LTAP by Scott Construction of Lake Delton, WI.)
Appendix D:When t o Pave a Gravel Road D1

Appendix D:
When t o Pave a Gravel * Road
by Kent ucky Transport at ion Cent er, Universit y of Kent ucky at Lexingt on,KY

Cont ent s
■ A Word About the Term “ Paved”

■ Introduction

■ Gravel or Paved: A Matter of Trade-offs

■ When Should We Pave This Gravel Road? A Ten Part Answer

1. After Developing a Road Management Program
2. When the Local Agency Is Committed to Excellence
3. When Traffic Demands It
4. After Standards Have Been Adopted
5. After Considering Safety and Design
6. After the Base and Drainage Are Improved
7. After Determining the Costs of Road Preparation
8. After Comparing Pavement Life and Maintenance Costs
9. After Comparing User Costs
10. After Weighing Public Opinion

■ Stage Construction

■ Summary

■ References

* Gravel as used here may refer to sand and gravel,or to crushed stone.
D2 Appendix D:When t o Pave a Gravel Road

A Word About t he Term “ Paved”

What is meant by a “ paved” road? For some, a light chip seal A pavement less than two inches thick primarily protects the
coat is considered paving. For others, paving is four or more base materials by shedding water and providing a smooth
inches of bituminous asphalt or “ hot mix.” The primary pur- riding surface. Such a road is more properly called a surface-
pose of a pavement is to protect the subgrade. As the loads treated road. Roads with thin pavements must have excellent
get heavier, the pavement thickness must be increased. drainage designed into them and be diligently maintained
throughout their service life.
Generally speaking, bituminous concrete (hot mix asphalt) has
little real load-bearing capacity of its own until it reaches a In this paper we will consider even a light surface treatment
thickness of two inches. In fact, the Asphalt Institute has a firm as paving,however. The assumption is that,when a town first
policy of recommending a minimum pavement thickness of 4 applies a chip seal treatment,for example, it has taken a first
inches full depth asphalt or 3 inches asphaltic concrete plus a step toward eventually achieving a load-bearing pavement.
suitable granular base even for low volume roads. Their
research shows that 4 inches of hot mix will carry about 10
times as much traffic as 2 inches of hot mix when constructed
over thin granular bases.

Int roduct ion

Two-thirds of the highway systems in the United States As paving occurred, the tendency was to make minor modifi-
and more than 90 percent of all the roads in the world are cations to the foundations of the evolved road and to seal
unsurfaced or lightly surfaced low volume roads. In Kentucky, or pave the surface. As a result,many low volume roads in
more than 19,000 miles of local roads have gravel surfaces. Kentucky now have continual maintenance problems because
of inadequate base support in addition to alignment and
Most local roads were not designed with the same consider- drainage problems.
ations used in the design of state and interstate highways.
Most have evolved from primitive trails. Paths of least resis- To add to the problem, roads throughout Kentucky are
tance first created by wild animals were later used by settlers. experiencing ever-increasing weights and volumes of traffic.
As needs and traffic increased, these traveled ways became Population growth and tourism make traffic demands. Coal
roads which were gradually improved with gravel or crushed trucks and other commercial vehicles are carrying heavier
rock. Little engineering went into these improvements. Using loads than ever before. These higher volumes and greater
available materials and “ keeping them out of the mud” were weights are putting a steadily increasing strain on local
the extent of efforts to maintain a road. road maintenance and reconstruction budgets.

Gravel or Paved: A Mat t er of Trade-Offs

The decision to pave is a matter of trade-offs. Paving helps to more effectively. Gravel roads generate lower speeds than
seal the surface from rainfall, and thus protects the base and paved surfaces. Another advantage of the unpaved road is
subgrade material.It eliminates dust problems, has high user its forgiveness of external forces. For example, today vehicles
acceptance because of increased smoothness, and can accom- with gross weights of 100,000 pounds or more operate on
modate many types of vehicles such as tractor-trailers that do Kentucky’s local roads. Such vehicles would damage a lightly
not operate as effectively on unsurfaced roads. paved road so as to require resealing, or even reconstruction.
The damage on a gravel road would be much easier and less
In spite of the benefits of paved roads, well-maintained gravel expensive to correct.
roads are an effective alternative. In fact, some local agencies
are reverting to gravel roads. Gravel roads have the advantage There is nothing wrong with a good gravel road. Properly
of lower construction and sometimes lower maintenance costs. maintained, a gravel road can serve general traffic adequately
They may be easier to maintain, requiring less equipment and for many years.
possibly lower operator skill levels. Potholes can be patched
Appendix D:When t o Pave a Gravel Road D3

Should We Pave This Gravel Road? A Ten Part Answer

When a local government considers paving a road,it is usually We will consider ten answers to the question,“ Should we
with a view toward reducing road maintenance costs and pro- pave this gravel road?” In fact they are ten parts of one
viding a smooth riding surface. But is paving always the right answer. If one of the ten is not considered, the final decision
answer? After all, paving is expensive. How does a county or may not be complete. The ten answers taken together provide
city know it is making the most cost-effective decision? a framework for careful decision making.

