CHAPTER 7 - MOMENTUM: A DESCRIPTION OF TRANSLATIONAL

MOTION FOR MULTI-BODY SYSTEMS

In this unit we introduce the concept of momentum, an alternate variable (to velocity) to
describe translational motion that is particularly powerful when describing the motion of
a multi-body system. The momentum of a system is unaffected by internal forces -
forces between two objects that are both inside the system. Momentum is changed only
by external forces - forces on any part of the system that arise from interactions with
objects outside of the system.

For systems that experience no external forces, momentum is constant (or conserved).
For these applications the integral form of the law of change is preferable as it relates
"final" conditions to "initial" conditions. In this case, external interactions are manifest
as impulse, which is the time integral of external force. The fundamental momentum
model is therefore called Momentum and External Impulse. The qualifier "external"
reminds us that only external interactions are agents of change for the momentum.

This unit is focused on the Momentum and Impulse core model.

 MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE MODEL - A CORE MODEL

Learning Goals

After completing this module you should be able to:

 Define momentum
 Define impulse in terms of force
 Define impulse in terms of momentum.

ALLOW ABLE SYSTEMS

This model is applicable to systems consisting of multiple point particles (or centers of
mass of rigid bodies).

Cues

The model is especially useful when describing the momentum of systems where
external forces are absent (system momentum will then be constant) or estimating the
external force in a process that occurs in a very short time interval such as collisions or
explosions (where impulse can be determined from change of momentum).

Relevant Definitions

Momentum

Newton's Principia DEFINITION II [Cajori translation]: “The quantity of motion is the

measure of the same, arising from the velocity, and the quantity of matter, jointly.”

We call this quantity momentum, which is traditionally given the symbol p (partly
for "impulse", and since m is already taken):

p⃗ = mv⃗for a single particle of mass m traveling with velocity v.

For a system composed of multiple particles, the momentum of the system is just the
sum of the momenta of the masses in the system:

p⃗system = ∑i miv⃗i
Impulse

Impulse (which is given the symbol J) is defined by:

J⃗fi = ti∫tf F⃗ext dt

for the net force acting over a time interval ti to tf. We use the notation J⃗fi to emphasize
that the impulse depends on the initial and final times.

RELEVANT INTERACTIONS

The agent of change for momentum is external force, meaning forces acting on objects
in the system due to their interactions with objects outside the system. The key point
about momentum is that internal forces (no matter how large) do not change a system's
total momentum.

LAWS OF CHANGE

Integral Form — especially useful when momentum does not change, or changes in a
short Δt
Vector Nature

It is important to note that momentum is a vector. The direction of the momentum of an

object is in the direction of the object's velocity. For a system with multiple objects, the
momentum is in the direction of the velocity of the system's center of mass.

Dimensions and Units

The dimensions of momentum, by its definition, are [mass] * [length]/[time]. In SI units

momentum is measured in kg m/s.

CHECKPOINT 1: MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM

The masses and the instantaneous velocities of three spheres are shown in the
diagram.
CHECKPOINT 2: MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM

The masses and the instantaneous velocities of three spheres are shown in the
diagram.
Newton's Second Law: Momentum Version

Newton's Second Law sheds light on how interactions change motion. This law can be
recast using the momentum description as follows:

∑F⃗ext = dp⃗/dt
You can show that this form of Newton's Second Law reduces to the regular F = ma for
the case of a single object with constant mass if you substitute in the definition of
momentum in terms of velocity.

It is very important to notice the qualifier "external" on the sum of forces in this law. The
internal forces cancel out and have no net effect on the overall motion of a multi-body
system (though as we shall see, it is important to remember that the motion of
the pieces of a multi-body system are affected by internal forces). Only external forces
can have a net influence on the motion of the system. This property is central to the
utility of the momentum model, as we shall see in the following modules.

Impulse

To find an expression for the change in momentum as a result of the action of external
forces, we have to integrate Newton's Second Law, giving:
VIDEO: IMPULSE INTRODUCTION-DOWNLOAD

CHECKPOINT 3: MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

Two balls of equal mass swing down and hit identical bricks while traveling at identical
speeds. Ball A bounces back, but ball B stops immediately upon hitting the brick. Which
ball has a better chance of knocking the brick over?

CHECKPOINT 4: MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

In the diagram, a 40-kg block is moving along a horizontal frictionless surface, acted
upon by two horizontal forces as shown.
CHECKPOINT 5: MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

The diagram shows an object in its initial state (on the left) and the final state on the
right.

Which of the following vectors best describes a possible direction of the impulse
imparted on the object between the initial and the final moments?
 CHECKPOINT 6: A VARYING FORCE

An object experiences a time-dependent force F(t)=4t3+6t2(all coefficients have

appropriate SI units). What is the change in momentum Δp of the object between t = 2.0
s and t = 3.0 s?
Δp = 103
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM AND INITIAL-STATE FINAL-STATE
DIAGRAMS

In this module, we will illustrate the utility of momentum as a description of motion in the
case that there is no net external force acting on a multi-body system.

Learning Goals

After working through this module, you should be able to:

 Define conservation as it is used in physics.

 Use initial state-final state diagrams to follow the evolution of the momentum of a
system.

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM IN A MULTI-BODY SYSTEM

Zero Net External Force implies Constant System Momentum

The momentum of a system subject to no net external force does not change with time.
In other words, it remains constant in magnitude and direction. This follows from the law
for momentum change developed in the Momentum and Impulse Model.

Constant System Momentum does not mean Constant Constituent Momentum

Our discussion so far seems to imply that the case of no net external force is
uninteresting: the momentum of the system stays constant, so there is nothing to
calculate. This is not true, however, because of the important fact that we will generally
use momentum to describe the motion of multi-body systems. The total momentum of a
multi-body system is equal to the sum of the constituent momenta. Thus, the momenta
of the individual system constituents can change in the absence of net external force
(due to internal forces), provided that their new momenta still add up to the same total
value. In other words, internal forces canchange the motion of the system constituents
even though they cannot change the total momentum of the system.

Conservation means Constant Sum

The situation we have described (component momenta can change while leaving the
total momentum of the system constant) is generally given the special name of
momentum conservation. Conservation is meant to imply that the momentum of the
system can be redistributed among the parts without changing the total value. Under
these circumstances many physicists will say that “momentum is conserved”, when they
mean it’s constant for this particular system only. Watch out - this can be confusing.

THE CONSTANT MOMENTUM MODEL

We are now ready to introduce a special case of the Momentum and External Impulse
Model that occurs when the impulse is zero (i.e. the momentum of the system is
constant): the Constant Momentum (Zero External Impulse) Model. When written
mathematically, the model is extremely simple:

p⃗f = p⃗i
It is important to remember, however, that, in practice, we will apply this model to multi-
body systems. The total momentum of a multi-body system is equal to the sum of its
constituent parts. Thus, it is better to think of the Model as:

∑constituents p⃗f = ∑constituents p⃗i

which serves as a reminder that although the total momentum is constant, the parts of
the sum can change. Also, don't forget that this is a vector equation, which must usually
be written in components.
INITIAL STATE-FINAL STATE DIAGRAMS

Because the Constant Momentum Model centers on the equality of the system's
momentum at two particular instants of time, it is a very easy but also extremely
important problem solving tool to represent the momentum pictorially at the initial and
final instants. This picture should also sketch a coordinate system, though only the
direction of the axes matters (the exact placement of the origin is not important because
we will not be working with position). This diagram can then be translated directly into
the equation of momentum conservation. Drawing a picture will help you remember vital
details like the vector nature of momentum. The use of initial state-final state diagrams
is illustrated in the example on the next page.

Illustrative Example: A Walk on the Pond

A family which includes a girl with a mass of 20 kg and her younger brother who has a
mass of 15 kg is out playing on a pond covered with frictionless ice. The following
problems refer to this situation.

Part A: The girl and her brother are standing next to each other at rest, when suddenly
the boy reaches out and gives his sister a big shove. As a result of the push, the girl
ends up moving off at a speed of 3.0 m/s. What is the boy's resulting motion?

System:

We will take the system to be composed of the boy and the girl, but we will treat them
as separate point particles within the system.

Interactions:

Both the boy and the girl are subject to external interactions from the earth (gravity) and
from the ice (normal force), but these interactions cancel each other leaving no net
external force. The force exerted by the boy on the girl and the reaction force exerted by
the girl on the boy are internal forces and do not affect the motion of the chosen system.
 Model:

Constant Momentum (Zero External Impulse).

Quantitative Approach:

Construct an Initial State-Final State Diagram

We will choose the x-axis to point along the direction of the girl's motion (the exact origin
does not matter for momentum, since it only involves velocity and not position). The
resulting initial state-final state diagram is:

Note that the initial state is very simple. Neither the boy nor the girl is moving, so the
total momentum is clearly zero.

The final state, however, is more complicated. We know that the boy will
move backward after pushing his sister. You can arrive at this conclusion using what we
have learned in Units 1 and 2 of this course, or even what we have learned so far in a
previous unit:

 Explanation 1 (Newton's Third Law): When the boy pushes the girl, Newton's Third
Law guarantees that the boy experiences an equal and opposite force. Since the force
on the boy is directly opposite to the force on the girl, the boy's motion will be in the
opposite direction.

 Explanation 2 (Looking Ahead): Another way to understand the boy's motion is to look
ahead. We are going to use the fact that momentum is conserved to solve this problem,
so the total momentum should remain equal to the initial value, which we know to be
zero! Since the girl clearly has a nonzero momentum, this would seem to be a problem,
unless we remember that momentum is a vector. Thus, by moving off in the opposite
direction, which is negative in our coordinate system, the boy's momentum can cancel
the girl's giving zero.

