Chapter 2REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This section includes literature concerning the topic that the

researchers deemedimportant and relevant. It encompasses some background on
Crassostrea iredalei
(oyster)shells and the process of ceramic tile making. Also, it includes local studies on tiles
madefrom locally available materials

According to studies, ninety seven and a half percent (97.5%) of the

chemicalcomponents of
Crassostrea iredalei
(oyster) shell are calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
) or limestone.
1
It is embedded between the layers of an organic substance known
a s conchiolin.
2
Calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
) is a compound used in brick making for its highcompressive strength and boiling point.
3
The presence of calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
) inthe shells indicates that it could be used as a source of calcium oxide (CaO),
which was shown to strengthen blocks and dental feelings.

Figure 2.1

Crassostrea iredalei
(oyster) shell

Table 2.1
Chemical Components of
Crassostrea iredalei
(Oyster) Shell
1
CaCO
3
(calculated from Ca) 97.5 %Boron 1400 ppm

Calcium 39.00 %Titanium 100 ppm

Silica as SiO
2
(calculated from Si) < 0.01 %Lead less than 15 ppm
Sodium 9200 ppmCopper 9ppm
Magnesium 1400 ppmLithium less than 10 ppm
Iron 430 ppmArsenic less than 2.50 ppm
Strontium 1400 ppmNickel 75 ppm

Manganese 430 ppmHeavy metals as Pb less than 20 ppm

Aluminum 3500 ppm

On a physical analysis done, calcium carbonate is found to have a dry brightnesso f 9 2 . 1 ,

moisture at 105°C of 0.084%, oil absorption of 18.9g oil per 100g of
o i l , specific surface area of 0.423m
2
/g, weight/solid per gallon of 23.1lbs, specific gravity of 2 . 7 1 , p H o f 9 . 8 , h e x a g o n a l
particle shape, and density of 1.1 g/cm
3
. Its general
u s e s i n c l u d e s s yn t h e t i c / c u l t u r e d m a r b l e , c e r a m i c f l o o r t i l e s , s t u c c o , c a u l k i
ng compound, building products, polishing compound, grouting and thin s
e t m o r t a r s , a b r a s i v e i n powdered cleansers, sealants, adhesives, putty, and glues,
paints (water-based), animalfeeds, insecticides, plastics, PVC pipes, carpet underlays and paper.

Other than being a good ingredient in strengthening tiles, researchers in

Florida,USA and Korea have developed and successfully tested a new process to
convert wasteoyster shells into a compound that cleanses water of phosphorus, a common
pollutant inurban, agricultural and industrial runoff. Heating the shells at very high
temperatures in anitrogen-rich atmosphere for about an hour efficiently converts their
contents into a formo f c a l c i u m o x i d e ( C a O ) . C r u s h e d - u p o y s t e r s h e l l f o r c e s
t h e p h o s p h o r u s t o l e a v e t h e solution, become small particles and precipitate
out, or fall to the bottom of the tank,where it can then be collected and discarded.
CaCO
3
(s)

CaO
(s)
+ CO
2
(g)
∆
H
rxn
= 178.1 kJ/mol

Figure 2.2
Decomposition of calcium carbonate (CaCO
3
) into calcium oxide (CaO)and carbon dioxide (CO
2
) at a very high temperature

Moreover, oyster shells are processed and made into oral calcium supplement tablets
because of its high calcium content. Studies shown that thirty nine percent (39%)of the chemical
components of oyster is calcium.
1, 6
Furthermore, oyster shells are crushed into fine particles to be used as an organicfertilizer.
Studies shown that finely crushed oyster shells raises pH in acidic soils. It alsohas other nutrients
and micronutrients, which keeps the natural balance of the soil.

Figure 2.3

Pulverized
Crassostrea iredalei
(oyster) shell

Ceramic tile production

Tiles are similar to bricks. They differ in uses, in shapes, and in finishing. While a brick is in
the form of a block, a tile is in the form of a sheet. Both are made from the s a m e
process and materials but the tile may go through glazing which can give
i t a smooth finish. Tiles are used for walls and flooring.
8
Figure 2.4 shows the schematicdiagram of ceramic tile production.