Answer 1: Aft er Developing a Road Management Program

If the road being considered for paving does not fit into a Steps in a Road Management Program:
countywide road improvement program,it is quite possible 1. Inventory the roads. The amount of time available and
that funds will not be used to the fullest advantage. The goal the miles of road in a county or city will determine how
of a road management system is to improve all roads or streets much detail to go into.
by using good management practices. A particular
road is only one of many in the road system. 2. Assess the condition of the roads. Develop simple
and easy techniques to use each year. Maintain a contin-
A road management system is a common sense, step-by-step uing record of the assessed condition of each road so that
approach to scheduling and budgeting for road maintenance changes in condition can be noted easily and quickly.
work. It consists of surveying the mileage and condition of all
3. Select a road management plan. Select the most
roads in the system,establishing short-term and long-term
appropriate treatment to repair each road, bridge, or
maintenance goals and prioritizing road projects according
problem area.
to budget constraints.
4. Determine overall needs. Estimate the cost of each
A road management system helps the agency develop its repair job using generalized average costs and tally up
road budget and allows the use of dollars wisely because the total.Establish long-range goals and objectives that
its priorities and needs are clearly defined. in turn will help the agency justify its budget requests.
Through roadway management, local governments can 5. Establish priorities. Keep good roads in good shape
determine the most cost-effective, long-term treatments for (preventive maintenance) and establish a separate budget,
their roads, control their road maintenance costs, and spend or request a temporary increase, to reconstruct really
tax dollars more wisely. Local governments that stick with bad roads.
the program will be rewarded with roads that are easier and
less costly to maintain on a yearly basis. Pertinent information
about all roads will be readily available for years to come
instead of scattered among files or tucked away in an
employee’s head.

Answer 2: When t he Local Agency Is Commit t ed t o Effect ive Management

A commitment to effective management is an attitude. It is a materials and little craftsmanship. The other was planned, has
matter of making sure that taxpayers’ money is well spent— a foundation, sound walls and roof and, with care, can last
as if it were one’s own money. It does not mean paving streets hundreds of years. One is a shack and the other is a family
with gold but it does mean using the best materials available. dwelling. Only one was built with a commitment to excellence.
It does not mean taking short cuts resulting in a shoddy pro-
ject but it does mean using correct construction techniques Many roads are like the tree house. They qualify under the
and quality control.A commitment to effective management definition but they are not built to last.
means planning for 5 or even 10 years instead of putting a The horse and buggy days are over. We are in an age of travel-
band-aid on today’s problem. It means taking the time to do ers’ demands, increasing traffic, declining revenues and taxpay-
things right the first time and constructing projects to last. er revolts. We are expected to do more with less. Building
Consider a child’s tree house compared to a typical three- roads to last requires an attitude of excellence. Such an atti-
bedroom house in a Kentucky town. Because each protects tude helps to make better decisions, saves money in the long
people from the wind and rain each comes under the definition run, and results in a better overall road system.
of a shelter. However, the tree house was built with available
D4 Appendix D: When t o Pave a Gravel Road

Answer 3: When Traffic Demands It

The life of a road is affected by the number of vehicles and the standard passenger cars or will it be a connecting road with
weight of the vehicles using it.Generally speaking, the more considerable truck traffic? Overloaded trucks are most
vehicles using a road,the faster it will deteriorate. damaging to paved roads.

The average daily traffic volumes (ADT) used to justify paving The functional importance of the highway should also be
generally range from a low of 50 vehicles per day to 400 or considered.Generally speaking, if the road is a major road,
500.When traffic volumes reach this range, serious consider- it probably should be paved before residential or side roads
ation should be given to some kind of paving. are paved. On the other hand, a residential street may be
economically sealed or paved while a road with heavy
Traffic volumes alone are merely guides. Types of traffic should truck usage may best be surfaced with gravel and left
also be considered. Different types of traffic (and drivers) make unpaved until sufficient funds are available to place a thick
different demands on roads. Will the road be used primarily by load-bearing pavement on the road.