So why is the arrow representing the boy's velocity drawn pointing to the right?
This is necessary because we are using the same coordinate system for both the boy
and the girl, with x positive to the right.

Represent the Model Mathematically

The mathematical representation of momentum conservation for this system is:

pf,x = pi,x + Jx = pi,x

mbvb,f,x + mgvg,f,x = mbvb,i,x + mgvg,i,x

Substituting zeros, we find:

mbvb,f,x + mgvg,f,x = 0
giving:

vb,f,x = −mgvg,f,x / mb
Note that the x-component of the boy's final velocity is found to be in the opposite
direction from the girl's (as shown by the negative sign).

Substituting numbers gives the final result:

vb,f,x = −(20 kg)(3.0 m/s)/15 kg = −4 m/s

so the boy ends up moving with a speed of 4 m/s in the direction opposite that in which
he pushed his sister.

IMPORTANT POINT:
Note: If we had drawn his velocity arrow to the left in the picture, the x-component of
final momentum would be pf,x = −mbvb,f,x + mgvg,f,x and the value of vb,f,x would
be positive, indicating motion to the left.
Part B: Now suppose the boy is moving due north at 1.75 m/s and his sister is
moving due east at 1.75 m/s. They are headed for a collision. When they collide,
they become entangled and slide off as one "object". What is their velocity after
the collision?

System, Interactions and Model: As in Part A.

Quantitative Approach:

Construct an Initial State-Final State Diagram

This problem is inherently two-dimensional, since the boy and girl are moving at a right
angle to each other. We will choose the x-axis to point due east (the direction of the
girl's motion) and the y-axis to point due north (the direction of the boy's motion). For
simplicity, we will put the origin of the coordinates at the location of the collision. The
resulting initial state-final state diagram is:

Once again, we have had to assume the direction of the final momentum. Just as we
did in Part A, we have used the fact that momentum is conserved in making our
assumption. Since the system composed of the boy and girl has positive x-momentum
in the initial state (from the girl's motion) and also positive y-momentum (from the boy)
we expect (since we are using the Constant Momentum Model) that the final system
momentum will point into the first quadrant (positive x and y components).
Represent the Model Mathematically

The mathematical representation of momentum conservation for this system consists

of two equations, one for the x and one for the y direction:

x: mbvb,i,x + mgvg,i,x = (mb + mg)vf,x

and

y: mbvb,i,y + mgvg,i,y = (mb + mg)vf,y

Note that we have defined only one final velocity, which applies to both the boy and the
girl. The reason is that we know the boy and girl are stuck together after the collision,
and so they must have the same velocity. This was shown in our initial state-final state
diagram above.

Substituting zeros, we find:

mgvg,i = (mb + mg)vf,x

and

mbvb,i = (mb + mg)vf,y

These two equations are solved to give:

vf,x = mgvg,i / (mb + mg) = (20 kg)(1.75 m/s)/(20 kg+15 kg) = 1.0 m/s

and

vf,y = mbvb,I / (mb + mg) = (15 kg)(1.75 m/s)/(20 kg+15 kg) = 0.75 m/s

To find the total velocity, we must construct a vector triangle using these components:
the Pythagorean theorem then gives a magnitude:

vf = Sqrt[(1.0 m/s)2 + (0.75 m/s)2] = 1.25 m/s

To find the direction, we select an angle to find using trigonometry. We will use the
typical angle, measured from the positive x-axis, as shown in the figure below.

This angle is:

θ = tan−1(0.75 m/s / 1.0 m/s) = 37º

Since the initial velocities were given in terms of the cardinal directions (north, south,
east, west) it is reasonable to report this answer as:

v⃗f = 1.25 m/s at 37º N of E

where "N of E" means that the angle is measured moving toward the north from due
east.
CHECKPOINT 7: TW O PENDULA

Pendulum 1 is released from an elevated position at t=0. It swings downward and

collides with pendulum 2 which is at rest before the collision. Both pendula stick
together (i.e. the collision is "totally inelastic") then swing upward together, reaching the
top point of the swing at t=t3.
Let's define t1 to be the instant right before the collision, and t2 to be the instant right
after the collision.

CHECKPOINT 8: TWO BLOCKS AND A SPRING

Two blocks of different masses are connected by a spring and placed on a horizontal
and frictionless table as shown. A rope is used to keep the blocks at rest and the spring
compressed a distance d. After cutting the rope the spring expands and pushes the
blocks away from each other.
Consider two moments in time: before cutting the rope and after cutting it. Between
these two moments, the momentum is conserved for:

CHECKPOINT 9: COLLISION IN 2D

Two spheres move in perpendicular directions on a horizontal frictionless table. Their

masses and velocities are: 2 kg; 1.2 m/s and 2 kg; 1.2 m/s. The spheres collide
inelastically (they stick to each other) and slide together on the table after the collision.

Part 1. Consider the system to be both spheres. Is the momentum of the system
conserved during the collision? Choose the best answer.
Part 3. What is the speed of the spheres after the collision?

V = 0.8485
 APPROXIMATE CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM IN COLLISIONS

During the extremely brief interval of a collision (or an explosion), the contact interaction
between the colliding objects tends to dominate all other forces acting on those objects,
causing dramatic changes in velocity and momentum of these objects in a very short
time. In consequence, if the objects participating in the collision are used to define a
system, collision forces become internal forces, and the much smaller external forces
acting on the system give negligible impulse to that system on the short timescale of the
collision. This means that the system's momentum will remain approximately constant
during the collision.

Learning Goals

 Give an approximate definition of a collision.

 Explain the conditions on the system for approximate conservation of momentum during
a collision.

 Define "infinitely massive object" and explain why the Constant Momentum Model
cannot apply to a system including one.

Collisions

Interesting multi-body systems frequently include collisions between the constituents. It

is hard to give a precise definition of what constitutes a "collision", but for the purposes
of this module, we will consider a collision to be a physical contact between two fairly
rigid objects that are moving with different velocities. The rigidity of the objects is
important, because it leads to a large collision force during a collision that is very short.
By "very short", we generally mean a few milliseconds in duration. The high-speed
photographs shown in the next module illustrate the collision of a standard tennis ball
dropped from a height of 100 inches onto a wooden platform. Based upon the fact that
the images are spaced by about 1 millisecond (0.001 s) in time, you can see that the
entire duration of the tennis ball's contact with the platform is about 5 or so milliseconds.
Thus, a tennis ball counts as a fairly rigid object, even though it deforms considerably
upon impact. (One example of an object that isn't very rigid is a human being. We can
purposely deform our bodies during a low-speed impact like a jump from a low platform
to maximize the "collision" time and minimize the contact forces.)

Visualize a Collision Using High-Speed Camera Photos

High-Speed Camera Stills

Photos taken with a high-speed camera showing the impact of a tennis ball dropped
from a height of 100 inches onto wood.
The images shown are spaced by approximately 1 ms.

Only the contact forces produce significant impulse during a collision.

Objects undergoing a collision can experience extremely large shifts in their momentum
during the extremely brief interval of contact. For example, the tennis ball shown in the
pictures above arrived at the platform surface moving downward at about 7 m/s and left
moving upward with a speed of about 6 m/s. Given that a tennis ball has a mass of
about 0.057 kg, this implies a momentum change of (taking upward to be positive in our
coordinates):
pf – pi = (0.057 kg)(+6 m/s) − (0.057 kg)(−7 m/s) = 0.7 kg m/s

in the upward direction. This may not sound like much, but if you calculate the impulse
delivered by gravity to the tennis ball during a 5 millisecond (0.005 second) interval, it is
only equal to:

We can see, then, that even a strong non-collisional force like gravity has nowhere near
enough impulse when integrated over the extremely short collision time to give the
relatively large change in momentum that is observed. Essentially all the change in the
momentum during the collision is due to the contact forces of the collision. During the
brief interval of contact, these forces can become extremely large (hundreds of times
greater than the object's weight). For this reason, when we look at the motion during a
standard collision, we can essentially neglect all forces except the contact forces of the
collision itself. Of course, it is not reasonable to ignore external forces in the much
longer time intervals before or after the period of the collision. In the example shown
above, the tennis ball's motion is clearly dominated by gravity until it hits the platform,
and is again dominated by gravity after it leaves the platform. The collision only
overwhelms gravity during the 5 milliseconds of contact.

Comparative analysis A back of the envelope justification for this conclusion?

Since the contact force must vary during the interaction time, a reasonable approach is
to compare the average force on the tennis ball by the table during the collision to the
weight. Since Δp = 0.7kg * m / s over the duration of Δt = 0.005s; the average net force
on the tennis ball is given by Newton's second law < Fnet > = Δp / Δt = 0.7 / 0.005 =
140N. Comparing this to the 0.6N weight of the tennis ball, clearly the average force
changing the ball's momentum is more than 200 times the weight!
Neglecting non-collisional impulse means constant momentum if the right system
is chosen.

The back-of-the-envelope calculation above explains why it is common practice to

assume that only the collision forces themselves are significant during the collision
interval. Thus, if it is possible to choose our system to consist of all the objects that
participate in the collision, the only important forces are internal (the collision forces will
be contact forces between objects that are part of the system). In that case, the total
momentum of the system is conserved during the collision (though remember that the
momentum of the parts of the system will not be constant). Note that when making the
approximation to neglect forces during a collision, the momentum of the system will
generally not be conserved before or after the collision. If we know that important
external forces like gravity or friction are present but we are ignoring them as small
compared to the collision forces, we can only legitimately apply momentum
conservation during the extremely short interval of the collision.

