Chapter – 1

Basic Concepts
________________________________________________________________________
1. INTRODUCTION
________________________________________________________________________
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Computer : A brief History
1.3 Characteristics of computer
1.4 Advantages of Computers
1.5 Limitations of Computers
1.6 Types of Computers
1.6.1 According to Technology
1.6.2 According to Purpose
1.6.3 According to Size
1.7 Applications of Computes
1.8 Data Representation
1.8.1 Binary Number System
1.8.2 Decimal to Binary
1.8.3 Binary to Decimal
1.8.4 Binary Coded Decimal number(BCD)
1.8.5 ASCII
1.9 Summary of the chapter
1.10 Exercise

________________________________________________________________________
1.1 Objectives
________________________________________________________________________
After studying this chapter, students are able to:
 Understand the definition of the computer.
 Explain the basic characteristics of computers.
 Understand the Advantages of computers.
 Understand the limitation and characteristics.
 Understand Types of computers
 Understand the various data Representation

1
_______________________________________________________________________
1.2 Computer : A brief history
_______________________________________________________________________

There are many stages of computer evolution. From the manual system the
changeover was to machine assisted manual system. The modern computer with the power
and speed of today were not solitary inventions. The ‘ABACUS’ used by the primary
section students can be called a computing aid and in turn a computer. Likewise, the slide
rules being used by engineers and others, not a very long ago, definitely was a great aid in
computing. In loose term all are computers. But when we talk of automatic data processing
(man assisted mechanical system) and electronic data processing, the history begins with
Charles Babbage’s attempt to build an automatic mechanical calculator at Cambridge,
England in 1830. By 1930’s punched cards were in wide use in large businesses, and
various type of punched card machines were available. In 1937, Howard Aiken, at
Harvard, proposed to IBM that a machine could be constructed which would automatically
sequence the operations and calculations performed.

The first set of machines use to process data Electro-mechanically was called unit
record machine. This set consisted of six basic machines:

Computer is an electronic device capable of interpreting and executing programmed

commands for input, output, computation and logic operations. There are three types of
computers analog digital and hybrid computers.

1. Analog computer operates by representing the variable of a problem by physical

quantities easily generated or controlled.
These computers used as a following
1. Electrical voltages
2. Pressure
3. Speed temperature
And perform computations on these measurements. Analog computers are
mainly used for scientific and engineering application.

Fig 1.1 Analog Computers

2
 2. Digital computers is a computer that will accept data and information presented
to it in its required format, carry out arithmetic and logic operations on this raw
material and then supply the required results an in an acceptable form. It can
recognize only two states in any of its microscopic circuits : on or off, 0 or 1
Computer speeds are measured in megahertz or millions of cycles per second.
These computers are used for
1. Commercial
2. Educational
3. Scientific etc type of applications.

Fig 1.2 Digital Computers

3. Hybrid computer incorporating at least one stored program digital program

digital processor linked with a multiplicity of analog computing units.
Hybrid computers combine the best features of analog and digital computers.
They have the speed as of analog computer and accuracy that of digital
computers. Hybrid computers are mainly used in medical diagnostics,
artificial intelligence (robotics) and computer aided manufacturing (CAM)

Fig 1.3 Hybrid Computers

A major difference between analogy and digital computers is the accuracy

attainable. Accuracy of a digital computer can be extended by simply carrying more

3
significant figures, whereas the accuracy of analog device is limited primarily by the
accuracy of individual components and the measuring device.

Computers are capable of performing four general operations. These operations

comprise the information processing cycle.

They are input, process, output and storage. The computer’s power derives from its
ability to perform the operations mentioned above very quickly (speed of milli, micro,
nano, or pico seconds), accurately, reliably and its memory capability.
_______________________________________________________________________
1.3 Characteristics of a Computer
_______________________________________________________________________

Computers have unquestionably some strength, this is why, they are used to
perform different kind of tasks in nearly all the fields of our life. The strengths of the
computer are considered as characteristics of the computer.

Strengths of Computers

1. Speed: Computers are fast and powerful calculating machine. They perform
a given task faster than human beings. If a human being performs a task in 12 hours, a
computer can perform that in few minutes. The processing speed of a computer is
measured in Millions of Instructions Per Seconds (IMPS). It can execute millions of
instructions in one second.

2. Accuracy: Computer can perform all the calculations and comparisons with
cent-percent accuracy, if provided with correct data and instructions.

3. Reliability: Like human beings, computers do not get exhausted or

uninterested while working for a long time continuously. Thus they are more reliable than
human beings.

4. Versatility: Computers are more versatile than human beings. They can do
dangerous jobs in antagonistic environment and can even work in areas where human
beings can prone errors. For instance, counting the total number of WBC (White Blood
Corpuscles) in per cubic milliliter of blood. Computers can also work with different types
of data and information such as characters, audio, video, graphics, etc. Microprocessor-
controlled artificial limbs and legs have been developed for paralysed persons. A computer
can also perform various kinds of pathological tests from a single sample of blood.

5. Storage Capacity: Computers can store a large amount of data/information in

less space. For example, three CD-ROMs of 4.7-inch diameter can store a complete movie,
A single DVD can store a complete movie.

4
_______________________________________________________________________
1.4 Advantages of computers
_______________________________________________________________________

The increasing popularity of computers has proved that it is a very powerful and
useful tool. The power and usefulness of this popular tool are mainly due to its
following characteristics:
1. Automatic. Computers are automatic machines because once started on a job, they
carry on until the job is finished, normally without any human assistance. However,
computers being machines cannot start themselves. They have to be instructed. The
set of instructions is called a computer program.

2. Speed. A computer, is a very fast device. While talking about the speed of a
computer, we do not talk in terms of seconds or even milliseconds (.001),
microseconds (.000001), the nanoseconds and even the picoseconds A powerful
computer is capable of performing several billion of arithmetic operations per
second. Probably a man will take about years to complete.

3. Accuracy. The accuracy of a computer is consistently high. If the input data

entering the computer are correct and if the program of instructions is reliable, then
we can expect that the computer generally will produce accurate output.

4. Diligence. Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tireness, lack
of concentration, etc., and hence can work for hours together without creating any
error and without grumbling. Due to this property computer obviously score over
human beings in doing routine type of jobs.

5. Versatility. Versatility is one of the most wonderful things about the computer. One
moment, it is preparing the results of particular examination, the next moment it is
busy preparing electricity bills, and in between, it may be helping an office
secretary to trace an important letter in seconds. All that is required to change its
talent is to slip in a new program (a sequence of instructions for the computer) into
it.

6. Power of Remembering and storing. A computer can store and recall any amount of
information because of its secondary storage (a type of detachable memory)
capability. Every piece of information can be retained as long as desired by the user
and can be recalled as and when required.

5
7. No I.Q. A computer is not a magical device. It can only perform tasks that a human
being can. The difference is that is performs these tasks with unthinkable speed and
accuracy. It possesses no intelligence of its own. Its I.Q. is zero, at least till today.

8. No Feelings. Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feelings and no

instincts because they are machines although men have succeeded in building a
memory for the computer, but no computer possesses the equivalent of a human
heart and soul.

9. STORAGE. On secondary storage devices, a large amount of data can be stored and
retrieved. Now a days, you find, almost every thing being stored on a CD which
capable of storing entire textual matter of B.Com Honors first year on one CD only.

_______________________________________________________________________
1.5 Limitations of Computers
_______________________________________________________________________

Computers have some limits that are the strengths of human beings. Following are
the limitations/weaknesses of computers.

1. Lack of Making Capability: do not have decision-making power, so they cannot

take decision by themselves. To enable them to take decision they have to be
instructed through commands or programs.

2. Lack of IQ: Being a non-living being computers do not have their own IQ. Thus
they need to be instructed each and every step, even to perform a simple task.

3. No Heuristics: Computers do not learn from their past experiences. If they commit
an error once, they will commit the same error again and again, when the similar
situation or even happens in future.

_______________________________________________________________________
1.6 Types of Computers
_______________________________________________________________________
There are various types of computers based on following categories:
(i) According to Technology
(ii) According to Purpose
(iii) According to size

1.6.1 According to technology: According to Technology

• Analog Computers

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 • Digital Computers
• Hydride Computers

Analog Computers: These computers recognize data as a continuous

measurement of a physical property ( voltage, pressure, speed and temperature).
Example: Automobile speedometer

Digital Computers: These are high speed programmable electronic devices that
perform mathematical calculations, compare values and store results. They
recognize data by counting discrete signal representing either a high or low
voltage state of electricity.

Hybrid Computers: A computer that processes both analog and digital data.

1.6.2 According to Purpose

 General purpose Computers
 Special Computers
General purpose Computers : A ‘General Purpose Computer’ is a machine that is
capable of carrying out some general data processing under program control. Refers
to computers that follow instructions, thus virtually all computers from micro to
mainframe are general purpose. Even computers in toys, games and single-function
devices follow instructions in their built-in program.

Special purpose Computers: A computer that is designed to operate on a restricted

class of problems. Use special purpose computer equipment to obtain patient
diagnostic information.
1.6.3. According to size
• Supercomputers

• Mainframe Computers

• Minicomputers

• Workstations

• Microcomputers, or Personal Computers

Supercomputers :are widely used in scientific applications such as aerodynamic design

simulation, processing of geological data.
• Supercomputers are the most powerful computers. They are used for problems requiring
complex calculations.
• Because of their size and expense, supercomputers are relatively rare.
• Supercomputers are used by universities, government agencies, and large businesses.
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Mainframe Computers: are usually slower, less powerful and less expensive than
supercomputers. A technique that allows many people at terminals, to access the same
computer at one time is called time sharing. Mainframes are used by banks and many
business to update inventory etc.

• Mainframe computers can support hundreds or thousands of users, handling massive

amounts of input, output, and storage.

• Mainframe computers are used in large organizations where many users need access to
shared data and programs.

• Mainframes are also used as e-commerce servers, handling transactions over the Internet.

Minicomputers:
are smaller than mainframe, general purpose computers, and give computing power
without adding the prohibitive expenses associated with larger systems. It is generally
easier to use.

