8 Lighting Design Principles

1. Focus your effort on rooms used most. Improving the lighting in these rooms will make a lot of
difference.

2. Replace existing fixtures. Most homes have incandescent fixtures. Replace them with dedicated,
hard-wired fluorescents. If you use screw-ins, they may be switched back to incandescents when the
bulb burns out, losing the efficiency benefits. Hard-wired fixtures may have better aesthetics and light
quality, too.

3. Layer lighting for maximum impact. To produce dramatic effects, design ambient, task and accent
lighting. Ambient lighting provides general room illumination and may reduce the need for additional
portable lighting. Task lighting helps homeowners see better where they need it - under-cabinet lighting
in the kitchen to help in preparing meals, for example. Accent lighting adds sparkle by focusing on an
architectural detail such as a fireplace or on photos or artwork.

4. Consider the room's function and form. No matter where you start, consider which activities are
most important for the room. Perhaps the easiest place to begin is the kitchen. As stated above, under-
cabinet lighting provides task lighting. When there is space above kitchen cabinets, between cabinet
and ceiling, it's easy to mount inexpensive strip lights to provide excellent, glare-free light for the entire
room. A recessed downlight over a kitchen island will accent the island, help the homeowner see better
when performing kitchen tasks and provide ambient light.

For the family room, use a combination of ambient, track and portable lighting. Use a reduced level of
ambient light in the home office to avoid glare on computer screens. In the bathroom, both appearance
and safety are important. At the vanity, light from either side of the mirror, as well as the top, to avoid
shadows.

5. Use concealed light sources. Homeowners will notice the illuminated floors, walls and ceiling of the
room instead of the light bulbs. Concealed light sources help eliminate direct glare from lamps.

6. Use fluorescents. According to DOE research, fluorescents use 25 percent to 35 percent of the
energy used by incandescents to give the same light output and last up to 10,000 hours, compared
with 1,000 for the typical incandescent bulb. Using a mix of fluorescents and incandescents is likely to
be less efficient than using all fluorescents.

Most people associate fluorescents with the harsh, bluish lighting typically found in garages. For a
nice, crisp light - quality as good as incandescents-choose fluorescents with a color temperature of
3,000 degree Kelvin, with a color rendering index (CRI) of 80 or greater.

Also, choose electronic ballasts for both linear fluorescents and CFLs. Electronic ballasts provide a
better quality light and are more energy efficient. They don't hum, last longer and eliminate the turn-on
delay typically associated with fluorescent lighting.

7. Limit the number of different light sources. For linear fluorescents, only use two different ones
(3 foot and 4 foot), and for CFLs, only use three: 15, 26 and 32 watts. This makes it easier for
homeowners to replace the lamps.

8. Consider controls. Controls such as photo sensors, occupancy sensors, dimmers and remote
controls may help to reduce energy by ensuring that lights are only used when needed.

Ten Rules of Lighting

1. For now, screw-based CFLs are the best bulb choice for residential
lighting. Bulbs with an Energy Star label are likely to last longer than cheaper unlabeled
bulbs.
If LED lamps continue to drop in price and improve in quality, they are (eventually) likely
to replace CFLs in many locations. If you care about energy efficiency, use linear
fluorescent tubes (especially T-5 or T-8 lamps) in locations where they make sense, like
kitchens. Don’t install any incandescent lamps.
Here is some information on lamp efficiency:
 Indancescent bulbs produce about 14 to 17 lumens per watt.
 Low-cost LEDs produce about 15 to 25 lumens per watt.
 High-quality LEDs produce about 40 to 70 lumens per watt.
 CFLs produce about 48 to 60 lumens per watt.
 T-5 and T-8 linear fluorescent tubes produce about 98 to 105 lumens per watt.

2. It’s better to illuminate the ceiling than the floor. The U.S. is cursed by a plague of
senseless recessed can fixtures. If you walk under a recessed can, it will cast strange shadows
on your face. Why do people like these ridiculous fixtures?

3. Most homes need more task lighting. Almost every room needs at least one, and often
several, task-lighting fixtures. Providing more lighting options usually saves energy. In an
office, the most important light fixture is the task light over the desk. An adjustable desk lamp
is fine; if you prefer a pendant, bring it low, close to the work surface. Remember: the closer
the lamp to the work surface, the fewer lumens you need.