Illustrative Example: Return to the Pond

The same family mentioned in the previous module is out on the frozen pond again.
This time, the pond is characterized by a coefficient of kinetic friction equal to 0.15.
Once again, the young girl and her brother are playing and manage to run into each
other. At the instant of the collision, the 20 kg girl is moving due east at 1.75 m/s and
the 15 kg boy is moving due north at 1.75 m/s. After the collision, the boy and girl
become entangled and slide off as one "object". The following parts refer to this
situation.

Part A: What is the impulse delivered to the boy during the collision?

System:

This problem will be analyzed in two separate ways. First, we will take the system to
consist of the boy and the girl treated as separate point particles. Second, we will revisit
the collision with the system taken to consist of the boy alone treated as a point particle.
Interactions:

Both the boy and the girl are subject to external interactions with the earth (gravity) and
with the ice (normal force and friction). Gravity and the normal force cancel in each
case. Friction will be neglected during the collision (which is assumed to be extremely
brief). The collision forces are internal to the boy+girl system, but when we reanalyze
the problem with the boy alone as our system, the collision force acting on the boy from
the girl will be an external force.

Models:

During our first analysis of the collision, we will use the Constant Momentum (Zero
External Impulse) Model, since the collision forces are internal to the system consisting
of the boy and the girl. This will determine the boy's (and the girl's) velocity after they
collide. Our second analysis will require the more general Momentum and External
Impulse Model, since the collision forces will produce a nonzero external impulse on the
system consisting of the boy alone.

Quantitative Approach:

Understand the Givens

We want the impulse delivered to the boy during the collision. As we stated in the S.I.M.
above, we will make the usual assumption: the impulse delivered by friction during the
extremely brief collision is negligible, so essentially all the impulse comes from the
contact force from the girl acting on the boy. Unfortunately, we have no information
about the size of this force. Thus, the only way to find the impulse acting on the boy is to
use the change in the boy's momentum. We know that:

J⃗bg = p⃗b,f − p⃗b,i

where Jbg is the impulse from the girl on the boy. There is a problem here, however. We
know the boy's initial momentum, but we do not know his final momentum. We will have
to solve for it.
Solve for the Boy's Final Velocity

Since we have deduced that we will need the boy's velocity, we have to find a way to
solve for it. The boy's final velocity can be found by using the fact that the momentum of
the boy plus the girl treated as a single system is conserved during the collision. For this
composite system, the collision forces are internal and so they do not contribute to the
net external impulse. Since we are neglecting the small external impulse contributed by
friction, momentum is conserved. We can therefore solve using exactly the same
procedure as we did in Part B of the example in the previous module, finding the same
answer for the final velocity of the system:
v⃗f = 1.25 m/s at 37∘ N of E

Since the entire system has this velocity immediately after the collision, and the boy is
part of the system, this is his velocity after the collision.

Switch Systems to Find the Change in the Boy's Momentum

We now have to shift our focus. In the previous part of the problem, we treated the boy
plus the girl as a single system. This allowed us to conserve momentum and learn
about the velocity immediately after the collision. Now, we want to find the impulse on
the boy. This requires us to find the change in his momentum during the collision. We
can only find that by considering the boy as an independent system. If we look at the
collision from this point of view, we can see that the boy's momentum has certainly
changed. As usual, we compute the change in components:

Jbg,x = pb,f,x − pb,i,x = mbvf,x − mbvb,i,x

and

Jbg,y = pb,f,y − pb,i,y = mbvf,y − mbvb,i,y

The boy's final velocity was found above, and so we can substitute to find:

Jbg,x = (15 kg)(1.0 m/s)−(15 kg)(0 m/s) = 15 kg m/s

and

Jbg,y = (15 kg)(0.75 m/s)−(15 kg)(1.75 m/s) = −15 kg m/s

Thus, the vector triangle for the impulse delivered to the boy looks like:

and the Pythagorean theorem plus trigonometry tells us that the total impulse delivered
to him in the collision is:

J⃗bg = 21 kg m/s at 45∘ S of E

Understand the Answer

To understand the direction associated with this momentum, it is good to consider a

pictorial representation of the change in the boy's momentum during the collision:

Note: The change in the girl's momentum during the collision would be the same size as
the boy's but directed in exactly the opposite direction (45° N of W). Can you explain
why? Consider how we solved for the boy's final velocity.
Part B: How far do the boy and girl slide after the collision before coming to rest?

System:

This problem consists of two stages (if we were to solve it using only the information in
the problem statement above). For both stages, we will choose the system to consist of
the boy and the girl, each treated as point particles.

Interactions:

Both the boy and the girl are subject to external interactions with the earth (gravity) and
with the ice (normal force and friction). Gravity and the normal force cancel in each
case. Friction will be neglected during the collision (which is assumed to be extremely
brief). After the collision, the friction force will be a relevant external force. The collision
forces are internal to the boy+girl system, and therefore not relevant to the overall
motion of the system.

Models:

The first step in solving this problem is the analysis of the collision. For this, we will use
the Constant Momentum (Zero External Impulse) Model, since we are neglecting the
impulse due to friction during the brief collision. The second stage of the problem will
use the One-Dimensional Motion with Constant Acceleration Model to analyze the
motion of the boy + girl "object" after the collision has completed. (The acceleration will
be due to the friction force acting on the system.)

Quantitative Approach:

Decompose the Problem

If we start with only the information contained in the problem statement above, this
problem must be decomposed into two stages. The first stage is the almost-
instantaneous collision. This part will be analyzed by assuming the momentum of the
boy plus girl system is conserved. The second stage is the sliding motion of the boy +
girl "object" after the collision. During this stage, momentum is not conserved, since
friction will gradually slow the system to rest. The initial velocity for the second stage of
the motion will be equal to the final velocity of the first stage.

Analyze the Collision

Normally, if we were solving this problem from scratch, we would have to analyze the
collision using conservation of momentum to find the velocity of the boy plus girl system
after the collision. In this particular case, however, we have already solved this collision
in the previous module. Thus, we know that the velocity of the boy plus girl system after
the collision is:

v⃗f = 1.25 m/s at 37∘ N of E

This will be equal to the initial velocity for the next stage of the motion: the boy and girl
sliding across the ice and slowing down due to friction.

Apply Constraints and Recognize a Freedom (Redefine the Coordinates)

In this problem, we will be applying two separate Models at different times: Constant
Momentum first, then Motion with Constant Acceleration. Because the Models are not
applied simultaneously, we have the freedom to redefine the coordinates when we
switch to the Constant Acceleration Model. In this case, we can help ourselves out by
defining a new x-axis that points in the same direction as the post-collision velocity of
the boy and girl, since we must recognize the constraint that the post-collision velocity
will be the initial velocity of the subsequent motion. We will keep the origin of the
coordinates right at the collision point, since then the initial position for the subsequent
motion will be zero. With these choices, the motion of the boy and girl after the collision
will occur entirely along the x-axis since friction will just work to slow down the speed of
the boy and girl (it will not cause them to turn at all).
Understand the Givens

The givens that apply to the second stage of this problem are:

Givens for the Motion with Constant Acceleration Portion of the Problem

xi = 0m, ti = 0, vi,x = 1.25 m/s, vf,x = 0

We are seeking the final position of the boy and the girl, so that we can determine how
far they traveled in coming to rest. Unfortunately, we do not currently have enough
information to solve for xf. We need another piece of information.

Determine the Acceleration

We can supply one more given by using our knowledge of the interactions experienced
by the system composed of the boy and the girl. A free body diagram is shown below.
The only horizontal force acting on the system is friction. We can find the size of the
friction force by using the relationship:

f(b+g)I = μkN(b+g)I

where the subscript "I" denotes the ice surface. Based upon the fact that the boy and
girl are not accelerating in the vertical direction, which we will call the z direction, we
know that:

N(b+g)I − (mb + mg)g = (mb + mg)az = 0

so:

N(b+g)I = (mb + mg)g

and

f(b+g)I = μk(mb + mg)g

We can then use Newton's Second Law to find the acceleration in the x direction:

FNet,x = −f(b+g)I = (mb + mg)ax

Thus:

ax = −μk(mb + mg)g / (mb + mg) = −μkg

Represent the Model Mathematically

Now that we have the acceleration in hand, we have enough information to solve for the
final position. The Motion with Constant Acceleration Model has many possible
mathematical representations, but the simplest for this purpose is:
v2f,x = v2i,x + 2ax(xf − xi)
After substituting zeros, this equation becomes:

0 = v2i,x + 2axxf

giving:

xf = −v2i,x / 2ax = −v2i,x / −2μkg =

xf = −(1.25 m/s)2 / −2(0.15)(9.8 m/s2) = 0.53 m

Since the position of the boy and girl just after the collision was at the origin, this implies
that they move a total distance of 0.53 m before coming to rest.
 IMPULSE AND AVERAGE FORCE

Collision forces are difficult to measure precisely, because they occur over such
extremely short intervals and they can have a complicated dependence on the structure
of the colliding objects (as we saw in the photos showing the impact of the tennis ball on
wood, objects deform significantly during violent collisions). Thus, it is often valuable
to estimate the size of the collision forces by using the more easily measured change in
momentum of one of the colliding objects.

Learning Goals

 Define time-averaged force in terms of impulse.

 Estimate the size of the collision force given information about the change in momentum
of a participant in the collision.

 Define the time-averaged force applied by a steady stream of water or other fluid.

Time-Averaged Force

To find a time average of the force exerted in a collision, we can simply assume that the
force has a constant average size that acts only over the time interval of the collision.
We will denote this size with the symbol ⟨F⟩. The angle brackets indicate that we are
averaging. By substituting this average value into our equation for the change in
momentum:

and remembering that we are assuming the average force is a constant, we can write:
Thus, if we know the change in momentum of an object during a collision, and we also
know the approximate duration of the collision, we can define an average value for the
collision force.