• Minicomputers usually have multiple terminals.

• Minicomputers may be used as network servers and Internet servers.

Workstations

• Workstations are powerful single-user computers.

• Workstations are used for tasks that require a great deal of number-crunching power,
such as product design and computer animation.

• Workstations are often used as network and Internet servers.

Microcomputers, or Personal Computers :is the smallest, least expensive of all the
computers. Micro computers have smallest memory and less power, are physically smaller
and permit fewer peripherals to be attached.

• Microcomputers are more commonly known as personal computers. The term “PC”
is applied to IBM-PCs or compatible computers.

• Desktop computers are the most common type of PC.

• Notebook (laptop) computers are used by people who need the power of a desktop
system, but also portability.

8
• Handheld PCs (such as PDAs) lack the power of a desktop or notebook PC, but offer
features for users who need limited functions and small size.

Personal Computers(PC):

 Desk Top
 Lap Top
 Palm Top
 PDA

_______________________________________________________________________
1.6 Applications of Computers
_______________________________________________________________________

In 1950s, computers were very large in size and were used by institutions like
governments and universities only for scientific and engineering application, which require
complex and massive computations. But now a day, more than 50 per cent of work done
by computers is non-computational type. It has become possible only due to the invention
of Personal Computer (PC). The PC was invented in 1970s which revolutionized the world
and today computers are used nearly in every field of our life. Some major applications of
computers are as follows:

1. Business applications
2. Educational applications
3. Entertainment applications
4. Medicine and Healthcare applications
5. Industry Automation
6. Communication
7. Scientific
8. Remote Sensing applications
9. Multilingual applications
10. Government, Police and Military applications

Computers are something familiar to everyone as they are sued increasingly in our
everyday life. Some uses to which computers are put which have made life easier are
as follows.
In Science new theories are developed based on measurements and calculations that
are generally very complicated and would take a lifetime to do. Computers can analyse
masses of scientific data and solve long and complex problems accurately and far more
quickly than people can. This has greatly helped in research in science such as
astronomy, physics, chemistry, etc.
Computers assist engineers to solve complex design problems and help to ensure
that all proposed parts of a design are satisfactory. The application of computers to
design is called CAD (Computer Aided Design).
9
 Fig 1.3 Showing Computer aided Design

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems to assist in the

creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.CAD software is used to
increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve
communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing.
CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other
manufacturing operations.
In factories Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) help increase the efficiency
and quality of manufacturing operations. They are used to monitor and control the
manufacturing process with great accuracy.
Computers played a very important role at every stage of landing men on the moon.
They were used to design and test the Apollo spacecraft. The spacecraft itself
contained several small but powerful computers. In fact it would not have been
possible at all to send spacecrafts to explore the moon and the planets without the help
of computers.
Long range weather forecasting is done with the help of computers. Satellites
orbiting the earth send back photographs of cloud formations and other relevant data
like temperature etc. See fig 1.20

Fig 1.20 Showing Weather Forecasting

10
 The information from the satellites and the information collected at the weather
stations have to be analyzed quickly enough so that weather predictions can be made.
The computer analyses the data is a few seconds and based on these results long range
weather forecasts are made.
Computers are used in all areas of aviation. They are used for air traffic control
which helps to organize the safe movement of the aircrafts as flying speeds are very
high. Small computers installed in the aircraft help to collect data from the various
instruments, analyze it and provide information to the pilot in time for decision and
action. Besides in-flight uses computers are also used to train pilots at the start to ‘fly’
an aircraft using computerized aircraft simulators. See fig 1.21

Fig 1.21 Showing Simulator used in aircraft

Modern missiles depend totally on computers for reaching the target area whether
they are launched from ground o ship or air. For instance a missile targeted to it an
aircraft calculates with the help of an on-board computer the speed, direction and the
evasive action of the aircraft and guides the missile both in terms of speed and direction
to make a hit.
Computers are used in transport facilities like airlines and railways. They are used
for efficient handling of seat reservations, maintaining time-tables, crew schedules etc.
They are also used to control the movement of vehicles in underground railways.
In hospitals special purpose computers built into different pieces of equipment help
to monitor the conditions of patients, record the information and warn doctors and
nurses of changes that call for attention. See Fig 1.22

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 Fig 1.22 Showing uses of computers in hospitals (OT, ICU, CCU)

Computers analyze large volumes of data in business operations and help produce
relevant information to support the decision making needs of managers. Large and
medium sized companies depend on computers for administrative work like typing out
standard letters, invoices, making out salaries of employees etc.

_______________________________________________________________________
1.8 Data Representation
_______________________________________________________________________

Data can be represented into various number systems namely as Decimal, Binary, Hexa,
BCD and ASCII number system.

1.8.1 Binary Number System

1.8.2 Decimal to Binary
1.8.3 Binary to Decimal
1.8.4 Binary Coded Decimal Number (BCD)
1.8.5. ASCII

1.8.1 Binary Number systems.

There are many ways to represent integers: the number of days in the month of October
can be represented as 31 in decimal, 11111 in binary, 1F in hexadecimal, or XXXI in
Roman Numerals. It is important to remember than an integer is an integer, no matter
whether it is represented in decimal or with Roman Numerals.

 Binary numbers. Computers are based on the binary (base 2) number system
because each wire can be in one of two states (on or off).

12
 BIN DEC HEX BIN DEC HEX BIN DEC HEX
0 0 0 10000 16 10 100000 32 20
1 1 1 10001 17 11 100001 33 21
10 2 2 10010 18 12 100010 34 22
11 3 3 10011 19 13 100011 35 23
100 4 4 10100 20 14 100100 36 24
101 5 5 10101 21 15 100101 37 25
110 6 6 10110 22 16 100110 38 26
111 7 7 10111 23 17 100111 39 27
1000 8 8 11000 24 18 101000 40 28
1001 9 9 11001 25 19 101001 41 29
1010 10 A 11010 26 1A 101010 42 2A
1011 11 B 11011 27 1B 101011 43 2B
1100 12 C 11100 28 1C 101100 44 2C
1101 13 D 11101 29 1D 101101 45 2D
1110 14 E 11110 30 1E 101110 46 2E
1111 15 F 11111 31 1F 101111 47 2F

1.8.2 Decimal to Binary Number conversion.

You need to know how to convert from a number represented in one system to another.

 Converting from Binary to decimal. To convert from an integer represented in base

b to decimal, multiply the ith digit by the ith power of b, and sum up the results. For
example, the binary number 101101110 is 366 in decimal.

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 (binary)

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 (powers of 2)

-------------------------------------------
256 + 64 + 32 +8 +4 +2 (multiplied by corresponding digit)

366

The hexadecimal number 16E is 366 in decimal.

13
 1 6 E (hex)
256 16 1 (powers of 16)
-------------
256 + 96 + 14 (multiplied by corresponding digit)

366

1.8.3.Converting from decimal to binary. :It is slightly more difficult to convert an

integer represented in decimal to one in base b because we are accustomed to performing
arithmetic in base 10. The easiest way to convert from decimal to base b by hand is to
repeatedly divide by the base b, and read the remainder upwards. For example, the
calculations below convert from the decimal integer 366 to binary (101101110) and to
hexadecimal (16E).

 Converting between base b1 and b2. One way is to convert the base b1 integer to
decimal (using the first algorithm described above) and then to convert the resulting
decimal integer to base b2 (using the second algorithm described above).
 Converting between binary and hexadecimal. We describe a fast and elegant way to
convert directly from the binary to hexadecimal representation of an integer: First,
group the digits 4 at a time starting from the right; then convert each group to a
single hexadecimal digit, padding 0s to the very last group if necessary. For
example, the hexadecimal representation of 111010111001110001 is 3AE71.

0011 1010 1110 0111 0001

3 A E 7 1

 Decimal numbers. We are most familiar with performing arithmetic with the
decimal (base 10) number system. This number system has been widely adopted, in
large part because we have 10 fingers. However, other number systems still persist
in modern society.

To convert from hexadecimal to binary: convert each hexadecimal digit

individually into its corresponding 4 digit binary number, removing any leading 0's.

14
 9 F 0 3
1001 1111 0000 0011

This works because one base (16) is a power of the other (2). Likewise, it would be
easy to convert between the base 125 and base 5 representations.

Even though many people used to think of computers as “number crunchers”,

people figured out long ago that it’s just as important to handle character data. Character
data isn’t just alphabetic characters, but also numeric characters, punctuation, spaces, etc.
Most keys on the central part of the keyboard (except shift, caps lock) are characters.

In particular, characters need to be represented in binary. After all, computers store

and manipulate 0’s and 1’s are just abstractions - the implementation is typically voltages).
1.8.5 ASCII :The most common character representation is ASCII, which stands for
American Standard Code for Information Interchange.

There are two reasons to use ASCII. First, we need some way to represent character
as binary numbers (or, equivalently, as bit string patterns.) There’s not much choice about
this since computers represent everything in binary.
If you’ve noticed a common theme, it’s that we need representation schemes for
everything. However, most importantly, we need representations for numbers and
character. The other reason we use ASCII is because of the letter “S” in ASCII, which
stands for “standard”. Standards are good because they allow for common formats that
everyone can agree on. See ASCII table below.

Unfortunately, there’s also the letter “A”, which stands for American. ASCII is
clearly biased for the English language character set. Other languages may have their own
character set, even though English dominates most of the computing world (at least,
programming and software).

Even though character sets don’t have mathematical properties, there are some nice
aspects about ASCII. In particular, the lowercase letters are contiguous (‘a’ through ‘z’
maps to 9710 through 12210). The upper case letters are also contiguous (‘A’ through ‘Z
maps to 6510 through 9010). Finally, the digits are contiguous (‘0’ through ‘9’ maps to
4810 through 5710).