4. Every section of kitchen countertop needs task lighting. Such lighting can be provided
by undercabinet lighting attached to the wall cabinets or by small pendant fixtures. Install
them lower than you think. As long as the pendants don’t interrupt views through windows or
across your kitchen, install them at eye level.

5. Task lighting fixtures should be controlled by separate switches rather than a

single switch that energizes several fixtures at once. All-or-nothing switches that control
several lamps at once are infuriating. To save energy, it's important to be able to control your
lamps individually.
Resist the temptation to locate all of a room's switches in one location. Four switches all in a
row are confusing. It's better to scatter the switches around the room; most switches should
be located near the fixture that the switch controls.

LIGHT QUANTITY
Illumination
The distribution of light on a horizontal surface. The purpose of all lighting is to produce
illumination.
Lumen
A measurement of light emitted by a lamp. As reference, a 100-watt incandescent lamp
emits about 1600 lumens.
Footcandle
A measurement of the intensity of illumination. A footcandle is the illumination produced
by one lumen distributed over a 1-square-foot area. For most home and office work, 30–
50 footcandles of illumination is sufficient. For detailed work, 200 footcandles of
illumination or more allows more accuracy and less eyestrain. For simply finding one's way
around at night, 5–20 footcandles may be sufficient.
ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Efficacy
The ratio of light produced to energy consumed. It's measured as the number of lumens
produced divided by the rate of electricity consumption (lumens per watt).

LIGHT QUALITY
Color temperature

The color of the light source. By convention, yellow-red colors (like the flames of a fire)
are considered warm, and blue-green colors (like light from an overcast sky) are
considered cool. Color temperature is measured in Kelvin (K) temperature. Confusingly,
higher Kelvin temperatures (3600–5500 K) are what we consider cool and lower color
temperatures (2700–3000 K) are considered warm. Cool light is preferred for visual tasks
because it produces higher contrast than warm light. Warm light is preferred for living
spaces because it is more flattering to skin tones and clothing. A color temperature of
2700–3600 K is generally recommended for most indoor general and task lighting
applications.

Color rendition

How colors appear when illuminated by a light source. Color rendition is generally
considered to be a more important lighting quality than color temperature. Most objects
are not a single color, but a combination of many colors. Light sources that are deficient
in certain colors may change the apparent color of an object. The Color Rendition Index
(CRI) is a 1–100 scale that measures a light source's ability to render colors the same way
sunlight does. The top value of the CRI scale (100) is based on illumination by a 100-watt
incandescent lightbulb. A light source with a CRI of 80 or higher is considered acceptable
for most indoor residential applications.

Glare
The excessive brightness from a direct light source that makes it difficult to see what one
wishes to see. A bright object in front of a dark background usually will cause glare. Bright
lights reflecting off a television or computer screen or even a printed page produces glare.
Intense light sources -- such as bright incandescent lamps -- are likely to produce more
direct glare than large fluorescent lamps. However, glare is primarily the result of relative
placement of light sources and the objects being viewed.
Lighting Uses
Ambient lighting
Provides general illumination indoors for daily activities, and outdoors for safety and
security.
Task lighting
Facilitates particular tasks that require more light than is needed for general illumination,
such as under-counter kitchen lights, table lamps, or bathroom mirror lights.
Accent lighting
Draws attention to special features or enhances the aesthetic qualities of an indoor or
outdoor environment.

What you should know before investing in your lighting choices.

Lighting plays a key role in interior design and is a major part of any electrical wiring project.
Good lighting design has an elusive quality. When you walk into an effectively lighted room, your eyes
sense that everything is readily visible, but you’ll rarely remark, “What fantastic lighting!” Home lighting
should be varied and dramatic. Fixtures should be connected to dimmer switches that can create
different effects. The lighting should be flexible enough to illuminate many activities as well as be a
focus of interest in itself.

An essential ingredient in lighting design is simple common sense. The best lighting designer is
a problem-solver, determining where light is wanted and needed, and then putting it there with economy
and flair. You can take the same approach using three main types of lighting: task lighting, accent
lighting, and ambient or general lighting.

