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CHAPTER FOUR

SOIL COMPACTION
4.1. THEORY OF COMPACTION

Compaction of a soil is the pressing of the soil close to each other by mechanical means. During compaction air is expelled from
the void spaces. Thus compaction results in an increase in the density of the soil. Compaction improves the engineering properties
of soils. It increases the shear strength of the soil & consequently the bearing capacity. It also reduces the compressibility &
permeability of soil.

The difference b/n compaction & consolidation is as follows even though both cause reduction in volume.

a) Compaction is a rapid process by which a reduction in volume takes place by mechanical means where as consolidation is
a gradual process of volume reduction by static and uniform load.
b) Compaction is the reduction in volume of a partially saturated soil mass which takes place as a result of expulsion of air
from the voids at the same water content where as consolidation is the reduction in volume of a saturated soil mass as a
result of expulsion of water from the soil.

c) Compaction is done artificially to increase the engineering properties of the soils where as consolidation takes naturally
when soils are subjected to static loads.

To determine the amount of compaction required in the field and the water content required, it is necessary to perform compaction
tests in the laboratory on the same soil sample. From these tests the relationships b/n dry and water content can be plotted.

4.2. COMPACTION IN THE LAB.

Standard Proctor Test

In standard proctor test a mould of internal diameter of 100 mm and height of 127.30 mm is used. The capacity of the mould is 1000ml. The mould
has a detachable base plate & a removable collar. The soil in the mould is compacted in three layers by giving 25 blows of the rammer, which falls
through a height of 310 mm and a face diameter of 50 mm to each equal layer. The rammer has a mass of 2 kgs and collar height is 60 mm.

COMPACTION
TEST

Objective

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To obtain the moisture content – dry density relationship for a soil and hence to determine the optimum moisture content and
maximum dry density.

Introduction

Soil compaction can be a very economical method of soil improvement, and it is often used to make ground suitable for the
foundations of roads and buildings. It is also used in the placing of soil fills and in the construction of earth dams to ensure suitable
soil properties. The compaction is normally achieved through the input of energy into the soil by impact, kneading, vibration or
static means.

The extent of compaction depends on the moisture content of the soil and the compactive effort used. In a compaction test the
object is to determine the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density achievable with a given compactive effort. A plot of
dry density versus moisture content (Figure 1) indicates that compaction becomes more efficient up to a certain moisture content,
after which the efficiency decreases. The maximum dry density is obtained at this optimum moisture content.

If the compaction process were completely efficient, it would be possible (but not necessarily desirable) to expel all the air from the
voids, in which case the dry density would correspond to a zero-air voids state (ie. the sample would be saturated with water).
Since perfect compaction is not possible (except at high moisture contents and low dry density) the compaction curve will always
fall below the ideal or zero-air voids curve (Figure 1).

It should be noted that there are a number of standards for compaction tests, each differing in the amount of energy input into
compaction. For a given soil the different tests will produce different maximum dry densities and optimum moisture contents (ie.
these parameters are NOT soil properties). The maximum dry density and optimum moisture content are only relevant for a
specified compaction procedure which should be stated when presenting the results.

In earthworks it is common to specify a dry density within a certain percentage of the maximum determined from a specified
compaction test. For this to be a sensible procedure it is important that the compactive effort used in the laboratory is comparable to
that supplied by the field equipment.

Procedure

About 2.5 kg of the soil is provided that it will pass through a No. 4 sieve. The soil sample should be mixed with water and placed
in the standard mould provided in 3 approximately equal layers. Each layer is to be compacted with 25 blows from a special
compaction hammer. When the mould is full the weight of soil should be measured and then two moisture content samples should
be taken for drying in the oven. The volume of the mould is approximately 944 cm 3 (1/30 ft3) and should be checked by
measurements of cylinder height and diameter. The remaining soil should be removed from the mould, broken down until it will
again pass a No. 4 sieve (determine visually), remixed with more water added, and then re-compacted into the mould.

The compaction test should be repeated five times with the assumed moisture content used in calculations to ensure that the dry
density versus moisture content plot has points on both sides of the optimum moisture content. This assumed dry density and
moisture content plot that must be produced during the session, will later be replaced in the report by a plot with the calculations
based upon the average of the moisture contents measured with the sample tins.

The two groups performing the experiment will use different compaction hammer weights. To complete the report you will need to
use the dry density versus moisture content data for both hammer weights.