15
_______________________________________________________________________
1.9 Summary of the chapter
_______________________________________________________________________

There are many stages of computer evolution. From the manual system the changeover
was to machine assisted manual system. The modern computer with the power and speed
of today were not solitary inventions. The ‘ABACUS’ used by the primary section
students can be called a computing aid and in turn a computer.
The PC was invented in 1970s which revolutionized the world and today computers are
used nearly in every field of our life. Some major applications of computers

16
The increasing popularity of computers has proved that it is a very powerful and useful
tool. The power and usefulness of this popular tool are mainly due to its Reliability,
Accuracy, Speed and Storage etc. characteristics
There are few limitations namely as no IQ, cannot learn by experience, No feeling, do not
know about his owner etc.
There are two reasons to use ASCII. First, we need some way to represent character as
binary numbers (or, equivalently, as bit string patterns.) There’s not much choice about
this since computers represent everything in binary.

17
Check your progress
_______________________________________________________________________
1.11 Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks
________________________________________________________________________

1. There are many stages of computer evolution. From the

…………………………………….was to machine assisted manual system.

2. Howard Aiken, at Harvard, proposed to IBM that a machine could be constructed

which would ……………………………………..and calculations performed.

3. The PC was invented in 1970s which ……………………………………and today

computers are used nearly in every field of our life.
4. The power and usefulness of this popular tool are mainly due to its Reliability,
…………………………………………….characteristics.
5. Computers have some limits that are the………………………………………..
6. There are two reasons to use…………………. First, we need some way to
represent character as binary numbers (or, equivalently, as bit string patterns.)
There’s not much choice about this since computers represent everything in binary.

Ans 1. manual system the changeover, 2. automatically sequence the operations, 3.

revolutionized the world , 4. Accuracy, Speed and Storage etc., 5. Strengths of human
beings, 6. ASCII

Exercise 2: True and False

State the following statements. Please mark ( T ) on the correct statement and (F) on false
Statement.
1. Do not have decision-making power, so they cannot take decision by themselves.
To enable them to take decision they have to be instructed through commands or
programs.
2. Being a non-living being computers do not have their own IQ. Thus they need to be
instructed each and every step, even to perform a simple task.
3. Computers do not learn from their past experiences. If they commit an error once,
they will commit the same error again and again, when the similar situation or even
happens in future.
4. The first set of machines use to process data Electro-mechanically was called unit
record machine.
5. Computer is an electronic device capable of interpreting and executing programmed
commands for input, output, computation and logic operations. There are three
types of computers analog digital and hybrid computers.

Ans 1 ( T ), 2( T ), 3( T ), 4( T ), 5( T )
18
Exercise 3: Mix and Match
Match statement A with Statement B

S.No Statement (A) Statement (B)

1. Computers are automatic machines because once Speed

started on a job, they carry on until the job is
finished, normally without any human assistance.
However, computers being machines cannot start
themselves. They have to be instructed. The set of
instructions is called a computer program.
2. A computer, is a very fast device. While talking Automatic
about the speed of a computer, we do not talk in
terms of seconds or even milliseconds (.001),
microseconds (.000001), the nanoseconds and
even the picoseconds A powerful computer is
capable of performing several billion of arithmetic
operations per second. Probably a man will take
about years to complete.
3. The accuracy of a computer is consistently high. If
the input data entering the computer are correct
and if the program of instructions is reliable, then Diligence
we can expect that the computer generally will
produce accurate output.
4.
Unlike human beings, a computer is free from
monotony, tireness, lack of concentration, etc.,
and hence can work for hours together without Accuracy
creating any error and without grumbling. Due to
this property computer obviously score over
human beings in doing routine type of jobs.

5. Versatility is one of the most wonderful things

about the computer. One moment, it is preparing Storage
the results of particular examination, the next
moment it is busy preparing electricity bills, and
in between, it may be helping an office secretary
to trace an important letter in seconds. All that is
required to change its talent is to slip in a new
program (a sequence of instructions for the
computer) into it.
Power of Remembering and storing. A computer Versatility
can store and recall any amount of information
19
 because of its secondary storage (a type of
detachable memory) capability. Every piece of
information can be retained as long as desired by
the user and can be recalled as and when required.

Ans. 1. (2), 2. (1), 3. (4), 4. (3), 5. (6), 6(5)

Exercise 4: Very Short Questions

1. Distinguish between analog, digital and hybrid computers ?

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2. What is a Super Computer?

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3. Distinguish between Micro Computers, Mini Computers and Main Frames ?

Explain.

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4. Define ‘ABACUS’?

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5. What are Limitations of Computes

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6. Features and Limitations of various generations of computers.

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Exercise 5 : Descriptive Questions

1. What are the Various Advantages of Computers?

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2. Explain the various applications and uses of Computers?

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3. What is Data Representations? Explain ASCII
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4. Explain the various types of Computers on the basis size, technology and uses?
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5. Explain Binary, Decimal, BCD Number system?

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 Chapter – 2: Essentials Components of Computers
________________________________________________________________________
2. INTRODUCTION
________________________________________________________________________
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Hardware Components
2.3 Hardware
2.4 Types of Memory
2.4.1 RAM
2.4.2 ROM
2.5 Difference between Hardware, Firmware and Live-ware
2.6 Software
2.7 Overview of Operating System
2.8 Translating Programs
2.9 Application Software
2.10 Summary of the chapter
2.11 Exercise

________________________________________________________________________
2.1 Objectives
________________________________________________________________________
After studying this chapter, students are able to:
 Understand the definition of the Hardware.
 Explain the Firmware and Live-ware.
 Understand the relationship between hardware and software.
 Understand the advantages, limitation and characteristics.
 Understand Types of Software
o System Software
o Application Software

_______________________________________________________________________
2.2 Hardware components
_______________________________________________________________________

Computer is a System. A system is a group of elements that are tied together to

carry out a common task and to achieve a common goal. The computer system consists of
following hardware components/elements.

1. Input Unit

2. Central Processing Unit

22
3. Main Memory

4. Output Unit

Types of Computers — Based on size and storage capacity

According to the size and memory / storage capacity, computers are of the following four
types:

1. Supercomputer : It is the biggest and fastest computer, which is mainly designed for
complex scientific applications. It has many CPU’s (Central Processing Units -
main part of the computer) which operates in parallel to make it as fastest computer.
Supercomputer is mainly used for the following application like Weather
Information, Energy Management, Real — time Animation, Medicine, Nuclear
Energy Research, Petroleum Exploration and Production etc. CRAY was the first
supercomputer of world and PARAM 10000, ANURAG are the Supercomputers of
India. Param 10000

23
 2. Mainframes Computers : These are very large and fast computers but smaller and
slower than supercomputers. They are used in a centralized location where many
terminals (input! output devices) are connected with one CPU and thus, allow
different users to share the single CPU. They have a very high memory and can
support thousands of users. Mainframe computers are mainly used in Railway and
Airline Reservation applications, Banking applications, Commercial applications of
industries and companies. Examples of mainframe computers are IBM 3090, IBM
4381, IBM 4300, IBM ES-9000.

3. Minicomputers : These are medium — scale, smaller and generally slower than
mainframes computers. Like mainframes, they have many terminals which are
connected with one CPU and can support many users. The cost of a minicomputer
24
 is less as compared to mainframes. Minicomputers are mainly used in applications
where processing can be distributed among several minicomputers rather than using
a mainframe computer. PDI1, DEC Micro VAX and IBM AS/400 are few of the
examples of minicomputer.

4. Microcomputers: It is the smallest digital computer, which uses a microprocessor as

its CPU. Microprocessor is a single chip (integrated circuit) CPU. Microcomputer is
popularly called a Personal Computer (PC). The PC’s can be used both as a stand-
alone machine and a terminal in a multi-user environment for all types of
application. Microcomputers are very popular now-a-days due to very high
processing power and memory Examples of Microcomputers are IBM PC this is
first PC manufactures by IBM, Pentium PC this model of PC uses Intel Pentium
processor. There are two type of PC’s

25
Desktop or Portable model

I. Desktop Pc’s : Desktop computers fit on a desktop and are used widely in offices
and home.

II. Portable Pc’s : Portable computers can be carried from one place to another. Some
of the models of portable computers are called laptop while others as notebook
computers. Notebook computers are smaller, lighter and costlier than laptop.
Notebook computers are also called palmtops.

26
Relationship between Hardware and Software

Computer components can be broadly divided into two categories

1. Hardware
2. Software
_______________________________________________________________________
2.3 Hardware
_______________________________________________________________________

Processing data on a computer is performed by specific equipment that is referred to

as computer hardware. The hardware hence refers to the physical components of a
computer. The four fundamental components of a computer are input devices, processor
unit, output devices and auxiliary storage units.

Input Devices

With the help of input devices data is entered into the computer which can be
translated into machine readable form.

Types of input devices

Punch Cards: It is a rigid piece of paper containing rows and columns of number.
These cards e put into a keypunch machine which places holes in the card to represent the
data. This pattern of inched holes used to represent characters on the card is called

27
Hollerith code. These holes are interpreted by a card reader that translates the punched
information into a machine readable code, and en sends it to the CPU for processing.

Keyboard : One of the most common and familiar input devices is the standard
keyboard. A typical computer keyboard contains all letters, numbers, symbol of a regular
typewriter apart from special keys which are used for control movement of the cursor,
function keys etc.

Floppy disk: Data recorded on a floppy disk is read and stored in a computer’s
memory by a device called a floppy reader. A floppy disk is inserted in a slot of the floppy
input unit. The disk is C:\WJNDOWS\hinhem.scr rotated at around 30 revolutions per
minute.

Video Terminals : The cathode ray television tube is scanned by an electron beam
to create a raster of horizontal lines. The intensity of the electron beam is increased at
certain moments creating bright spots on the face of the tube. Each character is displayed
by a matrix of 5 horizontal and 7 vertical dots. A display normally has 80 characters per
horizontal line and 24 such lines on the screen.

Source Data Automation

• MICR— Magnetic Ink Character Recognition: The human readable characters are
printed on documents (such as cheques) using a special magnetic int. A magnetic
ink character reader can recognize such characters.

• OMR— Optical Mark Reading and Recognition: Special pre printed forms are
designed with boxes which can be marked with a dark pencil or ink, such a
document is read by a document reader which transcribes the mark into electrical
pulses which are transmitted to the computer. These documents are applicable in
areas where responses are one out of a small number of alternatives and the volume
of data to be processed is large.