Task lighting illuminates a specific area where a highly visual activity like reading, sewing, or
food preparation takes place. It’s often achieved with individual fixtures that direct light onto a work
surface. Accent lighting is similar to task lighting in that it consists largely of directional light. Primarily
decorative, accent lighting is used to focus attention on artwork to highlight architectural features, and
to set a mood. Ambient or general lighting fills in the undefined areas of a room with a soft level of light–
enough to watch television by or navigate safely through a room. Ambient lighting usually comes from
indirect fixtures that provide a diffused spread of illumination.

The first step toward improving your lighting involves careful consideration of the design and
layout of your rooms and the types of activities that take place in each one. If you’re planning new
lighting, you may want to draw a basic room plan that will help you determine where to place your
fixtures and where you’ll want new outlets or wall switches.
Once you have some ideas in mind you may want to contact a lighting consultant, either for
advice of for a complete plan depending on your project and your budget. Architects and interior
designers may also do lighting as a specialty. All types of consultants usually belong to the Illuminating
Engineering Society. Light fixture stores and electrical supply houses dealing in lighting fixtures may
have in-house consultants also.

There are general lighting criteria that should be employed when designing lighting systems.
For example, general lighting in living and sleeping areas should be equal to one watt of incandescent
light for each square foot of space. Therefore, if a bedroom measures ten by twelve feet, or 120 square
feet, it should contain general lighting of about 120 watts.

The “one watt per foot” rule should be doubled for a kitchen or workshop where there is more
to see and the potential for injury is greater.
Energy efficient compact fluorescent and LED bulbs require less wattage than conventional
incandescent lighting. The per-foot minimum drops to about one-third watt for living areas and three-
quarter watt for kitchens.

Reflector light bulbs are also energy savers. A 50 watt “R” bulb is as bright as bright as a 100 watt
“A” bulb. “A” is the code for a standard incandescent light bulb. We mention incandescent lighting as an
alternative, but the trend is to completely replace this style of lighting with more efficient choices such
as LED.

The real rage in lighting has been with accent lighting. This consists primarily or recessed fixtures
and surface mount track lighting. Both types offer countless possibilities with the various styles and trim
accessories that are available.

Recess and track lighting can illuminate an area, wash a wall or throw a defined beam of light to
a piece of art across a room. They can be used stand-alone or in combination with other types of
lighting, however, they should be installed at a distance of twelve to twenty-four inches from the wall
they will be lighting.
Of the three types of lighting, task lighting is one of the least used, yet one of the most
important. One common location for task lighting is within a range hood just above a cook top.
Unfortunately, that’s where it stops in many homes.

Safety conscious folks are finding that task lighting installed at the underside of upper cabinets
in the kitchen, for example, can make working conditions increasingly easier, safer and
eliminate eye strain.

Although task lighting is use most often in the kitchen, it can also be found in the laundry room,
bathroom, craft area and workshop. The most popular style of task lights are thin, narrow rectangular
fixtures that have their own switch. While fluorescent task lighting has been the standard for many years,
LED task lighting is growing more popular.
CONTENTS

 ILLUMINATION
 LIGHT SOURCES
 BALLASTS
 LUMINAIRES
 SELECTED REFERENCES
 GLOSSARY

A basic understanding of lighting fundamentals is essential for specifiers and decision-

makers who are evaluating lighting upgrades. This document provides a brief overview of
design parameters, technologies, and terminology used in the lighting industry. For more
detailed information about specific energy-efficient lighting technologies, refer to the
Lighting Upgrade Technologies document.
ILLUMINATION

 Quantity of Illumination
 Quality of Illumination

Quantity of Illumination

Light Output

The most common measure of light output (or luminous flux) is the lumen. Light sources are
labeled with an output rating in lumens. For example, a T12 40-watt fluorescent lamp may
have a rating of 3050 lumens. Similarly, a light fixture's output can be expressed in lumens.
As lamps and fixtures age and become dirty, their lumen output decreases (i.e., lumen
depreciation occurs). Most lamp ratings are based on initial lumens (i.e., when the lamp is
new).