Ceramics
is defined as products made out of clay and other earth materials that c a n b e f o r m e d o r
m o l d e d i n t o v a r i o u s s h a p e s , t h e n d r i e d a n d f i r e d i n t o h a r d n e s s a t a given
temperature.
9
Ceramic tile is made of clay. After the formation of the tile body, itgoes through a firing process.
10
Basic ceramic raw materials include clay, feldspar and silica. Clay is an earth material that forms
a sticky mass when mixed with water. Whenwet, this mass is readily moldable, but when dried, it
becomes hard and brittle and retainsits shape. When heated to redness, it becomes still harder and is no
longer susceptible tothe action of water. Such a material clearly lends itself to the making of
articles of allshapes. Clays can be classified into kaolin/white clay and ball clay. Kaolin/white clay
isthe white-burning clay because of its low iron content. Because of its relative purity, it ismore
refractory than other clays. It is the base to whi ch other ingredients are added to develop the
desirable properties. Its strength varies almost directly with plasticity.
9
In achemical analysis, kaolin is found to contain 46.87% SiO
2
, 37.60% Al
2
O
3
, 0.27% Fe
2
O
3
,0.85% TiO
2
, 0.56% CaO, 0.09% Na
2
O, 0.10% K
2
O and 13.7% LOI.
11
Ball Clays areextremely plastic clays that fire nearly white though is often black in the raw state.
Theyusually contain slightly more impurities than kaolin, but are used to increase the plasticityand
workability of the body. In a chemical analysis, ball clay is found to contain 56.74%SiO
2
, 26.94% Al
2
O
3
, 1.53% Fe
2
O
3
, 1.26% TiO
2
, 0.25% CaO, 0.64% MgO, 3.42% K
2
O

0.41% Na
2
O and 8.81% LOI.
12
Feldspars are used as flux in ceramic bodies. When the body is fired, the feldspar melts
and forms a molten glass that causes the particles of clayto cling together. When this glass
solidifies, it provides strength and hardness to the body.It is also a good source of soda and
potash. Chemically, the feldspars are sili cates of aluminum, containing sodium,
potassium, iron, calcium, or barium or combinations of t h e s e e l e m e n t s . S i l i c a o r
s i l i c o n d i o x i d e i n t h e f o r m o f q u a r t z , i s u s e d i n n e a r l y a l l ceramic bodies for
three reasons: to reduce the drying shrinkage and thus help preventcracking of the
piece, to give firing qualities by reduction of the firing shrinkage and to a c t a s a
sort of skeleton to hold the shape of the piece in the kiln.
8
Silica, along withalumina (silica-alumina), forms a major part of the crystal lattice of clay
minerals. Thesedecompose on firing and form part of the microstructure of clay based
ceramics such asearthenware, stoneware and porcelain.
13
The proportion of clay (kaolin and ball clay), feldspar and silica sand is 40%:30%:30%.
14

Raw materials like clays, talc and other minerals of ceramic tile are quarries andrefined. Great
care is taken in the proper mixture of these materials, as one is critical tothe success, quality
and characteristics of the product produced. Once the raw materialsare quarries
prepared, and properly mixed, the tiles may now be formed. There are fewcommon
means of forming the tile. First is dust press, wherein an almost dry mixture of clays, talc, and
other ingredients are pressed into a mold at extremely high pressures.Second is
extrusion, wherein the ingredients are slightly wetter and are forced through anozzle to form
the desired tile shape. Third is slush mold or wet pour, wherein a muchwetter
mixture of ingredients is poured into a mold to form the desired shape. Fourth
isr a m p r e s s , w h i c h i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o d u s t p r e s s m e t h o d , e x c e p t t h a t t h e
s i z e o f t h e t i l e shapes are generally much larger.

10
Pressing is a kind of hand forming method in whichthe clay must be soft enough to
flow into the cavity of the mold while under
pressure.P r e s s e d w a r e i s c o m m o n l y h a n d l e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r p r e s s i n g a n d
m u s t b e s t r o n g enough to retain its shape

Slip casting method of forming the tile body includes the procedure in wheresodium
silicate is added to the clay mixture as a defloculant which is added to obtaingood
fluidity. Sodium silicate is added 0.3-0.6% of the total weight of the clay mixture onthe other
hand 30-45% of the total weight is water. The specific gravity of the mixtureshould
fall within the range of 1.6-1.8. The mesh sieve number of particles should fallfrom
60-80. Plaster of paris (CaSO
4
0.5H
2
O) is commonly used as a molder.