• OCR—Optical Character Recognition : An optical scanner is a device used to read

an image, convert it into 0’s and l’s and store this in computer memory. This
representation is called the bit map of the image. Each bit in the representation of
the image is called a pixel x (picture element).

• Bar Coding—Small bars of varying thickness and spacing are printed on packages,
badges tags etc which are read by optical reader and converted to electrical pulses.
The patters of bars are unique and standardized in some countries.

Speech input units

28
 A unit which takes as its input spoken words and converts them to a form which can
be understood by the computer is called speech input unit.

Speech units may be classified as

• Single word recognition unit: it recognizing single word commands such as stop

• Continuous speech recognition unit: a sentence spoken continuously.

Speech input unit may be further classified as

• Speaker dependent: recognises speech of a particular person

• Speaker independent : recognises speech of any person

Pointing devices

• Mouse—Mouse is a pointing device which controls the cursor movement on the

screen. When the user presses one of the button, the mouse either marks a place on
the screen or makes selection from data on the screen.

• Track ball—A track ball uses a hard sphere to control cursor movement. The ball
can be rotated by hand in any direction. The track ball translated the sphere’s
direction and speed of rotation into digital signals, used to control the cursor.
• Touch pads—A touch screen registers input when a finger or other object comes in
beams and ultrasonic acoustic waves. Infrared beams crisscross the surface of the
screen and when a light bean is broken, the location is recorded.

• Joysticks—A Joystick is a most popular input device used to play video games. A
joystick uses a level to control the position and speed with which the joystick is
moved into digital signals that are sent to the computer to control the cursor
movement.

• Light pen—The pen contains a photocell placed in a small tube. The light pen uses
a photoelectric cell to indicate screen positions to the computer. The pen is operated
by touching it to the screen. Light pen is useful for graphic work especially for
Computer Aided Design(CAD) purposes.

Processing Unit: Motherboard is the most important hardware component of a

microcomputer. Motherboard contains CPU and other chips of the computer system . The
CPU (Central Processing Unit) is divided into three parts the ALU (Arithmetic Logical
Unit) which performs all arithmetic and logical calculations. The control Unit which
controls all other parts of the computer and the memory unit.

29
Output Devices : Output devices is a peripheral device that allows a computer to
communicate information by accepting data from the computer and transforming them into
a usable form.

Output can be in the form of hard copy or soft copy.

Hard copy: It is output on paper and can be read immediately or stored and read
later. This is a relatively stable and permanent form of output. E.g. Printers, Plotters

Soft copy: It could be a screen displayed output or could be stored to secondary

storage device.

Printers : Printer is a device that prints text or illustrations on paper. There are many
different types of printers. In terms of the technology utilized printers fall into the
following categories.

• Dot matrix printers use a set of closely spaced pins and a ribbon to print letter or
other characters on page. Dot matrix printers vary on terms of speed and the number
of pins they have. They can run at a speed anywhere between 50 and 500 CPS
(Characters per second), The number of pins, which can vary between 9 to 24
determines the quality of the print job. Dot matrix printers are commonly used for
printing invoices, purchase orders, shipping forms, labels and other multi-part
forms. Dot matrix printers can print through multi-part forms in a single pass,
allowing them to produce more pages than even high-speed laser printers.

• Daisy Wheel printers : These are similar to ball-head typewriter, this type of printer
has a plastic or metal wheel on which the shape of each character stands out on
relied. A hammer presses the wheel against a ribbon, which in turn makes an ink
30
 strain in the shape of the character on the paper. Daisy — wheel printers produce
letter quality print but cannot print graphics.

• Line printers: They contain a chain of characters or pins that print an entire line at
one time. Line printers are very fast but produce low quality print.

• Ink Jets(Bubble-Jets) printers spray ionized tiny drops of ink onto a page to create
an image. This is achieved by using magnetized plates which direct the ink's path
onto the paper in the desired pattern. Almost all ink-jets offer a colour option as
standards, in varying degrees of resolution. Ink-jet printers are capable of producing
high quality print which almost matches the quality of the laser printer. A standard
Ink-jet printer has a resolution of more than 300 dots per inch. These printers
produce high quality text and graphics

• Thermal Printers are inexpensive printers that work by pushing heated pins against
heat- sensitive paper. Thermal printers are widely used in calculators and fax
machines.

• Liquid-emitting diode / Liquid crystal display (LED/LCD) printers are type of

electro photographic printers that are identical to laser printers in most ways. Both
LCD and LED printers use a light source instead of a laser to create an image on a
drum. These printers produce a very high quality text and graphic print out.

• Laser printers operate by shining a laser beam to produce an image on a drum. The
drum is then rolled through a pool or reservoir or toner and the electrically charged
portions of the drum pick up ink. Finally using a combination of heat and pressure,
the ink on the drum is transferred onto the page. Laser printers print very fast, and
produce a very high quality text and graphics.

_______________________________________________________________________
2.4 Types of Memory
_______________________________________________________________________

The memory is used to store the data, instructions and information before, during and after
processing by ALU, It is physically a collection of integrated circuits within the computer,
where the CPU stores the data and instructions. It is also known as Primary Memory. The
main memory is of the following types

31
 Various Types of
Memory

Read Only Random Access Complementary

Memory(ROM) Memory (RAM) Metal Oxide
Semiconductor
Memory (CMOS)

1. Read Only Memory (ROM)

2. Random Access Memory (RAM)
3. Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Memory (CMOS)

Read Only Memory (ROM): Chip retains the stored data when the power supply is
cut hence ROM chip are non-volatile. ROM chip may contain micro-program control
instructions that cause the machine to perform certain operations such as starting the
computer or instructions to the entire operating system. ROM chip can only be read. It
does not accept any input data or instructions from the users. The actual contents of ROM
are set by the manufacturers and they are unchangeable and permanent.

Types of ROM
Types of ROM

PROM EPROM EEPROM EAPROM

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 1) PROM : Programmable Read Only Memory: In this type of ROM, the
information is stored by programmers after its manufacturing. It cannot be
altered or erased later on.

2) EPROM : Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory : Is similar to PROM,

but its information can be erased later on by ultra violet light and it can be
re-programmed.

3) EEPROM : Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory: Is

similar to EPROM, but its information can be erased by using a high voltage
current.
4) EAPROM : Electrically Alterable Read Only Memory: As compared to
EPROM and EEPROM the information stored in EAPROM can be altered
later.

RAM : Random Access Memory : This is that part of the primary storage where
data and program instruction are held temporary while being manipulated or executed. It is
called Random Access Memory because any of the location on a chip cab be randomly
selected and used to directly store and retrieve data and instructions. RAIVI is volatile i.e.
it depends on a steady supply of electricity and when the power is shut off, every thing
stored is lost.

Ram chip may be classified as dynamic or static.

Random Access
Memory
(RAM)

Dynamic RAM Static RAM

DRAM SRAM

i. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) : The information stored in Dynamic RAM has to be re

freshed after every few milliseconds otherwise it is erased. SGP.AM (Synchronous
Graphic RAM) is a form of DRAM optimised for the high speed, high volume data
transfers required by graphics / video applications.

ii. Static RAM (SRAM) : The information stored in static RAM need not be refreshed,
but it remains stable as long as power supply is provided. It has lower storage
capacity compared to DRAM, but has higher speed than DRAM. SRAM chips are
33
 more complicated and take up more space than DRAM chip because they require
more transistors and other devices to store a bit of data. Therefore SRAM are used
in specialised applications while DRAM are used in primary storage section.

_______________________________________________________________________
2.5 Difference between Hardware, Firmware and Liver-ware
_______________________________________________________________________

Hardware

It refers to physical components of a computer system that you can touch as well as
see. It means that all the hardware has a physical existence. Since they have physical
existence they have some kind of size, weight and mass. CPU (the processor),
Motherboard, Hard disk, Floppy disk, Cd, Keyboard, Mouse etc, are example of hardware.

Firmware
A sequence of instructions i.e., a software, embedded in a hardware device for its
some functioning is called firmware. BIOS (Basic Input Output System), which resides in
ROM is a routine (software) is an example of Firmware. Software (programs or data) that
has been written onto randomly memory (ROM) are termed as firmware. Firmware is a
combination of software and hardware. ROMs, PROMs and EPROMs that have data or
programs recorded on them are firmware.

Live-ware

It is a slang term used to denote people using (attached to) computers, and is based
on the need for a human, or liveware, to operate the system using hardware and software.
Other words similar to liveware include wetware, meatware and jellyware. Meatware and
jellyware are those often used by internal customer support personnel as slang terms when
referencing human operating errors.

Printers are also classified by the following characteristics

 Quality of type : The output produced by printers is said to be either letter quality ,
near letter quality or draft quality. Only daisy wheel, ink-jet and laser printers
produce letter quality type.

 Speed : Measured in characters per second (CPS) or pages per minute, the speed of
printers varies widely. Daisy wheel printers tend to be slower, printing almost
30cps. Line printers are fastest up to 3000 lines per minute. Dot matrix printers can
print up to 500 cps and laser printers range from 4 to 20 text pages per minute.

34
  Impact or non-impact printer: Impact printer is one that generally operates by using
a hammer to strike a character against an inked ribbon : the impact then causes an
image of the character to be printed. Impact printers functions just as typewriters
do. Their main disadvantage is that they are relatively slow, noisy and subject to
mechanical breakdowns. Examples of impact printer are : Dot matrix, daisy wheel,
line printers.

Non-impact printers are high speed, quiet and is used for quality prints by using
some form of non impact device.

Examples of Non-impact printers are : laser, ink-jet and thermal printers.

 Graphics: Some printers like daisy wheel and line printers can only print text while
others can print both text and graphics.

 Fonts: Some printers notably like dot matrix printers are limited to one or few fonts.
In contrast, Laser and ink-jet printers are capable of printing an almost unlimited
variety of fonts. Daisy wheel printers can also print different fonts, but you need to
change the daisy wheel, making it difficult to mix fonts in the same documents.