Answer 4: Aft er St andards Have Been Adopt ed

Written standards in the areas of design,construction and Maintenance standards address the need for planned periodic
maintenance define the level of service we hope to achieve. maintenance. A good maintenance plan protects local roads,
They are goals to aim for. Without written standards there is which for most counties represents many millions of dollars
no common understanding about what a local government is of investment. It also is an excellent aid when it comes time
striving for in road design, construction and maintenance. In to create a budget.
deciding to pave a gravel road, is the local government con-
fident it would be achieving the desired standards? Considerations include: How often shall new gravel be applied
to a gravel road? (Some roads require it more than others do.)
Design and construction standards do not have to be complex. How many times per year are roads to be graded? How often
It takes only a few pages to outline such things as right-of-way and in what locations should calcium chloride or other road
width, traveled way width, depth of base, drainage considera- stabilizers be applied? What is our plan for checking road
tions (such as specifying minimum 18” culvert pipe),types of signs? (Because of legal liability, a missing sign can be very
surfacing and the like. costly if not replaced.) What is our plan for ditching and
shouldering?

Answer 5: Aft er Considering Safet y and Design

Paving a road tempts drivers to drive faster. As speed increases, It may be necessary to remove trees or other obstructions such
the road must be straighter, wider, and as free as possible from as boulders from the road’s edge. Some engineers insist that
obstructions for it to be safe. Paving low volume roads before no road should be paved that is less than 22 feet wide. If this
correcting safety and design inadequacies encourages speeds standard is accepted, gravel roads must be widened before
which are unsafe, especially when the inadequacies “ surprise” paving. Bridges may need widening. Considering these and
the driver. Because of the vast mileage of low volume roads, other safety and design factors in the early stages of decision
it is difficult to reduce speeds by enforcement. making can help to achieve the most economical road and one
that will meet transportation needs. It makes no sense to pave
Roads must be designed to provide safe travel for the expected a gravel road which is poorly designed and hazardous.
volume at the design speed. To do this a number of physical
features must be considered:
• Sight Distance • Design Speed
• Alignment and Curves • Surface Friction
• Lane Width • Superelevation
Appendix D:When t o Pave a Gravel Road D5

Answer 6: Aft er t he Base and Drainage Are Improved

“ Build up the road base and improve drainage before paving.” important properties of a soil are its size grading, its plasticity,
This cardinal rule cannot be stressed enough. If the foundation and its optimum moisture content.
fails, the pavement fails. If water is not drained away from the
road, the pavement fails. Paving a road with poor base or with There is a substantial difference in the type of crushed stone or
inadequate drainage is a waste of money. It is far more impor- gravel used for a gravel road-riding surface versus that used as a
tant to ask,“ Does this road need strengthening and drainage base under a pavement. The gravel road surface needs to have
work?” than it is to ask,“ Should we pave this gravel road?” more fines plus some plasticity to bind it together, make it drain
quicker and create a hard riding surface. Such material is an infe-
Soil is the foundation of the road and, as such, it is the most rior base for pavement. If pavement is laid over such material, it
important part of the road structure. A basic knowledge of traps water in the base. The high fines and the plasticity of the
soil characteristics in the area is very helpful and can help material make the wet base soft. The result is premature pave-
avoid failures and unneeded expense. Soils vary throughout ment failure.
the country. For highway construction in general, the most

Answer 7: Aft er Det ermining t he Cost s of Road Preparat ion

The decision to pave a gravel road is ultimately an economic straightening a dangerous curve, improving slopes and elev-
one. Policy makers want to know when it becomes economical ations, constructing new guardrails, upgrading signs and
to pave. making other preparations – all must be estimated.
There are two categories of costs to consider:total road costs Costs will vary greatly from project to project depending on
and maintenance costs. topography, types of soils, availability of good crushed stone or
gravel, traffic demands and other factors. One important factor
Local government needs to determine what the costs are to is the standards. That is one reason why we should carefully
prepare a road for paving. Road preparation costs are the consider what is contained in the road policy (#4 above).
costs of construction before paving actually takes place. For larger projects it may be desirable to hire an engineering
For example, if standards call for a traveling surface of 22 feet consulting firm (another cost) to design the road and make
and shoulders of two feet for a paved road, the costs of new cost estimations. For smaller projects construction costs can
material must be calculated. Removing trees, brush or boul- be fairly closely calculated by adding the estimated costs of
ders, adding new culverts or other drainage improvements, materials, equipment and labor required to complete the job.