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Zero-air-voids
Max.dry line (100%
density saturation)

Dry
density

Optimum m/c

Moisture Content

Fig.1

Compaction Test Procedure

1. Weigh the empty mould (with the base but without the collar)

2. Break soil lumps and sieve the soil through a No. 4 sieve

3. Add the required amount of water to the soil

4. Form a 50 to 75 mm layer of soil in the mould, and gently press the soil to smooth its surface

5. Compact the soil with 25 evenly distributed full height blows of the hammer.

6. Repeat the procedure with a second and third layer. After the compaction of the third layer, the surface of the soil must be
slightly above the top rim of the mould.

7. Remove the collar and trim off the soil above the top of the mould.

8. Weigh the mould and the sample

9. Remove the soil from the mould and obtain representative samples for moisture content determinations.

10. Break the removed soil from the mould, remix with the original sample, and raise its water content by 2 – 3%.

11. Keep repeating the compaction process until 5 runs have been made.

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Calculations

t
1. The dry unit weight γd can be computed from d 
1 m
where γt = wet unit weight of the soil
W (g)  9.81
=
V (cm 3 ) (kN/m3)

W = mass of the wet compacted soil sample

V = volume of soil

m = moisture content of the compacted soil

Ww W  Ws
m= =
Ws Ws
Ws = mass of the dry soil sample
Ww = mass of water
Gγ w
2. To plot the zero air void curve γd 
1  (mG/S)

where G = specific gravity of the soil (assume G =2.70)

γw = unit weight of water 9.81 kN/m3 (or density 1.0 g/cm3)

S = degree of saturation

For zero-air-voids or 100% saturation, S = 1.

3. To calculate the amount of water to be added to the soil assume the initial moisture content is 1.5%, and the mass of the
soil is 2500g. Then

2500  Ws
1.5% 
Ws

which may be solved for the mass of dry soil W s which we take to remain constant. Recalling that the assumed initial weight of
water in the soil Ww = 0.015 Ws and that Ws is constant, if the first required water content is 10%, the extra mass of water required
Ww can be calculated
Ww
10% - 1.5%   0.085
Ws
Subsequent water to be added to change the moisture content by 3% can be found from
Ww
3%   0.03
Ws

MOISTURE CONTENT

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Determination No. 1 2 3 4 5
Container No.

Container & Wet soil (g)

Container & Dry soil (g)
Container
(g)
Water Ww
(g)
Dry soil Ws
(g)
Moisture content (%)

DRY DENSITY

Determination No. 1 2 3 4 5
Mass mould & Compacted
soil (g)
Mass mould
(g)
Mass
Compacted soil (g)
Wet density
ρt (g/cm3) or (t/m3)
Dry Density
ρd (g/cm3) or (t/m3)

To complete the laboratory session each student must show the demonstrator:

 A completed compaction curve. This will require the use of the nominal moisture contents.
 On the plot with the compaction curve show the no-air-voids (NAV) line
 A comment on the significance of any point plotting above the NAV line
 The maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content

Report Format

Your report should include the following:

1. A description of the soil.

2. A sample of the calculations used to determine dry density and moisture content.

3. A plot showing the variations of dry density with moisture content for both hammer weights (draw both sets of data on the
same graph).

4. On the same plot draw the zero-air voids line for this soil.

5. The optimum moisture contents and maximum dry densities.

6. A comment on the effects of increasing compactive effort observed in the experiment.

7. Discussion of the benefits of increasing compactive effort in engineering practice. Are there any disadvantages?

8. Calculate the degree of saturation of the soil at the optimum moisture content.

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2.75
Modified
Standard
2.50 Zero air voids
Dry density (t/m
)
3

2.25

2.00

1.75

1.50
0 5 10 15 20 25
Moisture content (%)

Compaction curve

A compaction curve is a curve obtained from the compaction test results. It is a curve obtained by plotting the water content as
abscissa versus the corresponding dry density as ordinate for each test.
It was observed that the dry density initially increases with an increase in moisture content till the d (max) is attained. But with
further increase in water content, the Sd decreases. The water content that corresponds to the d (max) is known as optimum
moisture content (OMC)
When the water content is lower than the optimum, the soil will be stiff & has much void spaces resulting in low dry density. Also at
a water content higher than the optimum, the water occupies more space that is occupied by solid particles and results in reduction
of dry density.

Any compaction methods cannot remove all the air voids.

Thus the soil will never become fully saturated.

G.w G.w
d   d 
1 e 1  ( wG / s )

The theoretical maximum density, which is obtained at 100 % saturation, can be determined for any value of w & known G. The
hidden line in the figure below indicated the theoretical maximum dry density.

The compaction in the field should be approximately similar to the compaction in the laboratory test. The water content at which the
soil is compacted in the field is controlled by the value of optimum moisture content determined in the laboratory. The O, M, C.
obtained in laboratory is used as control criterion for compaction in the field. The amount of compaction in the field should be
approximately equal to that in the laboratory.