Visual Display Unit (Monitor) : A monitor is a television like device used to display
input data or information, allowing users to view the results of processing. Quality of the
monitor is often judged in terms of resolution which is a measure of number of picture
elements or pixels a screen contains. A pixel is the smallest increment of a display screen
that can be controlled individually. The higher the number of pixels the clearer and sharper
is the image. The screens for monitor are of two types

a) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) : On this type of screen a data image can be
produced by moving an electron beam across a phosphor coated screen. By
intensifying the strength of the beam, the phosphor-coating glows in certain
places, forming the characters.

b) Flat Panel Display : A CRT is reliable but is bulky and consumes a lot of
power and that is why it is cumbersom to use it with p4wtable computers.
The Flat-panel display does not use a picture tube. The most common type of
flat panel display is the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) which produces
images by aligning molecular crystals. When a voltage is applied the crystals
line up in a way that blocks light from passing through them and this absence
of light is seen as characters on the screen. LCD’s are better than CRTS as
LCD don’t flicker.

Visual Display Terminal or Terminal: A monitor is a television like device to

display data or information allowing users to view result of processing. The combination

35
of monitors with the keyboard is called a terminal. VDT is divided into three categories

a) Dumb Terminal : A dumb terminal is a standalone keyboard and display

screen that can send or receive data but cannot process that data. They are
simply devices that immediately transmit each keyed data character to the
processor.

b) Smart Terminal : They are designed with a microprocessor chip that contains
the circuits needed to perform arithmetic logic and control functions and they
also have an internal storage capability. They can move the cursor in all
directions to add, delete and change keyed characters. Smart terminals can
store and consolidate input data prior to sending them to the processor. Smart
terminals cannot be programmed by users.

c) Intelligent Terminal : It combines VDT hardware with built in

microprocessor that can be programmed by the user. They can process small
jobs without the need to interact with a large computer. The intelligent Video
Display Terminal is designed with circuit that permit it to communicate with
other terminals and large processors.

Plotters : Plotters are large scale printers that are very accurate at producing line
drawings. They are commonly used for technical drawings such as engineering drawing or
architectural blueprints. The two basic types of plotters are called flatbed plotters and drum
plotters. Flatbed plotters are horizontal aligned a with a flat surface to which a piece of
paper is attached. The paper remains stationary and the printer moves pen across the paper
to draw the image. Drum Plotters, also called upright plotters are vertically positioned.
They have a drum that the paper rolls on. Drum plotters usually make more noise and are
more compact than flatbed plotters. Plotters are used primarily in drafting and CAD
applications, where they have the advantage of working on very large paper sizes while
maintaining high resolution. Another use has been found by replacing the pen with a cutter
and in this form plotters can be found in many garment and sign shops.

Storage Devices : There are many storage devices used with microcomputers. The
device of a computer that stores data permanently in computer is called storage device.
The data stored in a storage device is not erased when we switch off the computer. The
storage device can also be removed from the computer. It is also called secondary memory
of the computer.

Some of the storage devices of a PC are Magnetic Tape, Magnetic Disk, Optical
Technology.

Magnetic Tapes A secondary storage device that uses a long plastic strip coated
with a magnetic material as a recording system.

36
 Magnetic disk is storage device which is a high speed, high capacity rotational thin
but rigid metal platters.

Winchester Disk (Hard Disk) : Consists of one or more disk platters, an access
mechanism and read/write head which is sealed in a case. Hard disk size depends on the
disk platter’s diameter. The read/write head is used to write any information on the disk
surface or to read it back. A hard disk contains two or more vertical stacked disk plotters.
Each disk plotter has its own read/write head which moves across the surface of a disk
coated with magnetic sensitive material. Information is stored on the disk in concentric
circles called tracks. The disk revolves with speed range from 7200 revolutions per minute
(rpm)to about 10000 (rpm). The read/write head read from or write into the data on the
revolving disk surface.
A Floppy Disk is a portable storage device of computer. The storage capacity of the floppy
disk is l.44Mb and is 31/2 inch in size. The floppy can store data on both sides

Cartridge or Zip Disk

Cartridge Disk is a removable hard disk packed inside a plastic case that can be
removed from the drive that reads from and writes to it. Zip disk is a popular model of
cartridge disk that can store over 100MB of Data using a Zip Drive.

Storage device Advantages

Magnetic Tape * High data density
* Low cost and ease of handling
* Special backup procedures are not required for records
protection.
Magnetic Disk * Data records can be stored for both sequential and
direct accessing.
* High speed of access and update as no sorting of
transactions.
* On-line disk record of several related files can be
updated simultaneously by a single input transaction.

Optical Technology

Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) is the most popular portable storage
device of computer. It is an optical read only memory made up of a resin. It has a silver
appearance on both sides. It is almost opaque and acts much like a mirror. It is not
completely opaque as some light is refracted and hence a rainbow is produced when you
tilt it in front of a bright light. A CDROM stores information using billions of microscopic
pit that resides on its surface. The data is stores on a disk using a series of ones and zeros.
The CD-ROM places a pit on its surface to represent a one and no pit to represents a zero.
For reading the data of CD-ROM the CD-ROM drive spins the CD-ROM by passing a

37
small laser beam. The laser in turn reflects a light off the CD-ROM surface. If the surface
area does not have pit the light will reflect faster. A CD-Rom can store 500 MB of data.

Magneto-Optical Disk (MO Disk)

Magneto-Optical Disk uses a combination of both magnetic and optical

technologies. They are removable cartridges. This drive uses both a laser and
electromagnetic to record data on a removable cartridge. The surface of the cartridge
contains tiny embedded magnets. The unique feature of the MO drive is that it has a very
high storage capacity. Although MO drive is costlier and slower than HDD it has a long
life is more reliable. It can store data ranging from 100MB to Several gigabytes (GB).

DVD ROM/RAM (Digital Video Disk ROM/RAM) (or Digital Versatile Disc)

DVD ROM and DVD RAM disks are optical disks having a storage capacity of
4.7GB and 5.2 GB respectively. These disks are becoming the next generation’s new
standard for higher capacity removable media. They are ideal for storage of huge amount
of information required for multimedia application. Because of such tremendous storage
capacity a DVD can store an entire movie — much like a VHS tape.

_______________________________________________________________________
2.6 Software
_______________________________________________________________________

Computer software is a set of instructions grouped into programs-that make the

computer to function in the desired ways. It can be classified into two general categories

System Software Packages

Application Software Packages

System Software Packages

A system software package is a collection of programs designed to operate, control

and extend processing capabilities of computers. The system software can be broadly
classified further into two

1. Operating System
2. Translating Programs
3. Utilities

Application Software packages

38
Application Software packages are a collection of modules for solution of specific task like
Tally for accounting application software package. Ms Office with includes MS word,
excel, access for the use of office application etc.
1. Tally
2. Ms Office (Ms Word, Excel, Access)
_______________________________________________________________________
2.7 Overview of Operating System
_______________________________________________________________________

An Operating System is a set of programs that controls and supervises a computer

system’s hardware and provides services to computer users.

The operating system performs the following functions

• Provides the instructions to prepare user-interface i.e. way to interact with user
whether through typed commands or through graphical symbols

• Loads necessary programs (into the computer memory) which are required for
proper computer functioning

• Coordinates how programs work with the CPU, keyboard, mouse, printer and other
hardware as well as with other software

• Manages the way information is stored on and retrieved from disks.

There is various type of Operating System

i) Single user Operating System : this supports single user

ii) Multi user Operating System : this supports multiple user
iii) Batch Processing Operating System: the batch processing operating system
processes the batches (group) of jobs.
iv) Multi Processing Operating System : is capable of handling multiple CPU at the
same time.
v) Time Sharing Operation System: allows multiple users to access a single computer
system.
vi) Real Time Operating System: allows a computer to control tasks performed by
other machines and people by responding to the input data in the required
amount of time.
_______________________________________________________________________
2.8 Translating Program
_______________________________________________________________________

These language translator program are programs for converting programs in other
language into machine language instructions so that they can be executed by the computer.
The language processors given below
39
 Assembler : This language processor converts the program written in assembly
language into ichine language.

Interpreter : This language processor convert a High Level Language into machine
language by converting and executing it line by line. If there is any error in any line, it
reports it at the same time and program execution cannot resume until error is rectified.
Interpreter must always he present in the memory every time the program is executed as
every time the program is run, it is first interpreted and then executed. For error
debugging, interpreter is very much useful as it reports the error(s) at the same time. But
once errors are removed, unnecessary usage of memory takes place as it has to be present
in the memory always.

Compiler: It also converts the High Level Language (HLL) program into machine
level Language. It converts the entire HLL program in one go and reports all the errors of
the program along with the line numbers. After all the errors are removed, the program is
recompiled and after that the compiler is not needed in the memory as the object program
is available.

Linker : A linker is a program that is used to properly combine all the object
program files of a software and to convert them into a software final executable form.

Loader: The loader is responsible for loading a memory image of the executable file
and starting the program.

Utility program

Utility programs are usually supplied by computer manufacturers. These are also
known as service programs. They enhance the functioning by performing tasks related to
the control and allocation of computer resources. Some of the utility program provided can
enhance the performance of the computer such as RAM disk, virtual memory or check
viruses. Some of the utility programs are

• Data recovery: is used to recover a file or information that has been deleted.

• Screen saver: is prevents a monitor’s display screen from being etched by an

unchanging image

• Backup : is used to make duplicated copy of the file on the hard disk in order to
maintain continuity of the operation

• Data compression : means removing redundant elements, gaps and unnecessary data
from a computer’s storage space, so that it takes less space to store and transmit
data.
40
• Virus protection : A virus program consists of instructions such that they usually
place themselves within an application or a system program. Virus replicates
themselves and cause damages to computer programs.

• Sort utilities : are those that sort data. Sorting can be performed on primary key and
also secondary key. Usually the sorting packages enable the user to identify around
12 sort keys and arrange the resulted records in either ascending or descending
order on each declared key.
• Text editors : are programs that allow the user to create a file, make changes to
existing files. A editor usually lacks the capability that a word processor has like
formatting of text etc.