The Definition of "Average"

By considering what we have done above, we can construct a definition of what it

means to "take a time average". The true definition of impulse is:

Comparing this to the expression involving average force, we can see that:

You can check that this expression makes sense for some special cases like a constant
force or a force that varies linearly with time.
Visualize the time profile of a collision force with data from an AJP article by Rod
Cross

In an American Journal of Physics article entitled "The bounce of a ball" (AJP 67 (3),
March 1999, p. 222), Rod Cross presented force versus time profiles for collisions of
several different kinds of balls with a brass surface. The data is shown in the table and
figures below.
 Properties of the data.

The graphs of force vs. time for the various collisions show some important common
features that confirm our discussion of collision forces:

 The peak value of the collision force is generally hundreds of times the weight of the
object.

 The duration of the collision is at maximum a few milliseconds.

 The curves have structure. They are not straight lines. They are certainly not flat
horizontal lines (which would indicate constant force). They have asymmetries (less
force on the rebound part of the collision).

Comparison of force profile with time-averaged force.

Using the collision data provided in the table, we can compute the time-averaged force
experienced by the tennis ball and compare it with the force profile. In the table, v1 is the
tennis ball's speed just before the collision (it is traveling downward) and v2 is the tennis
ball's speed just after the collision (it is traveling upward). If we define a y-axis pointing
upward, then we can find the average force exerted on the tennis ball in the y-direction
during the collision by using:
Based upon the data in the graph, we approximate the duration of the collision (tf - ti) to
be approximately 5.75 ms. Thus, we can substitute to find:

Looking at the graph shows that the peak force on the tennis ball is between 80 and 85
N. The average force in this case is more than half of the peak value. Can you explain
why by looking at the shape of the profile?

Explanation: What profile gives an average value equal to exactly half the peak
value?

A perfectly triangular force profile would give an average force of exactly half the peak
value. The reason is that a triangle has an area equal to the base times 1/2 the height.
The average force is found by taking the area under the force vs. time curve and
dividing by the time (the base of the triangle in this case). Thus, the average force for a
triangular profile is 1/2 the height, and the height is simply the peak force. A profile with
a rounded cap, like the one for the tennis ball, spends more of its time near the peak
than a triangle would. Thus, the average value is higher. To get an average value less
than half, you would need a profile that is sharper than a triangle (spending more time at
low values). None of the profiles in figure 2 are clearly sharper than a triangle, though
the baseball or steel ball might possibly be.
Illustrative Example: Off the Wall

Various example problems asking for the force exerted on a wall by objects colliding
with it.

Part A: A wall running north to south is hit by a 0.50 kg ball moving with a
velocity of 12 m/s at an angle of 60° E of N. The ball rebounds from the wall with
the same speed, but now directed at an angle of 60° W of N. The impact lasts 8.5
ms. What is the time-averaged force exerted on the wall by the ball during the
collision?

System:

We will take the system to be composed of the ball only, treated as a point particle.

Interactions:

The ball will experience an interaction with the wall, giving rise to a collision (contact)
force on the ball.

Model:

Momentum and External Impulse.

Quantitative Approach:

Why isn't the Wall Included in the System?

Based upon the problem statement, our choice of system may seem odd. The problem
clearly asks for the force exerted on the wall, and yet our system is composed of the
ball only. There is an important method to our madness, however. Newton's Third Law
assures us that if we can determine the force exerted on the ball by the wall during the
collision, then the force exerted on the wall by the ball during the collision will be exactly
opposite in direction and equal in size. The force exerted on the ball is much easier to
determine, since the ball's motion is clearly changed by the action of the force. The wall,
on the other hand, is essentially an infinitely massive object, and so we cannot examine
its motion to determine the force.

Construct an Initial State-Final State Diagram

To determine the force on the ball from the wall, we will find the change in the ball's
momentum during the collision. The relevant initial state-final state diagram is:
Note that although the size of the momentum is clearly the same before and after the
collision, the direction has changed. This can be seen in the sign flip of the x-
component.

Represent the Model Mathematically

The time-averaged force exerted on the ball during the collision can be found using:

Apply Constraints
We were asked for the force on the wall, not on the ball. Newton's Third Law, however,
constrains the force on the wall to be exactly opposite the force on the ball:

Check Your Answer

Our final answer for the force on the wall from the ball was in the positive x direction. In
our coordinate system, that means the ball applied a force on the wall directed due east.
To make sense of this answer, we should consider the change in momentum of the ball.
Looking at the initial and final momenta of the ball, we can see that the ball received a
kick in the westward direction as a result of hitting the wall. Thus, by Newton's Third
Law, it makes sense that the wall received an eastward kick in response.

Part B: An automatic rifle is firing 4.0 g bullets into a wall at a rate of exactly 800
bullets per minute. The bullets impact the wall moving with a speed of 750 m/s at
a 90° angle to the wall, and remain embedded in the wall. What is the time-
averaged force exerted on the wall by the bullets?

System:

We will take the system to be composed a single bullet treated as a point particle.

Interactions:

The bullet will experience an interaction with the wall, giving rise to a collision force on
the bullet.

Model:
Momentum and External Impulse.

Quantitative Approach:

Understand the Problem

This problem is very similar to the last. Looking ahead, however, we can foresee one
important difference: this problem does not specify the duration of the collision. We are
not told how long it takes the bullets to come to rest once they hit the wall. The reason
we do not need this duration is because this problem involves a continuous sequence of
collisions rather than a single impact. For a continuous sequence of collisions, we can
use an alternate definition of the average force. Instead of averaging over the duration
of a single impact, if we average over the total time between collisions we can find the
average force experienced by the wall during the entire time that the stream of bullets is
impacting.

Construct an Initial State-Final State Diagram

The relevant initial state-final state diagram for the impact of one bullet with the wall is:

The bullet's motion is one dimensional, with initial momentum:

pi,x = (0.0040 kg)(750 m/s) = 3.0 kg m/s
and final momentum:

pf,x = 0 kg m/s
Determine the Time Between Impacts

The time between bullet impacts can be found by using the methods of unit conversion.
We know it takes 1 minute for 800 bullet impacts, thus the number of seconds between
impacts is:

Represent the Model Mathematically

We know that the time-averaged force exerted on the bullet by the wall is related to the
momentum change by:

Apply Constraints

As in the previous problem, we apply the constraint of Newton's Third Law, which tells
us that the average force exerted on the wall by the bullet is equal and opposite to the
force exerted on the bullet by the wall:
Thus, as we would expect, the force on the wall is in the same direction as the direction
of the bullet's motion before impact.

Make Sense of the Answer

The answer 40 N may seem small for the force exerted by a bullet. (It is, after all, the
weight of a 4.1 kg mass -- equivalent to about 9 pounds.) We must remember, however,
that we have chosen to average the force of the bullet over the time between bullet
impacts. This time (75 ms) is much much longer than the duration of a single bullet
impact. The duration of a single bullet impact is probably less than 1/10th as long. Thus,
if we look at the average force exerted by a single bullet as it is brought to rest, we
expect it to be at least 10 times as large as the average force exerted by the series of
bullets.

Part C: A fire hose shoots a steady stream of water at a wall. The water flows from the
hose at a rate of 8.0 kg per second. The water impacts the wall moving with a speed of
7.0 m/s at a 90° angle to the wall. After impact, the water sprays out in a uniform pattern
along the wall and trickles down (it does not rebound). What is the time-averaged force
exerted on the wall by the water?

System:

We will take the system to be composed of a tiny length Δx of the stream of water,
treated as a point particle.

Interactions:

The water will experience an interaction with the wall, giving rise to a collision force on
the water.

Model:

Momentum and External Impulse.

Quantitative Approach:
Break the Stream Into Pieces

We can think of this problem as analogous to Part B, provided that we imagine the
continuous water stream to be composed of a sequence of tiny "parcels" of water. We
will divide the stream such that each parcel has length Δx.

Understand the Properties of a Parcel

We want to treat the parcels of water like the bullets of the previous part, but we do not
know the mass of each parcel or the "rate of fire", both of which were required for the
solution of Part B. We therefore want to write expressions for these quantities.
We first tackle the rate the parcels or, equivalently, the "duration" of a parcel. The
duration of a parcel is the length of time the hose has to spray to create the parcel. We
will simply define this duration to be Δt. The duration of a parcel can be related to the
parcel's length by using the velocity of the stream (Δx = vstreamΔt).

With this definition in hand, we can find the mass of the parcel by using the given rate of
mass flow from the hose:
we can use flow rate to define the mass of a parcel as:

Construct an Initial State-Final State Diagram

The initial state-final state diagram for a single parcel is:

Represent the Model Mathematically

The average force on a single parcel from the wall is:

Now we can make an important substitution. We have previously expressed the mass of
the parcel in terms of the duration. Substituting this expression give:
The importance of defining the mass in terms of the duration is obvious from this
expression: the duration of the parcel will now cancel from the fraction. This is important
because we havearbitrarily defined this duration. We have invented the parcels. The
fact that the duration cancels means that we have not corrupted our solution by splitting
the stream into parcels (we can make the duration as small as we want and the answer
will not change). Our result is:

Apply Constraints

As in the previous parts, the constraint of Newton's Third Law tells us that the force
applied by the stream of water to the wall is the opposite of the force applied by the wall
to the stream:
CHECKPOINT 10: CARTS ON AN AIRTRACK

A constant force is exerted on a cart that is initially at rest on a frictionless air track. The
force acts for a short time interval and gives the cart a final speed. To reach the same
speed using a force that is half as big, the force must be exerted for a time interval that
is

CHECKPOINT 11: CARTS ON AN AIRTRACK

Two carts, A and B, on frictionless air tracks are initially at rest. Cart A is twice as
massive as cart B. Now you exert the same constant force on both carts for 1 second.
One second later, the momentum of cart A is:
CHECKPOINT 12: CARTS ON AN AIRTRACK

Two identical carts, A and B, are moving on frictionless air tracks. The initial speed of
cart A is twice that of cart B. You then exert the same constant force on the two carts
over 1 second. The change in momentum of cart A is:
 CENTER OF MASS.