In general, there are essentially three basic production cycles to which

the entirerange of different types of ceramic floor and wall tile can be referred.
The first of
theset h r e e p r o d u c t i o n c y c l e s , b a s e d o n s i n g l e f i r i n g t e c h n o l o g y , i s u s e d t
o m a n u f a c t u r e unglazed tile. The types of unglazed tile produced with this
production technology arecotto, red stoneware, porcelain stoneware and clinker
(klinker). The second of these is based on double-firing technology, which obtains its name
from the fact that two distinctf i r i n g t r e a t m e n t s a r e e m p l o y e d , i . e . o n e t o
consolidate the tile body and the other
tos t a b i l i z e t h e g l a z e s a n d d e c o r a t i o n s a p p l i e d
o n t o t h e f i r e d t i l e b o d y . T h i s p r o d u c t i o n
c y c l e i s u s e d f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o
f t h e majolica, cottoforte, and earthenware (white body). The third of these cycles is
based onsingle-firing technology. The glazes and decorations are applied onto
the dried, but stillunfired, tile body. Then it is subjected to a single heat treatment single-
firing. During thisfiring, consolidation of the tile body and stabilization of the glazes takes place
at the same time. This production cycle is use for the manufacture of single-fired
whiteware andredware (monocottura and monoporosa) and glazed klinker.

Glazes constitute an important element of ceramics. It maybe defined as a glassyc o a t i n g

melted in place on a ceramic body which may render the body smooth,
n o n - porous and of desired color or texture. The primary function of glazes is to give
strengthand durability of products. Likewise, glaze protects ceramic wares
from contamination,f r o m t h e a c t i o n o f a c i d s a n d a l k a l i n e a n d
f r o m s c r a t c h i n g . T h e y a r e a l s o u s e d f o r decoration purposes. Lime or calcium
oxide (CaO) is an example of a glaze material. Itssources are pure calcium carbonate, whiting,
limestone, dolomite and anorthite. Lime is a principal flux in medium and high temperature
glazes but it is not very effective at lower temperatures. It contributes stability, hardness and
durability
In the preparation of glaze, the universal method is to mix the glaze ingredients withwater to
form a suspension or slip. Weighing of glaze batches should be done in scales
of g o o d c o n s t r u c t i o n . S e n s i t i v e a n d p r e c i s e t o t h e s m a l l e s t q u a n t i t i e s r e q u i
r e d . S m a l l quantity of glaze batch is prepared in mortar and pestle while in large
quantity, pebblemilling is introduced.
9
There are several ways of applying glaze slip on ceramic wares. One is dipping whichi n v o l v e s
having a small receptacle filled with glaze into which the ceramic piece
i s immersed into the glaze shaken vigorously to remove surplus of glaze. Another is pouringon
which a quantity of glaze is poured into a ceramic piece unt il the surface of ware
iscovered with it. Brushing in which the application is done with the use of soft brush,
evenstrokes are required to attain a good finish. Then, spraying in which the
application isdone with the use of air compressor and spray gun

Bisquet firing is a technique where the dried ware should be fired to strengthenthe
body's resistance to strain and stress. Firing of wares depends on the product
required.Porcelain, stoneware, and other wares to be glazed are fired at
temperature of 800-900d e g r e e s C e l s i u s ; f o r b r i c k s , r o o f t i l e s , a n d o t h e r
earthenware that do not need to beglazed, firing temperatures should
r e a c h a t l e a s t i t s s e m i - v i t r e o u s s t a t e a t a b o u t 9 0 0 degrees Celsius to 1200
degrees Celsius. Firing state should be normal and slow due towater smoking,
dehydration, and other chemical and physical reactions undergone by the body from a dried
state to its maturing state. Usually, firing is under an oxidizing flame.

Glost Firing is a technique where bisquet fired walls are glazed and then
fired.Temperature for glost firing depends on the glaze used. Temperature ranges
from 800-1050 degrees Celsius; for stoneware and porcelain, temperature ranges from 1150-
1380degree Celsius. Oxidizing and reducing atmospheres inside the kiln depend on the
glazeused, tone effect and product required. Usually, the glazed wares are first
fired in anoxidizing atmosphere up to 1100 degrees Celsius, the wares are fired in reducing
flame;lastly, the firing becomes slightly reducing or neutral. This step is called reducing
firing.There are bodies which could be glaze on its green or dried state, then fired. This is
calledmonofiring..