_______________________________________________________________________
2.9 Application Software
_______________________________________________________________________

An application software is the set of programs necessary to carry out operations for
a specified application. This type of software pertains to one specific application. For
instance a software that can perform airlines reservation function can not be use to prepare
result for a student. Application Software can further be subdivided into two categories
(1) Single function applications packages
• Customised Application Software
• General Application Software
(2) Integrated functions applications package

Customised Application Software: This type of software is tailor-made software

according to user’s requirement. The software is developed to meet all the requirements
specified by a specific user.

General Application Software: this type of software is developed keeping in mind

the general requirements for carrying out a specific task. Many users use it simultaneously
as it fulfils the general requirement. For example Word Processing package, Data
Manager, Electronic Spread Sheets, Electronic Communications

Integrated-function Application Package: These combine several of general purpose

functions in a single product. They include most of the following functions. For example
Microsoft Office.

Programming Languages

Programming language is a set of rules which user has to follow to instruct the
computer what operations are to be performed. The various programming languages exist
and are classified according to the level of abstraction.
41
First Generation Language : Low level Languages

The first generation language was the machine language closet to the machine
interpretable form, where the op code (instructions of operation) and operands were all in
their notation of binary codes, i.e. in 1's and 0's. It is a machine dependent language.

Second Generation Languages

Assembly languages : the second generation of languages assembly language a low

level language was an attempt to bring the access of programming to a friendlier levels. A
Assembly language used a set of mnemonic codes to represent instructions and comfort in
machine usage that improved to the extend of being able to quickly read write the required
instructions rather than zeros and ones. Secondly memory address references in the
operands used symbolic rather than number address specified as a binary number.

Advantages of assembly over machine language

Easy to understand Mnemonic codes(OP codes) and symbolic name s (used for storage
locations) are English like thus easy to understand and write than
numeric codes used in machine language

Highly efficient Assembly language programs are very efficient in terms of executions
and main memory usage

Easy to modify An insertion and deletion of certain instruction from the program do
not require any change in the address(operand) part of the instruction,
where as it is a matter of concern in case of machine language

Easy to update Programmer is not required to keep track of storage locations thus it is
less prone to errors. Also assembler are developed and designed in
such a way that it automatically detects an error if invalid mnemonic
is entered.

Limitations of using assembly language are same as machine language such as

Machine dependent

Not portable

Knowledge of hardware required

A simple program requires large number of lines of codes

42
Not used for generalised business application soft wares such as inventory payroll,
accounts etc.

Third generation Language (High level language)

Procedural language : the third generation language are what is formally referred to
as high level procedural language or complier languages. They offer us the ability to code
complex logical constructs in language closer to English than the use of primitive
instructions available in assembly language The major feature of the third generation
languages is their hardware independence. For a procedural language to work in a
computer, it requires a language translator to translate it into machine language. The third
generation of languages was built around a type definition a set of data structures,
operations defined on the carious types and a set of procedural constructs that enabled the
programmer to manipulate variables.

Examples of High level Programming

BASIC : Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Interchange Code
COBOL : Common Business Oriented Language (used in commercial environment)
FORTRAN : Formula Translation (is a language designed to suit programmers working on
science applications)

Fourth Generation Languages (4GL)

Non-procedural Language - 4GL also known as non procedural user-oriented

languages allow the user to specify the desired form of output to be obtained without
describing the detailed procedure of data manipulation to produce the desired result. As the
procedure oriented language of 31( generation programming enables only technical or
programmer to uses the computer, the flexibility provided by 4GL’s allow even non
technical user to carry out specific functional tasks in quick and easy manner. It is
basically a command oriented language designed primarily for end user to query data base
and create information system.

Examples of 4G1 SQL (Structured Query Language), Database Management

System (DBMS) etc.

Comparison between 3GL and 4GL: Third Generation Language Provides programming
environment used by Professional programmers to generate application program Emphasis
is given on how’ to perform a task requires large number of instructions to be coded and
all possible alternatives must be specified difficult to code, read and maintain proper
syntax and semantics of a language have to be followed thus difficult to learn originally
language developed for batch operations difficult to debug file oriented programming
language fifth Generation Language :Natural programming language is used to improve
the user interface with 4GLs. These languages are primarily used to represent mimic
representation of human reasoning to make computer artificially intelligent. Expert
43
systems are developed in fifth generation language. The purpose of such software is for
game. These are non-procedural and portable languages. They usually require translation
program to translate them into structural machine readable form. Examples of fifth
generation language are LISP and ProLog.

Object Oriented Programming Language (OOPs) The basic objective of designing

OOP was to simulate real world problems. OOPs language supports the features to define,
create store and manipulate objects and all different objects to communicate with each
other. OOPs offer advantages like reusable code, lesser cost, reduced errors and testing,
faster implementation etc. The popular OOPs language include C++ , Java etc
Check your progress

_______________________________________________________________________
2.10 Summary of the Chapter
_______________________________________________________________________

Computer is a System. A system is a group of elements that are tied together to carry out a
common task and to achieve a common goal. The computer system consists of hardware
and Software.
Types of Computers are based on size and storage capacity
Supercomputer : It is the biggest and fastest computer, which is mainly designed for
complex scientific applications.
Mainframes Computers : These are very large and fast computers but smaller and slower
than supercomputers.
Minicomputers : These are medium , smaller and generally slower than mainframes
computers.
Microcomputers: It is the smallest digital computer, which uses a microprocessor as its
CPU. Microprocessor is a single chip (integrated circuit) CPU.
Desktop Pc’s : Desktop computers fit on a desktop and are used widely in offices and
home.

Portable Pc’s : Portable computers can be carried from one place to another. Some of the
models of portable computers are called laptop while others as notebook
computers..

MICR— Magnetic Ink Character Recognition: The human readable characters are printed
on documents (such as cheques) using a special magnetic int.
OMR— Optical Mark Reading and Recognition: Special pre printed forms are designed
with boxes which can be marked with a dark pencil or ink, such a document is read
by a document reader which transcribes the mark into electrical pulses which are
transmitted to the computer.

44
OCR—Optical Character Recognition : An optical scanner is a device used to read an
image, convert it into 0’s and l’s and store this in computer memory. This
representation is called the bit map of the image.
Bar Coding—Small bars of varying thickness and spacing are printed on packages, badges
tags etc which are read by optical reader and converted to electrical pulses.

4GL also known as non procedural user-oriented languages allow the user to specify the
desired form of output to be obtained without describing the detailed procedure of data
manipulation to produce the desired result.
Object Oriented Programming Language (OOPs) The basic objective of designing OOP
was to simulate real world problems.

45
_______________________________________________________________________
2.11 Exercise 1 : Fill in the blanks
_______________________________________________________________________
Check your progress

1. Processing data on a computer is performed by specific equipment that is

referred to as…………………….
2. With the help of input devices data is entered into the computer which can be
translated into………………..
3. 4GL also known as non procedural user-oriented languages allow the user to
specify the desired form of output to be obtained without describing the detailed
procedure of ……………………….to produce the desired result.
4. Object Oriented Programming Language (OOPs) The basic objective of
designing OOP was to…………………………………………...
5. One of the most common and familiar input devices is
the……………………….. A typical computer keyboard contains all letters,
numbers, symbol of a regular typewriter apart from special keys which are used
for control movement of the cursor, function keys etc.

Ans 1. computer hardware , 2. machine readable form, 3. data manipulation, 4.

simulate real world problems, , 5. standard keyboard

Exercise 2: True and False

State the following statements. Please mark ( T ) on the correct statement and (F) on false
Statement.
1. MICR— Magnetic Ink Character Recognition: The human readable characters are
printed on documents (such as cheques) using a special magnetic int.
2. OMR— Optical Mark Reading and Recognition: Special pre printed forms are
designed with boxes which can be marked with a dark pencil or ink, such a
document is read by a document reader which transcribes the mark into electrical
pulses which are transmitted to the computer.
3. OCR—Optical Character Recognition : An optical scanner is a device used to read
an image, convert it into 0’s and l’s and store this in computer memory. This
representation is called the bit map of the image.
4. Bar Coding—Small bars of varying thickness and spacing are printed on packages,
badges tags etc which are read by optical reader and converted to electrical pulses.
5. Punch Cards: It is a rigid piece of paper containing rows and columns of number.
These cards e put into a keypunch machine which places holes in the card to
represent the data.
Ans 1 ( T ), 2( T ), 3( T ), 4( T ), 5( T )

46
Exercise 3: Mix and Match
Match statement A with Statement B

S.No Statement (A) Statement (B)

1. It is the biggest and fastest computer, which is Main Frame Computer

mainly designed for complex scientific
applications.

2. These are very large and fast computers but

smaller and slower than supercomputers. Supercomputer :

3. These are medium — scale, smaller and generally

slower than mainframes computers. Microcomputers:

4. It is the smallest digital computer, which uses a Minicomputers :

microprocessor as its CPU. Microprocessor is a
single chip (integrated circuit) CPU.

5. Desktop computers fit on a desktop and are used Portable Pc’s :

widely in offices and home.

6. Portable computers can be carried from one place Desktop Pc’s :

to another. Some of the models of portable
computers are called laptop while others as
notebook computers..

Ans. 1. (2), 2. (1), 3. (4), 4. (3), 5. (6)

Exercise 4: Very Short Questions

1. Define the term Hardware?

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2. Differentiate between Firmware and Live-ware. Comment?

47
 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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3. What is System Software? Explain.

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4. Define ‘Operating System’?

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5. Difference between Translators, Interpreter, Compiler, Assembler and Linker.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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6. Relationship between Hardware and Software.

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Exercise 5 : Descriptive Questions

6. Write Overview of Operating System ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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7. What are functions of Operating System?

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48
8. Define General Purpose Packaged Software?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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9. Explain Tailor Made Software.