Light Level

Light intensity measured on a plane at a specific location is called illuminance. Illuminance

is measured in footcandles, which are workplane lumens per square foot. You can measure
illuminance using a light meter located on the work surface where tasks are performed. Using
simple arithmetic and manufacturers' photometric data, you can predict illuminance for a
defined space. (Lux is the metric unit for illuminance, measured in lumens per square meter.
To convert footcandles to lux, multiply footcandles by 10.76.)

Brightness

Another measurement of light is luminance, sometimes called brightness. This measures

light "leaving" a surface in a particular direction, and considers the illuminance on the surface
and the reflectance of the surface.

The human eye does not see illuminance; it sees luminance. Therefore, the amount of light
delivered into the space and the reflectance of the surfaces in the space affects your ability to
see.

Refer to the GLOSSARY at the end of this document for more detailed definitions.

Quantity Measures

 Luminous flux is commonly called light output and is measured in lumens (lm).
 Illuminance is called light level and is measured in footcandles (fc).
 Luminance is referred to as brightness and is measured in footlamberts (fL) or
candelas/m2 (cd/m2).

Determining Target Light Levels

The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America has developed a procedure for
determining the appropriate average light level for a particular space. This procedure ( used
extensively by designers and engineers ( recommends a target light level by considering the
following:

 the task(s) being performed (contrast, size, etc.)

 the ages of the occupants
 the importance of speed and accuracy

Then, the appropriate type and quantity of lamps and light fixtures may be selected based on
the following:

 fixture efficiency
 lamp lumen output
 the reflectance of surrounding surfaces
 the effects of light losses from lamp lumen depreciation and dirt accumulation
 room size and shape
 availability of natural light (daylight)

When designing a new or upgraded lighting system, one must be careful to avoid overlighting
a space. In the past, spaces were designed for as much as 200 footcandles in places where 50
footcandles may not only be adequate, but superior. This was partly due to the misconception
that the more light in a space, the higher the quality. Not only does overlighting waste energy,
but it can also reduce lighting quality. Refer to Exhibit 2 for light levels recommended by the
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. Within a listed range of illuminance,
three factors dictate the proper level: age of the occupant(s), speed and accuracy
requirements, and background contrast.

For example, to light a space that uses computers, the overhead light fixtures should provide
up to 30 fc of ambient lighting. The task lights should provide the additional footcandles
needed to achieve a total illuminance of up to 50 fc for reading and writing. For illuminance
recommendations for specific visual tasks, refer to the IES Lighting Handbook, 1993, or to
the IES Recommended Practice No. 24 (for VDT lighting).

Quality Measures

 Visual comfort probability (VCP) indicates the percent of people who are comfortable
with the glare from a fixture.
 Spacing criteria (SC) refers to the maximum recommended distance between fixtures
to ensure uniformity.
 Color rendering index (CRI) indicates the color appearance of an object under a source
as compared to a reference source.

Quality of Illumination

Improvements in lighting quality can yield high dividends for US businesses. Gains in worker
productivity may result by providing corrected light levels with reduced glare. Although the
cost of energy for lighting is substantial, it is small compared with the cost of labor.
Therefore, these gains in productivity may be even more valuable than the energy savings
associated with new lighting technologies. In retail spaces, attractive and comfortable
lighting designs can attract clientele and enhance sales.

Three quality issues are addressed in this section.

  glare
 uniformity of illuminance
 color rendition

Glare

Perhaps the most important factor with respect to lighting quality is glare. Glare is a sensation
caused by luminances in the visual field that are too bright. Discomfort, annoyance, or
reduced productivity can result.

A bright object alone does not necessarily cause glare, but a bright object in front of a dark
background, however, usually will cause glare. Contrast is the relationship between the
luminance of an object and its background. Although the visual task generally becomes easier
with increased contrast, too much contrast causes glare and makes the visual task much more
difficult.