Answer 8: After Comparing Pavement Costs, Pavement Life and Maintenance Costs
A second financial consideration is to compare maintenance Since the maintenance options in “A” are common to both
costs of a paved road to maintenance costs of a gravel road. paved and gravel roads, they do not have to be considered
To make a realistic comparison we must estimate the years of when comparing maintenance costs. These costs for either
pavement life (how long the pavement will be of service before type of road should be about the same. But the costs of
it requires treatment or overlay) and the actual cost of paving. the maintenance options in “ B” and “ C” are different
It is at this point that we can begin to actually compare costs and therefore should be compared.
between the two types of roads.
Figure 16 shows costs for maintaining gravel roads over a
Consider the following maintenance options: six-year period in a hypothetical situation.If records of costs
A. For both paved and gravel roads, a local government must: are not readily available, you may use a “ best guess” allowing
maintain shoulders – keep ditches clean – clean culverts for annual inflation costs.
regularly – maintain roadsides (brush, grass, etc.) – replace
Three paving options are listed in Figure 17. Each includes
signs and signposts.
estimated costs for paving and an estimated pavement life.
B. PAVED roadways require: patching – resealing (chip, You should obtain up-to-date cost estimates and expected
slurry, crack seal) and striping. pavement life figures for these and other paving options by
C. GRAVEL roadways require: regraveling – grading and talking to your state department of transportation,contractors,
stabilization of soils or dust control. and neighboring towns and counties.
D6 Appendix D:When t o Pave a Gravel Road

YEAR 1 2 3 4 5 6 TOTALS
GRADING
Equipment 270 280 290 300 310 320 1,770
Labor 90 100 110 120 130 140 690
REGRAVEL
Materials – – 4,000 – – – 4,000
Equipment – – 2,500 – – – 2,500
Labor – – 2,300 – – – 2,300
STABILIZATION/DUST CONTROL
Materials 800 900 1,200 920 950 975 5,745
Equipment 30 35 70 40 50 60 285
Labor 100 110 150 125 140 150 775
Totals 1,290 1,425 10,620 1,505 1,580 1,645 $18,065

Figure 16: Gravel Road Maintenance Cost Per Mile

Let’s consider the cost of a double surface treatment operation When we compare this cost to the cost of maintaining an
and the projected cost of maintaining it before anything major average mile of gravel road over the same period of six years
has to be done to the pavement (end of pavement life). We see ($18,065), we find a difference in dollar costs of $6,768.It is
in Figure 17 that the estimated cost to double surface treat not cost beneficial to pave in this hypothetical example, even
one mile of road is $20,533. Estimated maintenance costs without considering the costs of road preparation (#7).
over a six-year period could be:
This is not a foolproof method, but it does give us a handle
Patching . . . $1,800 Total maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . $4,300 on relative maintenance costs in relation to paving costs and
Striping . . . . . . $500 Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $20,533 pavement life. The more accurate the information,the more
Sealing . . . . . $2,000 Total cost over six years . . . . . $24,833 accurate the comparisons will be. The same method can be
$4,300 used in helping to make the decision to turn paved roads
back to gravel.

Cost Cost/Mile Maintenance

Option Life Per Mile Per Year Calculations Per Mile/Year
Chip Seal-Double Surface Treatment 6 yrs. $20,533 $3,422 Based on price of $1.75 per sy; ?
20 ft. wide x 5,280 ft. = 105,600 sf
105,600 sf ÷ 9 = 11,733 sy 5
$1.75 = $20,533
Bituminous Concrete-Hot Mix 12 yrs. $58,080 $4,840 Based on estimated price of $30 ?
per ton; 1 sy of stone and hot mix/
cold mix 1" thick weighs about
110 lbs. Therefore 3" = 330 lbs.
per sy. 11,733 sy (1 mile of pavement)
5 330 lbs. = 3,871,890 lbs.
3,871,890 lbs. = 1936T ✕ $30 =
$58,080
Cold Mix 8 yrs. $48,390 $6,048 At $30 per ton, using same formula ?
as hot mix, 2 1 /2" of cold mix equals
1,613T ✕ $30 = $48,390
*These costs must be determined before any conclusions can be reached regarding the most cost-effective pavement method. The thinner the pavement, the
greater the maintenance cost. Traffic, weather conditions, proper preparation before paving and many other factors can affect maintenance costs. No Kentucky
data exists upon which to base estimates of maintenance costs on low volume roads of these paving options; and, therefore, we offer no conclusion as to the
“best” way to pave.