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10. What is memory, what is the difference between RAM and ROM?
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49
Questions for practice

1. What is the difference between impact printers and non impact printers?

2. What is an MICR?

3. Write short notes on Source Data Automation

4. Mention the types of input devices

5. Explain the working of the processing unit

6. Write short notes on Read only memory

7. Distinguish between ROM and RAM

8. What is Dynamic RAM how is it different from Static RAM?

9. What are Plotters?

10. What is Optical Technology?

11. What are the storage devices? Distinguish between the various devices

12. What are translating software’s?

13. What are the different types of operating system?

14. What is programming language?

15. What is the difference between the third Generation language and fourth generation
language?

16. Write short notes on Fifth generation Language

17. Explain Operating System

50
 Chapter – 3: Introduction to Internet
________________________________________________________________________
1. INTRODUCTION
________________________________________________________________________
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Meaning of Internet
3.3 Growth of Internet
3.4 Owner of Internet
3.5 Anatomy of Internet
3.6 Basic Internet Terminology
3.7 Net Etiquette
3.8 World Wide Web
3.9 Internet Protocols
3.10 Usage of Internet to society
3.11 Extranet
3.12 Search Engine
3.13 Summary of the chapter
3.14 Exercise

________________________________________________________________________
3.1 Objectives
________________________________________________________________________

After studying this chapter, students are able to:

 Understand the Meaning and Growth of Internet.
 Understand the Owner of Internet.
 Explain the Anatomy of Internet.
 Understand the Basic Internet Terminology
 Understand and awareness of Net Etiquette
 Features of World Wide Web
 Understand the Internet Protocols
 Usage of Internet to the Society
 Understand Extranet
 Understand Search Engines
o Google
o Yahoo

51
_____________________________________________________________________
3.2 Meaning of Internet
_______________________________________________________________________

The Internet is one of the greatest innovations to make its way into the world today.
Almost everybody has heard of the Internet; almost everybody has used the Internet to e-
mail, chat, do research, and even play games.

Basically, the Internet is an enormous network that connects computers and other
networks found throughout the world. It lets you meet people living thousands of miles
away; it lets you learn about new cultures, new ways of living. If you’re reading this article
right now, then you’re connected to the Internet.

______________________________________________________________________
3.3 Growth of Internet
_______________________________________________________________________
The seed of internet were planted in 1968 when US Department of defence
sponsored a project name ARPANET (Advance Research Projects NETwork) . The goal of
this project was to connect computers of different universities and US defence. Soon the
engineers, scientists, students and researchers began exchanging data and messages on it.
In mid 80’s another federal agency the National Science foundation created a new high
capacity network called NSFnet which was more capable than ARPANET.

NSFnet allowed only the academic research on its network and not any kind of
private business on it. Many private companies built their own networks which were later
interconnected along with ARPANET and NSFnet of form internet.

It was inter networking that was named Internet.

In internet most computers are not connected directly to the internet. They are
connected to smaller networks, which in turn are connected through a device that connects
dissimilar networks called the gateways to the internet central interconnecting structure
known as the backbone.

Features of Internet

Internet is a global network of networks which either uses the TCP/IP protocol or
are able to interact with TCP/IP networks via gateways and provides users with electronic
mail messaging, remote login, file transfer, network news the www etc The internet offers
access to data, graphics sound software text and people through a variety of services and
tools for communication and data exchange.

52
______________________________________________________________________
3.4 Owner of Internet
_______________________________________________________________________

Internet is not governed by any particular body. It is coordinated by many volunteer

organizations. There is no single authority organisation. Various volunteer organisation are
responsible for different types of activities namely

The Internet Architecture Board (TAB) is responsible for approving standards and
allocating resources.

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is responsible for discussing and
investigating the operational and technical problems of internet.

The interNiC is responsible for providing registration service to internet

community.
______________________________________________________________________
3.5 Anatomy of Internet
_______________________________________________________________________

The Key Components of The Internet:

TCP
TCP, or transmission-control protocol was first introduced in 1974. It was outlined
in a paper written by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf. TCP messages were messages that
were encapsulated, and then de-capsulated, kind of like how a letter is placed in an
envelope. It focused on the reliability of networks to make sure that the messages
and information being transferred would arrive safely.

In 1978, TCP officially became called TCP/IP. IP, an acronym for Internet Protocol
was developed by Vint Cerf, Jon Postel, and Danny Cohen. The idea behind the
TCP/IP was that the TCP would only be responsible for breaking up messages into
datagrams, the devices that messages were encapsulated in, then re-assembling the
messages at the other end, as well as detecting errors. Meanwhile, the IP would be
responsible for routing individual datagrams.

In 1983, the TCP/IP protocol was used in the ARPANET In addition, this protocol
is still widely used today!

Modem
The modem connects your computer to an Internet service provider. It is this
service provider that connects you to various other computer and other networks in
the Internet!

IP Address
53
 Every computer that is part of the Internet is given a unique IP Address. The IP
Address is used to identify computers.

Packets

Information being transmitted through the Internet is broken up into small packets.
Routers

Routers are the devices that transfer packets from one computer to another. They
ensure that the packets reach their destination quickly and efficiently.

Domain Names

Domain names refer to specific computers or organizations on the Internet. They

specify the location of websites, etc.

World Wide Web

The World Wide Web is by far the most exciting and diverse part of the Internet.
These are the web pages you can access to do research, to play games, to download
music, etc. The World Wide Web was born. In 1990, Tim Bemers-Lee created
HyperText Markup Language, or HTML. Using ideas like HTML, URL (Uniform
Resource Locater), and HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), the Internet was able
to expand into the World Wide Web. Web sites could be built and hosted on
servers. Links connected thousands of web sites, making them available to the
public.

WWW is a set of programs standards and protocols that allow the multimedia and
hypertext files to create, display and linked on the internet. From the late 1960 to
early 1990. the internet was a communications and research tool used almost
exclusively for academic and military purpose This changed radically with the
introduction of the World Wide WEB The WEB brought in the change from textual
information to intensive use of graphics in internet

HTML:

HTML is the language used by the web pages in the World Wide Web.

Java:

Java is a language that is very similar to C and C++. It can be used to create
programs that can be used in the World Wide Web!

54
E-mail:

E-mail, which stands for electronic mail, is a fast, efficient way by which you can
send letters and messages to people all around the world!

______________________________________________________________________
3.6 Net Etiquette
_______________________________________________________________________

Net etiquette:

The Internet, like our everyday lives, has a code of how we should behave. This
network etiquette is called Netiquette.

Web Client And Web Servers

The World Wide Web is based upon clients and servers. The WWW client is called
a Web browser and the WWW server is called Web Server.

The Web Clients are usually PC’s workstations . The clients request different types
of services from the server and navigates through the WWW and displays web pages.

The Web Serer is usually a powerful PC and can provide services like printing files
or sharing data or sending information to other computers.

Web Sites And Web Pages

A location on a net server is called web site. Each web site has a unique address
called URL (Uniform Resource Locator). The internet structure of the WWW is built on a
set of rules called Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and a page description language
called Hypertext Markup Language(HTML)

Web page A document that resides on the website is called web page. It uses the
HTTP protocol. A web page is a single unit of information via WWW, which is created
using HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) It consists of standardise code or tags that are
used to define the structure of information on a web page. These codes enable web pages
to have many features including bold text italic text heading paragraphs breaks numbered
or bulleted lists.

Web Site A location on the net server is called Web site

Home Page: It is the top level web page of a web site. When a web site is opened its
home page is displayed.

55
 Web Portal: It is a web site which hosts other web sites. In other world a web portal
has hyperlinks to many other web sites. By clicking upon these links the corresponding
web sites can be opened. www.yahoo.com, www.indiatimes.com and www.khoj.com are
few of the web portals

______________________________________________________________________
3.7 Basic Internet addressing mechanism
_______________________________________________________________________

Web sites can be addressed by any of the following two addressing methods

Domain Name System(DNS) A domain name is a way to identify and locate

computers connected to the internet. A domain name must be unique, no two organizations
on the internet can have the same domain name. This is characters based addressing
system that addresses the web sites through their URL’s in the following format

Type://address/path

Wherein the type specifies the type of server, address is the address of the server and the
path tells the location of file on the server. Eg http://www.msn.com/xyz.

______________________________________________________________________
3.8 Internet Protocols
_______________________________________________________________________
Internet Protocols: Protocols are rules and regulations used for Internet services on the
Internet. Popular internet protocols are FTP, Gopher, http, mail, news.

Internet Protocols
Internet Protocols Information it provides
Server
ftp File Transfer Protocol Text and binary files that are
organized in a hierarchical structure
Gopher Transfer Control Protocol / Internet Text and binary files organized in a
Protocol menu structure
http Hyperttext Transfer Protocol Hypertext / hypermedia files
mail Post Office Protocol (POP) and Messages send via Electronic Mail
Simple mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP)
news Network New Transfer Protocol Newsgroups that are organized in a
hierarchical structure

56
Most common Domains

Domain names can refer to specific computers, organizations, companies, or other

entities. There are four levels of domain names:

1. Top-Level Domains:
The top-level domain name is the .org part of “www.abcdefg.org.” The top-
level domain names refer to the type of organization that is acting as the
server for the website:
.com ___________ Websites for commercial purposes
.edu ___________ Educational institutes
.net ___________ internet-related websites
.org ___________ Non-profit organizations
.gov ___________ U.S. government websites
.mil ___________ U.S. military websites

2. Second-Level Domains:
The second-level domain name would be the abcdefg.org part of
“www.abcdefg.org.” Second-level domains can be registered by users or
other organizations. For example, Yahoo registered the domain name
yahoo.com, while abc registered the domain name, abcdefg.org.

Second-level domain names can have up to 61 characters. They must be

unique to the organization that registered it. Two organizations cannot have
the same second-level domain name.

3. Third-Level Domains:

The third-level domain name would be the whole “www.abcdegf.org.” It

usually specifies the company hosting the domain. Usually, it is “www.”

In addition to the top level domain names listed above, every country in the
world has its own unique top-level domain name. For example:

.at ___________ Austria

.au ___________ Australia
.bm ___________ Bermuda
.br ___________ Brazil
.ca ___________ Canada
.ch ___________ Chile
.uk ___________ United Kingdom
.us ___________ United States
IP Addresses

57
 The Internet is made up of hundreds of connected computers and machines. To get
all of these machines straight, there is the Internet Protocol (IP) Address.