You can reduce glare or luminance ratios by not exceeding suggested light levels and by
using lighting equipment designed to reduce glare. A louver or lens is commonly used to
block direct viewing of a light source. Indirect lighting, or uplighting, can create a low glare
environment by uniformly lighting the ceiling. Also, proper fixture placement can
reduce reflected glare on work surfaces or computer screens. Standard data now provided
with luminaire specifications include tables of its visual comfort probability (VCP) ratings
for various room geometries. The VCP index provides an indication of the percentage of
people in a given space that would find the glare from a fixture to be acceptable. A minimum
VCP of 70 is recommended for commercial interiors, while luminaires with VCPs exceeding
80 are recommended in computer areas.

Uniformity of Illuminance on Tasks

The uniformity of illuminance is a quality issue that addresses how evenly light spreads over
a task area. Although a room's average illuminance may be appropriate, two factors may
compromise uniformity.

 improper fixture placement based on the luminaire's spacing criteria (ratio of maxim
recommended fixture spacing distance to mounting height above task height)
 fixtures that are retrofit with reflectors that narrow the light distribution

Non-uniform illuminance causes several problems:

 inadequate light levels in some areas

 visual discomfort when tasks require frequent shifting of view from underlit to overlit
areas
 bright spots and patches of light on floors and walls that cause distraction and generate
a low quality appearance
Color Rendition

The ability to see colors properly is another aspect of lighting quality. Light sources vary in
their ability to accurately reflect the true colors of people and objects. The color rendering
index (CRI) scale is used to compare the effect of a light source on the color appearance of
its surroundings.

A scale of 0 to 100 defines the CRI. A higher CRI means better color rendering, or less color
shift. CRIs in the range of 75-100 are considered excellent, while 65-75 are good. The range
of 55-65 is fair, and 0-55 is poor. Under higher CRI sources, surface colors appear brighter,
improving the aesthetics of the space. Sometimes, higher CRI sources create the illusion of
higher illuminance levels.

The CRI values for selected light sources are tabulated with other lamp data in Exhibit 3.

LIGHT SOURCES

 Characteristics of Light Sources

 Incandescent Lamps
 Fluorescent Lamps
 High-Intensity Discharge Lamps

Commercial, industrial, and retail facilities use several different light sources. Each lamp
type has particular advantages; selecting the appropriate source depends on installation
requirements, life-cycle cost, color qualities, dimming capability, and the effect wanted.
Three types of lamps are commonly used:

 incandescent
 fluorescent
 high intensity discharge
 mercury vapor
 metal halide
 high pressure sodium
 low pressure sodium

Before describing each of these lamp types, the following sections describe characteristics
that are common to all of them.

Characteristics of Light Sources

Electric light sources have three characteristics: efficiency, color temperature, and color
rendering index (CRI). Exhibit 4 summarizes these characteristics.

Efficiency

Some lamp types are more efficient in converting energy into visible light than others. The
efficacy of a lamp refers to the number of lumens leaving the lamp compared to the number
of watts required by the lamp (and ballast). It is expressed in lumens per watt. Sources with
higher efficacy require less electrical energy to light a space.
Color Temperature

Another characteristic of a light source is the color temperature. This is a measurement of

"warmth" or "coolness" provided by the lamp. People usually prefer a warmer source in
lower illuminance areas, such as dining areas and living rooms, and a cooler source in
higher illuminance areas, such as grocery stores.

Color temperature refers to the color of a blackbody radiator at a given absolute

temperature, expressed in Kelvins. A blackbody radiator changes color as its temperature
increases ( first to red, then to orange, yellow, and finally bluish white at the highest
temperature. A "warm" color light source actually has a lower color temperature. For
example, a cool-white fluorescent lamp appears bluish in color with a color temperature of
around 4100 K. A warmer fluorescent lamp appears more yellowish with a color
temperature around 3000 K. Refer to Exhibit 5 for color temperatures of various light
sources.

Color Rendering Index

The CRI is a relative scale (ranging from 0 - 100). indicating how perceived colors match
actual colors. It measures the degree that perceived colors of objects, illuminated by a given
light source, conform to the colors of those same objects when they are lighted by a
reference standard light source. The higher the color rendering index, the less color shift or
distortion occurs.

The CRI number does not indicate which colors will shift or by how much; it is rather an
indication of the average shift of eight standard colors. Two different light sources may
have identical CRI values, but colors may appear quite different under these two sources.