Factors Affecting Compaction:

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The increase in dry density of the soil achieved as a result of compaction depends upon the following factors.

A) Water content: At a water content lower than O. M. C, the soil is stiff and is not workable offering resistance to
compaction. As the water content increases, the particles become lubricated and are easier to expel air from the voids.
Thus the dry density increases till the optimum amount of water is applied. With further increase in moisture content the
water starts to occupy more pore spaces and results in an increase of the total voids (air and water). This results in an
increase in the total volume of the soil. Hence this in turn will bring about reduction in the dry density of soil.

B) Amount of Compaction:-At a moisture content less than the optimum, increasing the compactive effort brings about an
increase in the dry density. But at a water content more than the optimum, the volume of air voids is almost constant &
thus increasing the compactive effort has no effect on the dry density. Even at a moisture content less than the optimum,
the dry density will not go on increasing with an increase in compactive effort. With an increase in compaction the
increase in dry becomes smaller and smaller and finally no change in dry will be observed with an increase in
compactive effort.
C) Type of Soil: -Generally coals grained soils can be compacted to a higher dry density then fine gained soils for the some
compaction effort. When some fines are added to the coarse
grained soils to file the voids, the maximum dry density further increases, But it the amount of fines is too
much, more than required to fill the voids, it results in reduction of dry density, well graded soils can attain
higher dry density then poxes graded soils. High plasticity cays attain much less dry density than low
plasticity clays for the some completive effort.

Fig. Compaction curves for different soils.

(D) Method of compaction  the increase in dry density for a given compaction effort depends also on method of compaction i-e
whether the method of compaction utilizes kneading action static action or dynamic.

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Relative compaction

this is the ratio of the dry density achieved in the field to the maximum dry density obtained from the standard proctor test.

i e relative compaction = dry in the field * 100

pdry (max) in laboratory
- About 95% relative compaction can be attained by sheep toot refers or pneumatic tyred rollers.
- For cohesion less soils, relative compaction of about 100 % can be achieved using pneumatic typed rollers & vibratory
rollers.

Control of Compaction

During compaction in the field, it is necessary to check the dry density and the water content in order to get proper results.
Compaction can be controlled by measuring the dry density and the water content of the compacted soil. The sample of the
compacted soil should be taken and the dry density is determined. For the same sample the water content is also determined. If the
water content is less than the optimum moisture content (OMC) some more water is added and compacted again. When OMC is
attained and a dry density nearly maximum dry density is obtained, the compaction is satisfactory.

Example: - The in-situ density of a soil is to be determined by the proctor method. The volume of the mould is 1000 ml. Its weight
when empty is 1864 gm and when filled with the soil is 3646 gm. The soil has G = 2.67, S = 58 % & the in-situ void ratio is found
to be 0.85, determine
a) The in-situ dry density of the soil
b) The theoretical dry density of the soil for zero air voids.

4.3. In-Situ Soil Compaction Techniques:

There are a no of methods for compacting soils in the field. The type of compaction method depends on the soil type, the d
required and economic consideration of the method.

1. Tampers: - May be hand- operated or operated by compressed air gasoline power. The hand operated tamper (rammer)
consists of an iron or stone block of 3 to 5 kg in mass attached to a wooden rod. The soils is compacted by lifting and
dropping the rammer. Mechanical rammer operated by compressed air of power is heavier having of mass of 30 to 150
kgs.
2. Rollers: - different types of rollers are used for soil compaction.

A. Smooth –Wheel Rollers: - May consist of either two drums (wheels) or three. The mass varies from 2000 to
15000 kgs. Suitable for compacting fills for finishing operations or for compaction of granular base courses of highways.
They are not effective for compaction of deep layers of soils as the compacting pressure produced is low.
B. Pnumatic – Tyred Rollers: - These are rollers that use compressed air for the inflation pressure required. The
pneumatic types are fixed on two axles and the types are spaled such that complete coverage is obtained in each pass. The
mass varies b/n 5000kgs to 200,000kgs. Used for both cohesive and cohesion less soils.
C. Sheep foot rollers: - consists of a hollow drum with a number of small projections (feet) on the surface. These
feet penetrate the soil during rolling and cause compaction. These are suited for compaction of cohesive soils. The depth
of soil that can be compacted depends on the length of the projections & weight of the drum. The depth is generally 15.30
cm.
D. Vibratory compactors: In these compactors vibrations are induced during compaction. When the vibrator is
mounted to a drum it is called a vibratory roller. Vibratory rollers can compact deep layers up to 1m thickness for coarse-
grained soils.
Hand operated vibrating plates are also used. These plates can compact only small depths.

Vibratory compactors compact granular soils to a very high maximum dry density.

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