The center of mass of a system is a useful way to describe the average position of the
system.

Learning Goals

After you finish this module you should be able to:

 Calculate the center of mass of a system of several point particles.

 Explain how to calculate the center of mass of a rigid object.

 Calculate the center of mass of a system of several extended objects.

Center of Mass: Introduction

When describing the translational motion of an extended object or system of objects, we

can represent the object as a point particle, as if all its mass were concentrated at one
point. This point, located at the average location of the distributed mass, is called the
center of mass. For example, a uniform rod has its center of mass right at its middle. In
this module we will learn how to calculate the center of mass of an object or a group of
objects.

Definition of Center of Mass Position: The position of the center of mass of a system
of point particles is the mass-weighted average of their positions:

Moreover, we will show that the overall translational motion of a system can be
described in terms of thecenter of mass of the system. The system under
consideration can be a group of particles, such as the molecules of a gas in a container,
or a group of extended objects such as the boy and the girl playing on the icy lake from
the previous unit.

An athlete is an excellent example of a non-rigid extended object. The motion of all the
different parts of an athlete's body can be complicated, but the motion of the athlete's
center of mass is the same as the motion of a point particle with a mass equal to the
athlete's mass. You can download a great animation of that fromhere, at UNSW's
website (Flash is required), or you can look at the images below. The two dashed lines
represent the paths of other parts of the extended object (the head and right foot). While
the athlete is in the air, the external force acting on the athlete is gravity. As a result, his
center of mass follows the parabola familiar from projectile motion.
We will see that the location of the center of mass can be either fixed relative to an
object, as in the example of the athlete, or it can be a point in space (e.g. a discrete
distribution of masses as in the examples below or those in the next page).

The center of mass of a system of 2 point particles

Consider a system formed by two point particles of masses m1 and m2 located at

positions r⃗ 1 and r⃗ 2measured with respect to point Q as shown in the figure below.
The position of the center of mass with respect to the coordinate system with origin at
point Q is obtained as:
The center of mass, cm in the figure, represents the mean location of the mass of the
system. It is located along a line between the particles and closer to the more massive
particle. In the example above m1 > m2.

Illustrative Example: Two Particles

Calculate the center of mass of a system consisting of two particles.

Version 1: Unequal masses

Consider a 2 particle system of masses m1 and m2 , with m1 = 2 m2 . The masses are

separated a distance d.
a) What is the position of the center of mass of the system with respect to a coordinate
system where the origin is located at particle 1 and particle 2 is on the +x-axis?

Answer
In the coordinate system with origin in particle 1 (see figure above), the positions of
particles 1 and 2 are written as:
The center of mass, red cross in the figure, is located along the line joining both masses
at a distance d/3 from particle 1, the more massive particle.

b) What will be your answer if the origin of the coordinate system is in particle 2?

Answer

Derivation:

The position vectors of the two particles measured from the new coordinate system:
Comparing the above result, with the answer obtained in part a):

we conclude that the position of the center of mass depends on the coordinate system
used but its distance relative to particle 1 is still d/3

Version 2: Equal masses

Consider a 2 particle system with equal masses, M1 = M2. Calculate the position of the
center of mass in meters (m) if:
Answer:

Derivation:
The center of mass is shown in red in the figure. It is located along the line joining both
masses and at the midpoint between the equal masses.
A better choice of coordinate system for this problem is one with either the x- or y- axis
passing through both particles.

VIDEO: CM OF THREE POINT PARTICLES DOW NLOAD

CHECKPOINT 13: CENTER OF MASS OF 3 BALLS

Three tiny balls of equal mass are placed on a horizontal frictionless surface at the
corners of an equilateral triangle (all of the sides are 2 m and all of the angles are 60°).
What are the x and y coordinates of the center of mass of the system formed by the
three balls? (The y-axis passed through the top ball and the x-axis passed through the
bottom balls.)
 CHECKPOINT 14: CENTER OF MASS OF 4 PARTICLES

Four particles are located in a coordinate plane. Their masses and x- and y-coordinates
are given in the table (except for the coordinates of particle m4 ). Find those coordinates
if the center of mass of all four particles is located at the origin?

The Center of Mass of a System of Extended Objects:

You can encounter a situation where a system is constituted by more than one
extended object. To find the center of mass of a system of this kind:

 Replace each of the extended objects by a point particle.

 The mass of each point particle is the mass of the corresponding extended object.

 The position of each point particle is the position of the center of mass of the
corresponding object.
 Finally, compute the position of the center of mass of the system from the positions and
masses of these point particles.

This procedure is summarized in the figure below: Calculate the center of mass (CM) of
the system formed by two square boxes, the lower one with a mass twice the mass of
the upper box.

Illustrative Example: A system of two extended objects

A child is standing at the left end of a uniform slab of wood of length L that lies on a
horizontal surface. The slab has a mass M and the child has a mass m. You can
assume that the child's center of mass is at a height hwith respect to the surface.

Calculate the position of the center of mass of the child-slab system as measured with
respect to a coordinate system whose origin coincides with the left end of the slab.

Answer:
Derivation:

To calculate the position of the center of mass of a system containing extended objects
we will follow the steps described below:
1. Pick a coordinate system:

In this problem we are asked to use a coordinate system whose origin coincides with
the left end of the slab as shown in the figure:

2. Point particle approximation:

To obtain the center of mass of the system we first represent the extended objects in
the system as point particles with their masses concentrated at their center of masses.
We assume the slab to be uniform, therefore the center of mass of the slab is at its
center. The center of mass of the child is at a given height h from the surface.
3. Calculate the center of mass: Applying the definition of the center of mass:
Then the position of the center of mass is the red cross shown in the figure above.
Illustrative Example: Hoop and Disk Attached to L-Shaped Object

Two thin and uniform rods of length d and mass M are connected to form an L-shaped
rigid object. A uniform hoop of mass m1 and a uniform disk of mass m2 are glued to the
L-shaped object in such a way that their centers coincide with the free ends of the rods
as shown.

Calculate the center of mass of the 2 rods-hoop-disk system with respect to a

coordinate system with origin at point Q and with the x-axis along the right rod. The
positive x-direction is pointing towards the disk.

Answer:

To obtain the center of mass of the system we will follow the steps described below:
1. Select a coordinate system:

In this problem we are asked to use a coordinate system with origin at the vertex of the
L-shaped object. We will pick the orientation of the coordinate system in such a way that
the rods coincide with the x and y axis as shown below:
2. Point particle approximation:

We represent the extended objects in the system as point particles with their masses
concentrated at their center of mass. The rods, the disk and the hoop have their masses
uniformly distributed; therefore their geometrical centers are their center of mass. The
extended objects are represented as point particles in the figure below:

3. Calculate the position of the center of mass:

As shown below, the advantage of picking this coordinate system is to have all the
particles contained in one of the axes, therefore their position vectors only have one
component:
Now we apply the definition of the center of mass:

To obtain:
Because there is no information about the values of the masses, we can make the
assumption that m1 > m2. In this case, the center of mass of the system is shifted
towards the left as indicated in the figure. The drawing also suggests that we are
assuming that the mass of both rods is approximately the same as the mass of the hoop
and disk: 2M ≈ m1+m2.

One way to check if your calculation makes sense is to use the following graphical tool:

Obtain the position of the center of mass graphically

1. Consider the system formed by the 2 rods:

As shown in the figure below, the center of mass of the 2 rod system is the blue circle in
the intersection of the vertical and horizontal dash lines. The center of mass of this
system is at the midpoint because both rods have the same mass.

2. Consider the system formed by the hoop and the disk.

Here we do not have information about the masses so we will assume that the hoop is
more massive than the disk. Then the center of mass of this system is along the line
joining the two particles and shifted towards the left where the hoop is. The center of
mass is represented in the figure below by the blue circle of mass m1 + m2.
3. Consider the system formed by two particles of masses 2M and m1 + m2 placed
at the locations of the blue circles

Now we have reduced our problem to two point particles of masses 2M and m1 + m2.
Then the center of mass is along the line joining these two particles. Again, we do not
have information about the masses so we will assume that they are approximately the
same. As a result we obtain the red cross shown in the figure below that represents the
center of mass of the system.

Note: You will obtain the same result if you change the pairs of particles. For example,
start with the left rod-hoop system, then continue with the right rod-disk system, etc.
The center of mass of a system of N particles

The concept of center of mass can be extended to a system of N particles with

masses m1, m2,...mNlocated at the positions r→1,r→2...r→N:

The center of mass of a rigid object

A rigid object can be thought as a system containing a very large number of particles
and the summation of the expression above becomes an integral over the continuous
distribution of mass:

where M is the total mass of the object.

To obtain the position of the center of mass of a rigid object, it is necessary to know how
the mass is distributed in volume and then solve three integrals, one for each
component of the position vector:

Symmetry and the Center of Mass

If the object is symmetric and the mass is distributed uniformly throughout the object's
volume, then the center of mass lies on an axis of symmetry. For example, the center of
mass of a uniform sphere or cube lies at its geometric center.
Center of Gravity vs. Center of Mass

The gravitational force acts on each element of mass within a rigid object. Adding the
forces on each element, we obtain the total gravitational force Mg→ on the object of
mass M. This force is applied at a given point in the object that is called the center of
gravity of the object. If the acceleration of gravity g→ is the same throughout the object,
then the center of gravity coincides with the center of mass. When such an object is
pivoted at its center of gravity, it balances in any orientation (no rotation) to a very high
degree.