Incandescent Lamps

Standard Incandescent Lamp

Incandescent lamps are one of the oldest electric lighting technologies available. With
efficacies ranging from 6 to 24 lumens per watt, incandescent lamps are the least energy-
efficient electric light source and have a relatively short life (750-2500 hours).

Light is produced by passing a current through a tungsten filament, causing it to become

hot and glow. With use, the tungsten slowly evaporates, eventually causing the filament to
break.

These lamps are available in many shapes and finishes. The two most common types of
shapes are the common "A-type" lamp and the reflector-shaped lamps.

Tungsten-Halogen Lamps

The tungsten halogen lamp is another type of incandescent lamp. In a halogen lamp, a small
quartz capsule contains the filament and a halogen gas. The small capsule size allows the
filament to operate at a higher temperature, which produces light at a higher efficacy than
standard incandescents. The halogen gas combines with the evaporated tungsten,
redepositing it on the filament. This process extends the life of the filament and keeps the
bulb wall from blackening and reducing light output.

Because the filament is relatively small, this source is often used where a highly focused
beam is desired. Compact halogen lamps are popular in retail applications for display and
accent lighting. In addition, tungsten-halogen lamps generally produce a whiter light than
other incandescent lamps, are more efficient, last longer, and have improved lamp lumen
depreciation.

Incandescent A-Lamp

More efficient halogen lamps are available. These sources use an infrared coating on the
quartz bulb or an advanced reflector design to redirect infrared light back to the filament.
The filament then glows hotter and the efficiency of the source is increased.

Fluorescent Lamps

Fluorescent lamps are the most commonly used commercial light source in North America.
In fact, fluorescent lamps illuminate 71% of the commercial space in the United States.
Their popularity can be attributed to their relatively high efficacy, diffuse light distribution
characteristics, and long operating life.

 Fluorescent lamp construction consists of a glass tube with the following features:
 filled with an argon or argon-krypton gas and a small amount of mercury
 coated on the inside with phosphors
 equipped with an electrode at both ends

Fluorescent lamps provide light by the following process:

 An electric discharge (current) is maintained between the electrodes through the

mercury vapor and inert gas.
 This current excites the mercury atoms, causing them to emit non-visible ultraviolet
(UV) radiation.
 This UV radiation is converted into visible light by the phosphors lining the tube.

Discharge lamps (such as fluorescent) require a ballast to provide correct starting voltage
and to regulate the operating current after the lamp has started.

Full-Size Fluorescent Lamps

Full-size fluorescent lamps are available in several shapes, including straight, U-shaped,
and circular configurations. Lamp diameters range from 1" to 2.5". The most common lamp
type is the four-foot (F40), 1.5" diameter (T12) straight fluorescent lamp. More efficient
fluorescent lamps are now available in smaller diameters, including the T10 (1.25 ") and T8
(1").

Fluorescent lamps are available in color temperatures ranging from warm (2700(K)
"incandescent-like" colors to very cool (6500(K) "daylight" colors. "Cool white" (4100(K)
is the most common fluorescent lamp color. Neutral white (3500(K) is becoming popular
for office and retail use.

Improvements in the phosphor coating of fluorescent lamps have improved color rendering
and made some fluorescent lamps acceptable in many applications previously dominated by
incandescent lamps.

Performance Considerations

The performance of any luminaire system depends on how well its components work
together. With fluorescent lamp-ballast systems, light output, input watts, and efficacy are
sensitive to changes in the ambient temperature. When the ambient temperature around the
lamp is significantly above or below 25C (77F), the performance of the system can change.
Exhibit 6 shows this relationship for two common lamp-ballast systems: the F40T12 lamp
with a magnetic ballast and the F32T8 lamp with an electronic ballast.

As you can see, the optimum operating temperature for the F32T8 lamp-ballast system is
higher than for the F40T12 system. Thus, when the ambient temperature is greater than
25C (77F), the performance of the F32T8 system may be higher than the performance
under ANSI conditions. Lamps with smaller diameters (such as T-5 twin tube lamps) peak
at even higher ambient temperatures.