Figure 17: Paving Options (Costs and road life are estimates and may vary)
Appendix D:When t o Pave a Gravel Road D7

Answer 9: Aft er Comparing User Cost s

Not all road costs are reflected in a highway budget. There is a
1.7 2.4
significant difference in the cost to the user between driving on
a gravel surface and on a paved surface. User costs, therefore,
are appropriate to consider in the pave/not pave decision. By 1.6 2.2
including vehicle-operating costs with construction and mainte- 3-S2 Trucks
nance costs, a more comprehensive total cost can be derived.
1.5 2.0
Vehicles cost more to operate on gravel surfaces than on paved Single Unit Trucks
surfaces, often 2 or 3 times greater than for bituminous concrete
roads in the same locations. There is greater rolling resistance 1.4 1.6

and less traction which increase fuel consumption. The rough-

ness of the surface contributes to additional tire wear and influ- 1.3 1.5
ences maintenance and repair expenses. Dust causes extra
engine wear, oil consumption and maintenance costs. Figure 18
from AASHTO’S“A Manual on User Benefit Analysis of Highway 1.2
Passenger Cars
1.4
and Bus-Transit Improvements” shows the impacts of gravel sur-
faces on user costs. For example, an average running speed of
1.1 1.2
40 MPH on a gravel surface will increase the user costs of pas-
senger cars by 40% (1.4 conversion factor). The general public is 1.0 1.0
not aware that their costs would actually be less if some of 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
these roads were surface treated. Speed — mph
Sources:Winfrey (4),page 72 SA-3334-%

Add to the gravel road maintenance the user costs over a six- To use this chart, determine the type of vehicle, the speed
year period. Estimate an average daily traffic (ADT) of 100 cars and the type of road surface. Follow the speed line vertically
and 50 single unit trucks, traveling at 40 mph. Estimate that it to the vehicle type. Go horizontally to multiplier factor of
costs $.25 per mile to operate the vehicles on pavement. Using road surface. Multiply the cost of travelling on a paved sur-
face by this number to determine the cost of operating the
the chart in Figure 3, we see it costs 1.4 times as much (or $.35) same vehicle on gravel surface or dirt surface. Example: If it
to drive a car 40 mph one mile on gravel road and 1.43 times as costs 28¢ per mile to operate a passenger car* at 40 mph
much (or $.36) to drive a single unit (straight frame) truck 40 on pavement, it will cost 39¢ per mile to operate it on a
mph one mile on gravel road. gravel road at the same speed and 50¢ per mile on a dirt
road.
100 cars x 365 days x $.10 added cost x 1 mile = $3,650
*1984 Federal Highway Administration Statistics quotes an
50 trucks x 365 days x $.11 added cost x 1 mile = $2,008 operating cost of 28¢ per mile for an intermediate size pas-
User costs for the gravel road is $5,659 per year or $33,954 for senger car traveling on average suburban pavement. You
must determine your own vehicle operating costs on pave-
a six-year period.Assuming we still do not consider road prepa- ment in order to use these multiplicative factors to calculate
ration costs, it now appears justified to pave the road.Such an
approach can be used to establish a “ rule of thumb” ADT. For
Figure 18: Impacts of Gravel Surfaces on User Costs
example, some agencies give serious consideration to paving
roads with an ADT above 125.

Answer 10: Aft er Weighing Public Opinion

Public opinion as to whether to pave a road can be revealing, ignored, of course, but there is an obligation by government
but it should not be relied upon to the exclusion of any one of leaders to inform the public about other important factors
points 1-9 already discussed.If a decision to pave is not based before making the decision to pave.
on facts, it can be very costly. Public opinion should not be
D8 Appendix D:When t o Pave a Gravel Road

St age Const ruct ion

Local government may consider using “ stage construction 1. Weak spots that show up in the sub-grade or base can be
design” as an approach to improving roads. This is how it corrected before the hard surface is applied,eliminating
works. A design is prepared for the completed road,from base later expensive repair;
and drainage to completed paving. Rather than accomplishing 2. Risky late season paving is eliminated;
all the work in one season, the construction is spread out over 3. More mileage is improved sooner;
three to five years. Paving occurs only after the base and
drainage have been proven over approximately one year. 4. The cost of construction is spread over several years.
Crushed gravel treated with calcium chloride serves as the Note:Advantages may disappear if timely maintenance is not
wearing course for the interim period. Once all weak spots performed. Surface may deteriorate more rapidly because it is
have been repaired,the road can be shaped for paving. thinner than a designed pavement.
There are some advantages to keeping a road open to traffic
for one or more seasons before paving:

Summary
Some local roads are not well engineered. Today, larger vol- mistake. Counties and cities should consider these ten points
umes of heavy trucks and other vehicles are weakening them first. Carefully considering them will help to assure local
at a fast rate. Paving roads as a sole means of improving them government officials that they are making the right decision
without considering other factors is almost always a costly about paving a gravel road.
Appendix E: Walk-around Grader Inspect ion E1

Appendix E:
Walk-around Grader Inspect ion
A Good Operat or Takes
Care of t he Machinery
For maintenance and operator personnel safety, and maximum
service life of the machine, make a thorough walk-around
inspection when performing lubrication and maintenance work.
Inspect under and around the machine for such items as loose
or missing bolts, trash build-up, cut or gouged tires; damaged
hydraulic lines or hoses; oil, fuel, or coolant leaks; and condi-
tion of blade.

The grease gun is a very important maintenance tool.

In addition to routine machine maintenance, it is very important to

keep all warning devices clean and visible.
E2 Appendix E: Walk-around Grader Inspect ion

HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
Inspect for leaks and damage.

Front Wheel Spindle Bearing Housing

Inspect for leaks. Tires
Inspect for damage, excessive
wear,
Axles
Inspect for leaks.

Circle Drive Housing

Inspect for leaks.

Blade, End Bits, and Moldboard

Inspect for excessive wear or damage. Blade Circle Shoes
Inspect for wear and adjustment.

Ball and Sockets

Inspect for looseness and insert wear.

Operator’s Compartment
Inspect for damaged gauges and cleanliness.

Steps and Grab Irons

Inspect condition and cleanliness.

Hydraulic System
Measure oil level and inspect for leaks.
Pivot Area
Inspect for trash.

Air Cleaner Indicator

Observe Indicator.

Tandem Housing
Inspect for leaks.

Engine Precleaner
Inspect for dirt build-up. Engine Compartment
Inspect for leaks and trash build-up.
Check engine oil level.

Differentials and Transmission

Cooling System Inspect for leaks.
Inspect for leaks and debris build-up on and near radiator.
Check coolant level.

Figure 19: Walk-around Inspection Diagram (From Maintaining Gravel Roads Training Manual, 1999. Maine Department of Transportation,
Federal Highway Administration.)
Appendix E: Walk-around Grader Inspect ion E3

MOTOR GRADER PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE CHECK LIST

Vehicle #________ Date ________ PM Location ________ # Hours _______

OK REPAIR FOLLOW UP
150 HOUR SERVICE (90 DAYS)
Change Engine Oil & Filter _______ _______ _______
Check Air Filter Elements – replace if necessary _______ _______ _______
Check Exhaust System _______ _______ _______
Check Air Inlet System for Leaks _______ _______ _______
Check Wiring for Chafing, Loose Connections, etc. _______ _______ _______
Check Battery Electrolyte Level _______ _______ _______
Check Front End _______ _______ _______
Check and Tighten Wheel Studs _______ _______ ________
Check Drive Axle Oil _______ _______ _______
Check Oil Level in Tandem Drives _______ _______ _______
Check Parking Brake Adjustment _______ _______ _______
Check Oil Level in Circle Drive Gear Box _______ _______ _______

300 HOUR SERVICE

Change Fuel Filter _______ _______ _______
Change Hydraulic Filter & Clean Magnets _______ _______ _______
Change Transmission Filter _______ _______ _______
Visually Inspect Engine Mounts _______ _______ _______
Take Oil Sample _______ _______ _______
Check and Adjust Brake Pedal Linkage _______ _______ _______
Steam Clean Radiator _______ _______ _______

1000 HOUR SERVICE

Steam Clean Engine _______ ________ _______
Check and Adjust Engine Speeds _______ ________ _______
Check and Adjust Valve Clearance _______ ________ _______
Clean and Repack Front Wheel Bearings _______ _______ _______
Clean Hydraulic Tank Breather Filter _______ _______ _______
Check Pivot Pins and Bushings _______ _______ _______
Road Test Prior to Releasing to Using Agency _______ _______ _______

Performed by________________________________

Figure 20: Motor Grader Preventative Maintenance Check List (From Maintaining Gravel Roads Training Manual, 1999. Maine
Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration.)