In fact, gravity decreases as R-2, and hence is not quite uniform. This results in small
torques on non-spherical objects that cause them to have small angular accelerations.
These can lead to easily observable effects over time scales from hours on up, but this
requires that the objects be free from other torques to a high degree — a degree usually
found only in a satellite orbiting the earth well above the atmosphere.

Consider a dumbbell (two masses connected by a light rod) in orbit whose long axis is
oriented at 45 degrees to its radius vector from the earth. The mass nearer the earth is
pulled more strongly toward earth than the other mass, so the torque about the center of
mass of the dumbbell from this mass is larger than from the other mass — hence there
will be a net torque trying to align the dumbbell with the radius vector. (The torque is
also larger because the angle of the force with the axis of the dumbbell is larger for the
mass nearer to the earth.) This causes an oscillation of the axis of the dumbbell about
the radius vector: it prefers to align its axis to point at the earth. This oscillation has a
period comparable to the orbital period of the satellite, independent of the height of the
dumbbell from the earth. Satellites typically are far more spherical than dumbbells, and
oscillate correspondingly slower.
Illustrative Example: Uniform and Non-Uniform Rods

a) Uniform rod: Show that if a rod of total mass M and length L has its mass uniformly
distributed, then its center of mass is located at the midpoint between its ends.

Solution:

To calculate the center of mass of an extended object we will follow the steps described
below:
1. Select a coordinate system:

Let's consider the rod to be along the x-axis. We will choose a coordinate system with
origin at the left end of the rod.

2. Divide the extended object in small elements of mass dm.

The rod can be thought to be formed by a continuous distribution of small particles of

mass dm. Each of these particles are occupying a given volume inside the object. In the
case of this problem, where the rod is assumed to be thin, a particle occupies an
element of the rod of length dx.

3. Define the position of the mass element dm.

With respect to our coordinate system, the element of mass dm is located at position:

r→ = xi^
Because the rod is assumed to be thin, the position of the element of mass has only
one component. In the case of a disk or a sphere the position vector of the element of
mass will have 2 or 3 components, respectively.

4. Use the information about the mass distribution.

To obtain the center of mass of a rigid object, we have to solve the integral ∫r→dm. We
realize that we need to have a relationship between the mass element dm and its
position vector r→. This relationship is obtained from the information about the mass
distribution within the object.

In the case of the thin rod, all the mass is distributed along the x-axis, therefore the
position of the center of mass is also along the x-axis:

We need to find the relationship between dm and x. In this problem, the mass is
distributed uniformly along the rod. This statement implies that the amount of
mass dm in each element of rod dx is the same and independent of the position. As a

result, the ratio dm/dx = constant.

The ratio dm/dx is called mass density per unit length and is noted with the letter λ:

λ = dm/dx.

If the mass is distributed along a line in the x-axis then dm = λ dx.

If the mass is distributed along a line uniformly, the λ = constant.

Using this relationship in the integral above we have:

To obtain the value of λ we use the fact that the total mass and the length of the rod
are M and L, then:

5. Solve the integral. Replacing λ = M/L in (eq. 1) we obtain:

b) Non-uniform rod: Consider a rod of total mass M and length L along the x-axis.
Calculate the center of mass of the rod if its mass per unit length depends linearly
with x.

Answer:

Derivation:

1. Select a coordinate system:

Let's consider the rod to be along the x-axis. We will choose a coordinate system with
origin at the left end of the rod.

2. Divide the extended object in small elements of mass dm.

3. Define the position of the mass elementdm.

With respect to our coordinate system, the element of mass dm is located at position:

r→ = xi^

4. Use the information about the mass distribution.

The mass is distributed along a line:

dm = λ(x)dx

The mass is not uniformly distributed, because the mass density increases linearly with
position. Therefore we write that:

λ(x) = bx

where b is a positive constant.

5. Solve the integral.

Using this relationship in the integral above we have:

Note that the value of b is not given but it can be obtained using that the total mass of
the rod is M:

and the position of the center of mass is:

The center of mass is now shifted towards the right end. This is reasonable because the
further we go from the left end, the more massive the mass elements.
CHECKPOINT 15: CENTER OF MASS OF A BASEBALL BAT

A baseball bat is cut at the location of its center of mass, as shown by the black line in
the figure. Assuming that the density is constant, which piece has the larger mass?

Answer:The correct answer is that the right piece will have more mass. To see why,
replace the right piece by a point particle of mass mR and the left piece by a point
particle of mass mL. Place each of the masses in their center of mass. Measured with
respect to the baseball center of mass, the center of mass of the right mass is at a
distance dR and the one of the left mass is at a distance dL. Because of the way the
mass is distributed throughout the right and left pieces we can say that dR < dL. Then
the center of mass is closer to the right piece. The right mass is the largest.
CHECKPOINT 16: CENTER OF MASS OF AN L-SHAPED OBJECT

A uniform wire is bent as shown. Which of the points shown in the diagram best shows
the location of the center of mass of the wire? The dotted line shown connects the
midpoints of the straight pieces of the wire.

CHECKPOINT 17: CENTER OF MASS OF TWO CIRCLES

Two discs of radii 8.0 cm and 4.0 cm are made of cardboard and are placed on a flat
table as shown. How far from the center of the larger disc is the center of mass of the
entire figure located?
 THE MOTION OF THE CENTER OF MASS

In this module we will understand the relevance of the concept of the center of mass in
the description of the translational motion of a system. By knowing the net force on a
system we can determine the acceleration of the system's center of mass; hence the
position of the center of mass as a function of time. Applying these results to an
extended object, we will justify the point particle approximation that we have been using
in the the previous units.

Learning Objectives

After the end of this module you should be able to:

 Explain why only a net external force can change the translational motion of the center
of mass of a system

 Determine the motion of the center of mass of a system knowing the external forces
acting on the system

Motion of a Multi Body System

We will start by studying a system of N particles and generalize the results to a single
extended object and then to a system of extended objects. The close relationship
between the velocity of the center of mass of a system and its momentum allows us to
quickly find the acceleration of the center of mass.

Velocity and Acceleration of the Center of Mass

In this section we will calculate the velocity and the acceleration of the center of mass of
a system consisting of N point particles. If the velocity, the acceleration and the mass of
the i-th particle is v→i, a→i and mi, respectively, and the total mass of the system is
M = m1 + m2 + .. + mN, then we have:
Velocity of the CM

Derivation:
Take the derivative with respect to time of the position of the center of mass:

Acceleration of the CM

Derivation:
Take the derivative with respect to time of the velocity of the center of mass:
Total Momentum, Net External Force, and the Motion of the Center of Mass

Total Momentum =
The total linear momentum of the system is equal to that of a single particle of
mass M moving with the velocity of the center of mass.
Derivation:
The velocity of the center of mass of the system is:

where
miv→i = p→i is the linear momentum vector of the i-th particle.
Adding the linear momentum of the system constituents we obtain the total momentum
of the system:

From (1) and (2) we obtain:

Total External Force

The center of mass of a system of particles of mass M moves like an equivalent particle
of mass M would move under the influence of the net external force on the system.

Derivation:

where f→i = mia→i is the net force acting on the i-th particle.
The i-th particle may interact with particles inside the system and with objects outside
the system, therefore the net force on the i-th particle may include internal
forces and external forces. When adding all the forces acting on the N particles,
the Newton's 3rd law pairs between the system constituents will cancel each
other and only the sum of the external forces acting on each of the particles within the
system will be different from zero:

Then, the acceleration of the center of mass is given by:

Rearranging this equation we obtain:

Review the above derivations by watching two short movies:

1. Only the external forces are relevant (~ 2 min long)
Click the little play button by Newton's laws & center of mass under the
title 8. Center of mass at the right of the window in the PHYSCLIPS to show
that:
2. 2. Part of Prof. Lewin's video lecture (~ 6 min long)
Start the movie at 35:40 and stop it at 41:30 - we will see the rest of the
video later in this module.
THE CENTER OF MASS AND THE MOTION OF A SYSTEM.

As derived in the previous module, the motion of the center of mass of a system is
determined by the net external force acting on the system. Three important
consequences are remarked in this module:

1. Point Particle Behavior of a Rigid Object.

The relationships derived above for a system of N particles can be generalized for an
extended object if the summation over the number of particles is replaced by an integral
over the mass.
Comparing the relationship between the net force and the acceleration of the center of
mass of an extended object with Newton's second law applied to a point particle of
mass m and acceleration a:

The center of mass of the extended object of mass M moves like a point particle
of mass M does under the influence of the same net external force.

This proves that the point particle approximation used in translational kinematics and
dynamics is now justified. (The point particle approximation is to treat an extended body
as if all of its mass is concentrated at its center of mass.)
Example 1: The athlete, a non rigid object.

The solid red parabola is the motion of the center of mass, which corresponds to the
motion of a point particle under the influence of gravity. The dashed lines are the motion
of other parts of the extended object.
Example 2: An asymmetric rigid object

Consider a rigid object consisting of a rod and an added mass at one of its ends. The
center of mass of the object, shifted towards the heavier end, is marked in black in the
figure.

The object is thrown in the air in such a way that it translates and rotates about its
center of mass. While the object is in the air, the net force on the object is the
gravitational force. As a result, the object's center of mass follows a parabola, the black
line in the movie below.