Compact Fluorescent Lamps

Advances in phosphor coatings and reductions of tube diameters have facilitated the
development of compact fluorescent lamps.

Manufactured since the early 1980s, they are a long-lasting, energy-efficient substitute for
the incandescent lamp.

Various wattages, color temperatures, and sizes are available. The wattages of the compact
fluorescents range from 5 to 40 ( replacing incandescent lamps ranging from 25 to 150
watts ( and provide energy savings of 60 to 75 percent. While producing light similar in
color to incandescent sources, the life expectancy of a compact fluorescent is about 10
times that of a standard incandescent lamp. Note, however, that the use of compact
fluorescent lamps is very limited in dimming applications.

The compact fluorescent lamp with an Edison screw-base offers an easy means to upgrade
an incandescent luminaire. Screw-in compact fluorescents are available in two types:

 Integral Units. These consist of a compact fluorescent lamp and ballast in self-
contained units. Some integral units also include a reflector and/or glass enclosure.
 Modular Units. The modular type of retrofit compact fluorescent lamp is similar to
the integral units, except that the lamp is replaceable.

A Specifier Report that compares the performance of various name-brand compact

fluorescent lamps is now available from the National Lighting Product Information
Program ("Screw-Base Compact Fluorescent Lamp Products," Specifier Reports, Volume
1, Issue 6, April 1993).
High-Intensity Discharge Lamps

High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps are similar to fluorescents in that an arc is generated
between two electrodes. The arc in a HID source is shorter, yet it generates much more
light, heat, and pressure within the arc tube.

Originally developed for outdoor and industrial applications, HID lamps are also used in
office, retail, and other indoor applications. Their color rendering characteristics have been
improved and lower wattages have recently become available ( as low as 18 watts.

There are several advantages to HID sources:

 relatively long life (5,000 to 24,000+ hrs)

 relatively high lumen output per watt
 relatively small in physical size

However, the following operating limitations must also be considered. First, HID lamps
require time to warm up. It varies from lamp to lamp, but the average warm-up time is 2 to
6 minutes. Second, HID lamps have a "restrike" time, meaning a momentary interruption of
current or a voltage drop too low to maintain the arc will extinguish the lamp. At that point,
the gases inside the lamp are too hot to ionize, and time is needed for the gases to cool and
pressure to drop before the arc will restrike. This process of restriking takes between 5 and
15 minutes, depending on which HID source is being used. Therefore, good applications of
HID lamps are areas where lamps are not switched on and off intermittently.

The following HID sources are listed in increasing order of efficacy:

 mercury vapor
 metal halide
 high pressure sodium
 low pressure sodium

Mercury Vapor

Clear mercury vapor lamps, which produce a blue-green light, consist of a mercury-vapor
arc tube with tungsten electrodes at both ends. These lamps have the lowest efficacies of
the HID family, rapid lumen depreciation, and a low color rendering index. Because of
these characteristics, other HID sources have replaced mercury vapor lamps in many
applications. However, mercury vapor lamps are still popular sources for landscape
illumination because of their 24,000 hour lamp life and vivid portrayal of green landscapes.

The arc is contained in an inner bulb called the arc tube. The arc tube is filled with high
purity mercury and argon gas. The arc tube is enclosed within the outer bulb, which is filled
with nitrogen.

Color-improved mercury lamps use a phosphor coating on the inner wall of the bulb to
improve the color rendering index, resulting in slight reductions in efficiency.

Metal Halide
These lamps are similar to mercury vapor lamps but use metal halide additives inside the
arc tube along with the mercury and argon. These additives enable the lamp to produce
more visible light per watt with improved color rendition.

Wattages range from 32 to 2,000, offering a wide range of indoor and outdoor applications.
The efficacy of metal halide lamps ranges from 50 to 115 lumens per watt ( typically about
double that of mercury vapor. In short, metal halide lamps have several advantages.

 high efficacy
 good color rendering
 wide range of wattages

However, they also have some operating limitations:

 The rated life of metal halide lamps is shorter than other HID sources; lower-wattage
lamps last less than 7500 hours while high-wattage lamps last an average of 15,000
to 20,000 hours.
 The color may vary from lamp to lamp and may shif