1. Motion of the center of mass

The different elements inside the object are subject to the gravitational force and to
the internal forces that keep the object together. As shown in the following movie,
the path followed by one of the ends of the object is the result of a net force that has
a vertical component (gravity) and a component towards the center of mass
(tension).
2. Motion of one end of the object.
 At the instant when the movie stops, the net force on the right end of the rod is pointing
towards the "7 o'clock" (down and to the left). This is the result of adding the forces
acting on the right end:

 gravitational force, pointing down (Fg),

 force of tension, pointing towards the center of mass of the object, which is the center of
rotation (TR). This force points to the center of rotation of the object and is the
responsible for the radial component of the acceleration vector of the right end (ac in the
movie).

Similarly, you can add the two forces acting on the left end of rod (Fg and TL) to have a
net force or a total acceleration pointing towards the "5 o'clock" (down and to the right).

2. An External Impulse Changes the Velocity of the CM

In a previous module, we learned that when a net external force is applied to the
system during a time interval ti < t < tf, the external impulse changes the linear
momentum of the system. This is represented mathematically by the law of change
in the Momentum and External Impulse Model:

The external impulse will also change the velocity of the center of mass:
 Question: Kicking an asymmetric dumbbell

Two balls of different masses are connected by a uniform rod to form a rigid object. The
object is on a horizontal and frictionless surface and it is initially at rest. A top view is
shown in the figure. A force of average magnitude F directed perpendicular to the rod is
applied to the object during a short time interval ti < t <tf. At the instant right after hitting
the object, the velocity of the center of mass is the largest if the force is applied at:

 Point a.

 Point b.

 Point c.

Answer: The velocity of the center of mass is the same in the three cases.

Explanation:

The interval of interest is while the force is applied to the object. It starts at the
instant ti when the object is at rest, and ends at the instant tf when the force is not

applied any more and the center of mass of the object is moving with vcm(tf )
System: the rigid object treated as a point particle.

Interactions: The relevant interaction is the external force F. The interaction with the
Earth and the surface will produce forces that cancel each other.
The net force on the object is the force F, then the velocity of the center of mass is not
constant and its change is given by:

where M is the total mass of the object. Because the object is initially at rest, then:

Right after hitting, the center of mass is moving with:

The motion of the center of mass is independent of the point of application of the
force

The motion of the center of mass is related to the external impulse and it is independent
of the point at which the external force is being applied. If we are only interested in
studying the translational motion of the object, then the point of application of the force
is not important and neither are the object's dimensions.

What are the consequences of applying the same force at points a, b and c?

Translation + Rotation: If the force is applied at pointsa and c there will be translation
of the center of mass as well as a rotation of the object about the center of mass. The
rotation is due to the torque of the force F about the center of mass.
Applying the force at point a will produce a clockwise rotation as viewed from above,
whereas applying it at point c will produce a counterclockwise rotation as viewed from
above.
Translation: When the force is applied at the center of mass of the object, point b,
there is no torque about the center of mass and the object will not rotate. In this case
there is only translation.

3. Zero net external force implies constant velocity motion of the CM

If the net external force is zero, then the acceleration of the center of mass is zero, and
the velocity of the center of mass is constant.
A→cm = 0, V→cm = constant

As a result, the position of the center of mass of the system will follow a straight line.

Question: After hitting an asymmetric dumbbell

Consider a rigid object consisting of two spheres of different masses connected by a

rod. The total mass of the object is M. The object is placed on a horizontal and
frictionless surface contained in the xy-plane. A force of magnitude F directed along the
+y axis is applied at the center of mass of the object during a time interval ti < t < tf.

a) What is the path followed by the dumbbell's center of mass after the force stops
acting on the dumbbell?

Answer: The center of mass follows a straight line parallel to the y- axis.
 Explanation:

The interval of time of interest is after the force has stopped acting on the dumbbell.
System:The dumbbell treated as a point particle.

Interactions: The dumbbell interacts with the surface and the Earth. Because there is
no friction the resulting forces, normal and gravity, cancel.

There is no net force acting on the system then:

A→cm = 0, V→cm = constant

If the velocity of the center of mass after hitting the dumbbell is constant, then the
position of the center of mass follows a straight line. We need to find the direction of the
velocity of the center of mass.

The applied force is along the +y- axis, therefore:

because the dumbbell is initially at rest, then:

At the instant right when the force F stops hitting the dumbbell the velocity of the center
of mass has the value obtained above and points along the +y- axis. After that instant,
the velocity of the center of mass remains constant and the center of mass follows a
straight line parallel to the y-axis.
 b) Consider that the total mass of the dumbbell is M = 4 kg, the force is constant
and of magnitude F = 300 N, and the force is applied during a time interval Δt = 2
ms. How far has the center of mass of the dumbbell moved 10 sec after the
force F has stopped acting on it?

Answer: 1.5 m

Explanation:

After the force F has stopped acting on the dumbbell, the net force on the dumbbell is
zero (gravity and normal), then the acceleration of the center of mass is zero and the
velocity of the center of mass is constant.
If we set the origin of the coordinate system coinciding with the position of the center of
mass at the instant when the force stops acting on the dumbbell, then the position of the
center of mass as a function of time is given by:

To obtain the value of the velocity of the center of mass we consider the time interval
during which the dumbbell is being hit. During that time interval, the net force is F, then
the velocity of the center of mass changes as:

using that initially the dumbbell is at rest and that the applied force is constant we
obtain:
Replacing this value in (eq. 1):

If the same external force is being applied during the same time interval but at a point to
the left of the center of mass of the dumbbell as shown in the figure, what is the path
followed by the center of mass?

Answer:

The center of mass follows a straight line along the y-axis. In addition, it will acquire
the same velocity as in part b).
The translation of the center of mass depends only on the sum of the external forces
and not on the point of application of the forces. In this question, the force is applied at
the left of the center of mass. As a result, the center of mass of the object translates and
the object rotates about its center of mass. This situation is shown in the animation
below, where the dotted line is the trajectory of the center of mass.

Animation- After hitting the asymmetric dumbbell

 Illustrative Example: Walking and running along a slab.

Walking along a slab

A child of mass m is standing at the left end of a thin and uniform slab of wood of
length L and massM. The slab lies on a horizontal and frictionless icy surface of a lake.
Starting with both the child and slab at rest, the child walks towards the right end of the
slab.

a) How far and in what direction did the center of mass of the child-slab system move
when the child has reached the right end of the slab?
Answer: The center of mass does not move while the child is walking along the slab. It
remains where it was when the child was at the left end of the slab.
Explanation:

The time interval of interest is the one it takes the child to walk along the slab from one
end to the other. It starts at the instant ti when the child is at the left end of the slab
ready to move towards the right end. At this instant both the slab and the child are at
rest. The interval ends at the instant tf when the child has reached the right end of the
slab and stops walking relative to the slab.
System: child and slab treated as point particles.

Interactions:

 External: If we neglect friction between the surface and the slab, then the external
forces on the system are all vertical: gravity on the child, gravity on the slab and the
normal exerted by the surface on the slab. These forces cancel each other and the net
external force on the system is zero.
 Internal:The contact force between the child and slab. The internal interactions do not
affect the motion of the center of mass of the system but they affect the motion of the
system constituents. The motion of the child and slab are due to the horizontal
components of the internal forces FCS and FSC.

The horizontal component of the internal force exerted on the child by the slab, FCS, is
the action reaction pair of the horizontal force exerted on the slab by the child, FSC.
As a result of the existing internal forces, the child moves to the right and the slab
moves to the left in such a way that the center of mass of the system remains stationary
as explained in 1., 2, and 3. below.

1. Net External Force = 0 ⇒Acm = 0 ⇒ Vcm= constant.

While the child is walking along the slab the net external force is zero, then the
acceleration of the center of mass is zero and the linear momentum of the system and
the velocity of the center of mass are constant.

2. Vcm = 0 for ti < t < tf.

While the child is walking along the slab, the velocity of the center of mass is constant.
The value of the constant is determined by the initial conditions of the problem:

The child and the slab are at rest before the child starts walking towards the right end

Then,

As a result the initial velocity of the center of mass is:

and it will be zero at any instant of time during the time interval under
consideration ti < t < tf.

3. Xcm = constant

From the definition of velocity,

Then the position of the center of mass does not change with time and is equal to the
value it has at time t = ti as calculated in the "Illustrative Example: A system of two
extended objects", in the previous module.

b) Where is the left end of the slab with respect to its initial position when the child has
reached the right end?

Answer: The left end has moved towards the left a distance [Lm/(m + M] with respect

to its original position.

Explanation:

At the instant of time ti , when the child is at the left end of the slab ready to start
walking towards the right, the left end of the slab coincides with the origin of the
coordinate system x = 0 shown in the top figure below.
While the child is walking towards the right end, the contact force exerted by the child
on the slab makes the slab to move to the left in such a way that the center of mass of
the child-slab system does not move. When the child reaches the right end of the slab,
the left end of the slab is shifted towards the negative x-axis, at a position xleft as shown
in the bottom figure.
Let's consider Xcm(ti) to be the position of the center of mass at the initial time when
the child is standing on the left end of the slab. By definition of the center of mass we
have:
Because the center of mass is at rest during the time interval the child walks along the
slab, then:

where, Xcm(tf) is the position of the center of mass at the instant t = tf measured from

x=0, when the child is on the right end of the slab.

Realize that the distance between the child and the center of mass at time t = tf,
indicated by d in the figure, is equal to the distance between the child and the center of
mass of the system at time t = ti, which coincides with Xcm(ti):

The total length of the slab can be expressed as:

Note that the minus in front of xleft is needed because the position of the left end is

negative (it has moved to the left of x=0). Using (eq 1), (eq. 2) and (eq. 3) in the above
expression we obtain:

Then,

When the child is standing on the right end of the slab, the left end is at a distance

measured from x = 0.
c) What is the speed of the slab when the child stops walking on the slab?

Answer: The speed of the slab is zero

Explanation:

Let's consider v→1(t) and v→2(t) to be the child's and slab's velocity at a given instant

of time ti < t < tf, then the velocity of the center of mass is:

As shown in part a), during the time interval of consideration the velocity of the center
of mass is constant and equal to zero, therefore the above equation becomes:

Then the velocity of the slab during the time interval ti < t <tf is given by:

When the child stops, then the slab will stop.

To answer this part you can also use the total momentum of the system.

Running along the slab

Now the child wants to run along the slab. Starting from rest at the left end, he runs with
a constant acceleration of magnitude a. When he reaches the right end, the child steps
off the slab and lands in the ice.
 The following questions refer to the situation just described about the boy running along
the slab.

d) At the instant right when the child has reached the right end and is about to step off
the slab, the distance of the left end of the slab measured with respect to its initial
position

 is larger

 is the same

 is smaller

than the distance obtained in part b) when the child walks instead of running?

Answer: The distance is the same.

Explanation: As in the case of the child walking, the net external force on the
child+slab system is zero. In addition, the child and the slab are initially at rest, then the
velocity of the center of mass is zero and the position of the center of mass remains
unchanged. The only difference between the situation of the child running with respect
to the one of the child walking is the way the child and slab interact. Because the
internal forces do not affect the motion of the center of mass, then the answer will be
the same as in part b).

e) What is the child's speed and the slab's speed at the instant right when the child
has reached the right end of the slab?
Answer:

Explanation:

We will consider the time interval that start at the instant, ti, when the child is at the left

end ready to run, and ends at the instant, tf , when the child has reached the left end of
the slab. As done in part b), we will choose a coordinate system such that at the
instant ti its origin coincides with the left end of the slab. As shown in the bottom figure,

a the instant tf, when the child is at the right end, his position is x1(tf) and his speed is

v1(tf), and the position of the slab's center of mass is x2(tf) and the slab's center of
mass speed is v2(tf).
If the net external force on the slab+child system is zero, then the acceleration of the
center of mass is zero and the velocity of the center of mass is constant. Because
initially both, the child and the slab are at rest, then the velocity of the center of mass is
zero and it will remain zero while the child is running along the slab, ti < t < t f:

As a result:

(Note: This result is also obtained if we apply the Momentum and External Impulse
Model to the slab+child system.)
From the above equation, if we calculate the speed of one of the objects in the system
we will know the speed of the other one. As shown in the bottom figure, the child is at
distance x1(tf) when he is at the right end of the slab. As calculated in part b) of this
problem:

We also know the child's acceleration. Now we consider a new system formed by only
the child treated as a point particle acted upon external forces that produce the child to
move with constant acceleration, a1. We can use the law of change of the constant
acceleration with constant net force model that relates speed and position:

Using the value of x1(tf) and the fact that the child starts from rest then the above
expression becomes:

and the slab's speed:

Example 2: Unloading a car from a barge

A barge of mass M is at rest and tied to a pier by a cable. A car of mass m is at rest at
the left end of the barge as shown in the figure. A workman of negligible mass drives
the car with a constant acceleration from the left to the right end. The car attains a
speed vc in a time T when it reaches the right end of the barge. Assume that the barge
does not move while the car is moving from left to right.

a) Is the velocity of the center of mass of the car + barge system constant?

Answer: No. The sum of the external forces on the system is equal to the force
exerted on the barge by the cable, then the acceleration of the center of mass is not
zero and the velocity of the center of mass is not constant.

b) What is the magnitude and direction of the force exerted on the barge by the
cable while the car is moving from left to right?

Answer: Magnitude: mvc / T;

Direction: towards the pier, along the +x axis.

Derivation:

There are several ways to approach the problem. We will use the concept of center of
mass.
We will consider the time interval during which the car moves with a constant
acceleration from left to right.
 System: Car + barge treated as point particles belonging to a single system

Interactions:

 External:

 Car and barge with Earth.

 The barge and surrounding water. The barge does not move relative to the water, then
we can neglect friction and the resulting force exerted by the water on the barge is the
buoyancy force vertically up.

 The barge and the cable. The resulting force is the unknown force of magnitude f.

 Internal:

 Car and barge. The resulting contact forces are the normal and friction forces. These
are Newton's 3rd law pairs that will not change the motion of the center of mass of the
cart-barge system.

The net external force on the system is the force exerted by the cable on the barge:

In terms of the acceleration of the center of mass:

If the accelerations of the car and the barge are a→c and a→b, respectively, then the
acceleration of the center of mass is:
If the barge remains at rest while the car is moving, then: a→b = 0.
The car's acceleration is assumed to be constant, therefore a→c = Vc/Ti^.

Replacing these values in the above expression we have:

and the force exerted on the barge by the cable is:

Illustrative Example: Two blocks connected by a spring.

Two identical blocks of mass m are connected with a massless spring and placed on a
horizontal and frictionless table. The two blocks-spring system is initially at rest. A force
of magnitude f and parallel to the surface is applied to the left block at the instant t1 and

is removed at t2.

a) Describe mathematically the motion of the center of mass of the system after the
force f is removed. Consider a coordinate system with its origin coinciding with

the center of mass at the instant when the force f is removed.

 Answer: The center of mass will move along the +x axis with a constant speed

given by: ; The position of the center of mass

changes linearly with time as:

Derivation:

We are interested to study the motion of the system at times larger than t2.
System: 2 blocks and spring. The blocks are treated as point particles.

Interactions:

 External: The blocks interact with the Earth and the surface. The resulting forces
(gravity and normal) cancel. The spring is assumed to be massless then it does not
interact with the Earth. The sum of the external forces is zero after t2.

 Internal: left block and spring, right block and spring. The resulting forces are the
elastic force acting on each block and on the spring. Because these forces are internal,
they will not change the total momentum of the system and will not change the motion
of the center of mass.

Because the net external force is zero, the acceleration of the center of mass is zero
and the velocity of the center of mass is constant. As a result, the position of the center
of mass will follow a straight line along the x-axis. Considering a coordinate system with
its origin coinciding with the position of the center of mass at time t2, then we have:

If we redefine the initial time to be zero when the force f is removed then the position of
the center of mass can be expressed as:
Calculate Vcm:

For that purpose we consider the time interval during which the force f is applied to the

system. Now we need to add the external interaction that produces the force f to the

interactions with the Earth and the surface. As a result, the net external is f and the
velocity of the center of mass at the instant right before removing the force an be
obtained as:

Because the blocks where initially at rest, the velocity of the center of mass at time t1 is
zero, then:

After removing the force f, the net force is zero and the velocity of the center of mass
will remain constant and given by the expression above. Note that its value will depend
on the external impulse that for the moment can't be solved because we do not have
information about the force f.

b) Describe in words the motion of the two blocks for times t > t2.

Answer: The blocks will oscillate and at the same time they will translate to the right

with a constant speed of

The net force on each block is not zero. It is an elastic force that produces the
oscillation of the blocks. The motion of the blocks is complicated but the center of mass
will still move at a constant speed Vcm. The positions of the blocks as a function of time
are shown in the following animation:

Run Animation 2 by Wolfgang Christian:

Click the following link and then click on Animation 2:

http://dl.uncw.edu/digilib/physics/x_physlets_01/physletprob/ch7_in_class/in_class7_1/
mechanics7_1_4.html

To see a real demonstration of this question see the following movie: Part of Prof.
Lewin's lecture in Linear Momentum:

The two-carts-spring demo starts at 46:24 and ends at 50:16 when Prof. Lewis starts to
talk about throwing a hammer in the air. If you continue, note that the tennis racket
center of mass can't be seen in the UV light demo.

c) What is the speed of the blocks at the instant when the spring is at maximum
compression and maximum extension?

Answer: Both blocks move at Vcm.

At the instant when the spring is at maximum compression or extension the blocks do
not move relative to each other. The 2 blocks+spring system is still moving with the
velocity of the center of mass, therefore the blocks' speed at the instant of maximum
extension and compression is Vcm.
 Illustrative Example: An explosion in air.

A projectile of mass M explodes at the top of its trajectory, point (xm , hm) measured
with respect to the launching point as shown in the figure. Right after the explosion, the
smallest piece of mass m1 = M / 3, is momentarily at rest. Where does the other piece
of mass m2 land? Give your answer measured with respect to the launching position.

Answer: 2.5xm

Derivation:

There are two ways to solve this problem. The first uses kinematics and conservation of
linear momentum. The second uses the concept of the center of mass. We will follow
the second approach, which is shorter than the first.
The time interval we are considering is while the projectile is in air.

System: the projectile.

Interactions:

 External: The projectile and the Earth. We will neglect the presence of air. The resulting
force is the gravitational force that will act on the complete projectile before the
explosion, and on each of the pieces after the explosion.

 Internal: The forces resulting from the explosion. They produce the change in
momentum of the individual pieces but do not affect the motion of the center of mass.
These forces act during the short time interval that the explosion lasts.
Note: the piece m1 must be ejected (i.e. given an impulse) straight back along − x^ in
order to be motionless, so m2 is projected straight forwards, and both pieces land at the
same time.

While the projectile or pieces are in the air, the net external force on the system is
gravity, so

implies that

As a result, the center of mass follows a projectile motion and it will land at a distance
2xm from the launching point as shown below:

In the figure, x2 is the landing position of the largest piece of mass m2. Using the
definition of the center of mass:

Replacing the values of the masses:

 or,

Solving for x2:

Knowing that Xcm = 2xm and x1 = xm, the above equation becomes:

CHECKPOINT 18: TUG-OF-WAR

A large person with mass 2M and a smaller person with mass M are holding onto a
massless pole while standing on frictionless ice, as shown below. If the large person
pulls himself toward the smaller person along the massless rod, where will they meet?