Every computer has a unique IP Address. This is a 32-bit number that identifies the
sender and receiver of each packet of information. All data in the Internet is broken up into
small, uniform bits, called packets before it is sent from one computer to another. We will
touch upon packets in the next section. An IP Address is made out of four numbers
between 0 and 255, separated by periods: 215.43.125.8

IP Addresses are used whenever you use e-mail, whenever you connect to the
World Wide Web, whenever you communicate to someone else on a different computer.

Some computers have permanent IP Addresses, while others do not. For example,
computers that are permanently connected to the Internet, like servers (i.e. Yahoo,
Geocities, etc.) usually have permanent IP Addresses- that is, they are given one, and only
one IP Address. On the other hand, some computers (usually home computers connecting
to the Internet via a modem or server) can have different IP Addresses for every time that
they log in. You might get one IP Address when you connect to the Internet one day, and
then a different address the next day!

When you want to communicate with another computer- whether through e-mail,
chat, or just retrieving data, your computer first looks up the IP Address of the other
computer. Then, it puts the other computer’s IP Address on the header of the packet, and
then the packet is sent to a router. After the packet is sent to the router, the router will then
use the specified IP Address and ship the packet to the designated computer.
______________________________________________________________________
3.9 World Wide Web
_______________________________________________________________________

One of the most important changes that internet has brought to the world of
business is E-commerce. E-commerce refers to the use of computer networks for buying
and selling goods, information and services. It integrates Email World Wide Web
Electronic Funds transfers (EFI) Electronic Data Interchange EDI and similar techniques
into a comprehensive electronic system trade. E-commerce combines information
technology telecommunication technology and business process to make it feasible to do
business in way s that could not be even through of earlier. It opens up new avenues of
trading and improves efficiency and effectiveness of conventional business processes
markets and services many companies are realising that E-commerce can help in reducing
cost reducing cycle time in business process improving product quality and maintaining
higher levels of customer service. Therefore E-commerce is becoming an important means
of dealing in goods and services. The advantage of E-commerce makes the phenomenal
growth in E-commerce inevitable.

The impact of E-commerce on business activities are

58
 • Marketing sales and sales promotion
• Pre sales supply chain management
• Insurance
• Finance
• Commercial Transaction ordering delivery payment
• Financial accounting
• Business administration
• Product service and maintenance
• Co-operative product development
• Procurement of goods
______________________________________________________________________
3.10 Usage of Internet to society
_______________________________________________________________________

It is basically the ease in use of the WWW that has contributed to the internet
exponential growth rate. The reasons for the internet dramatic impact on the scope of
business networking application are as follows.

• Powerful and Inexpensive Technologies : The advent of increasingly powerful and

inexpensive technologies has permitted the use of IT by more and more people and
provided the base for scalable system and application.

• Easy availability : The growing availability of telecommunication due to decline

costs and increasing bandwidth has made internet ecommerce wide spread.

• Universality : The potential benefits could be reaped by business and consumers

using internet which can be connected anywhere

• Performance : Internet can handle transmission of animated video audio of any

capacity. It provides its consumers a high function window to the world. Above all
it enables its users to handle everyday networking tasks such as electronic mail

• Reach : Internet can be accessed from anywhere large cities small towns throughout
modem and developing world.

• flexible : Internet technology is highly robust reliable as it spreads digital

information with its incredible flexible and fidelity. The extend of usage is not
restricted to business but to science defence education etc.

59
• Momentum : Individuals as business get connected to internet at exceptional rate.

E-mail

Frequent Internet users often consider regular mail as “snail mail.” Why? Simple-
it’s so much slower than e-mail, or electronic mail! With regular mail, it can take days for
someone to receive your letter. However, with e-mail, the message gets sent instantly-
well, almost instantly! Your letter will reach its destination within a very short amount of
time! Best of all, e-mail doesn’t cost the 34 cents that regular mail costs!

E-mail is a great way for Internet users to communicate with each other. It lets
people send messages to one another. Since communication is the essence of the Internet,
e-mail is very important!

e-mail is just like a regular letter, except it’s electronic. It is an electronic message
that can be sent from one computer to another. There are two parts to an e-mail message.

1. Header: The header of an e-mail message contains the name and the e-mail
address of the recipient of the message, as well as the message’s subject. If
you are sending the message to more than one person, the header will
contain the names and addresses of all the people you are sending it to.

2. Body : The body of an e-mail message is the message itself.

A typical e-mail address might look like

[email protected]

On the left side of the axon sign (@) is the user name. It could be anything, from a
first name to some cool, crazy nickname. The user name acts like a mailbox (more on this
later). On the right side of the axon sign is the domain name. The domain name in an e-
mail address is the name of the e-mail server the user is using. For example, if you are
using an e-mail service provided by America Online, then the domain name would be
aol.com. If you were using a server provided by Hotmail, then the domain name would be
hotmail.com. The .com part of the domain name is called the top-level domain. Different
top-level domains represent different things. For example, .com represents a server for
commercial purposes, while .org is for non-profit organizations and .edu is for educational
organizations, colleges, and universities.

This Domain Name System is used to cover up for the 1ntemet Protocol Address.
Each domain name can he written as a series of 32-bit numbers, or as an IP Address.
Howeer, it’s kind of hard to remember all these numbers. It’d be much easier to remember
things like aol.coin or hotmail.com. In addition, sometimes, a server can change IP
Addresses, but it usually does not change domain names.
60
 Now, to put all of this together. Let’s pretend that you are writing a letter to your
friend. You type up the message, type in her e-mail address, and click the little “send”
button. The e-mail gets sent from one computer to another via computers known as mail
servers. The message will travel from one mail server to another, until it finally reaches its
destination mail server. There, it will be stored in the recipient’s “mailbox,” which is
determined by his or her user name, until he or she picks it up.

Client-Side Programming - Client-Side Applications/Scripting

Client-Side Programming describes any code/software/scripts that are designed to

be executed by the web browser. Client-side scripting provides a broad range of functions.

Typical functions include:

• Dynamic navigational aids
• Make graphics dynamic
• Verify user’s form data

Client-Side Programming types

Client-Side Scripting describes programming that is added into a web page to

interact with page and browser objects. JavaScript is the most common scripting language;
VBScript is also used. While client-side scripting is limited, it does provide basic functions
that practically all of the ‘better’ web sites have integrated into their pages.

Typical functions include:

• Image/Button rollovers
• Verify user’s form data
• Detect users browser type and select matching content
• Java applets

Java Applets are small compiled Java applications that can be run within a web
page. Java applets allow the power of a true programming language to be executed on the
client-side (note: For security reasons some Java features are not available for applets).
Applet’s usefulness is extended by their ability to interact with JavaScript.

Typical functions include:

Dynamic navigational drop-down and pop-up menus
Text manipulation such as scrolling text boxes

61
 Advanced graphics animation
Plug-in scripting

Plug-in scripting is a general term to describe any programming that is contained in

a embedded page object. The best example of object scripting is ‘Lingo’, a language to
extend the abilities of Macromedia’s Shockwave animations. Many of these proprietary
plug-in specific languages exist, all with varying capabilities. Some of these languages,
including Lingo, can interface with JavaScript.

Typical functions for multi-media plug-ins include:

• Enable buttons to change pages in multi-media presentations
• Move, rotate, and zoom objects based on users requests

Server Side Programming - Server-Side Scripting, Web Applications

Server-Side Programming describes any code/software/scripts that are executed by

the web server. Since these applications reside on the server they can interface with other
server-side resources such as e-mail and databases.

Typical use of server-side programming:

• Personalized page content to the user’s needs
• Enable the web browser to act as a database interface
• e-Commerce shopping carts

Server-Side Programming Types

Server-side scripts

CGI Scripts, Servlets

Server-Side Scripts are small programs that reside on the web server to interact with
the web environment. When browsers execute scripts that link to the code file, the script
will do its designed functions and return a dynamically generated page.

Typical use of server-side programming:

• Personalized page content to the user’s needs
• Enable the web browser to act as a database interface
• e-Commerce shopping carts

62
 Server-Side Scripting Types
• CGI (Common Gateway Interface)
Simple scripting mechanisms supported by practically all web servers. Most
commonly written in Pen, C/C++, or Python.

• Java Servlets
Ability to execute Java objects on the server. Newer, less common
technology but has dramatic performance advantages over CGI.

Server Pages

Server Pages describes a technology for embedding scripts into web pages that can
interact with the web environment. Server pages provide virtually the same dynamic
abilities as server-side scripting. However, because they are mostly standard web pages it
is usually easier for web designers to alter for non-dynamic content. Server pages typically
have a performance advantage over CGI scripts (not Servlets).

Typical use of server-side programming:

• Personalized page content to the user’s needs
• Enable the web browser to act as a database interface
• Alter page content based on browser/OS platform

Common Server page Types

• ColdFusion
Popular scaleable web app. ‘s can be urchased for most UNIX and WinNT
servers

• ASP (Active Server Pages)

Microsoft’s version of a scaleable engine. Built into Microsoft ITS

• JSP (Java Server Pages)

• Newer, very powerful platform. Built into some web servers can be
purchased for others.

Today and Future Uses of Internet

Business use internet to provide access to complex databases such as financial

databases.

63
 Companies carry out electronic commerce including advertising selling buying
distributing products and providing after sales services.

• Business and institutions use internet for voice and video conferencing and
other forms of communications that enable people to telecommunicate or
work from a distance.

• The use of email over the internet has greatly speeded communication
between companies among co-workers and between other individuals

• Media and entertainment companies use internet to broadcast audio and

video including live radio and television programs. They also offer online
chat groups in which people carry on discussions using written text and
online news and weather program.

• Scientists and scholars use the internet to communicate with colleagues to

perform research to distribute lecture notes and course materials to students
and to publish paper and articles.

• Individuals use internet for communication entertainment finding

information buying and selling goods and services

• On line reservations for railways and airlines tickets, Share trading etc

• Blogs: On the Internet, a blog is a personal journal that is frequently updated

and intended for general public consumption. Blogs generally represent the
personality of the author or reflect the purpose of the Web site that hosts the
blog. Topics sometimes include brief philosophical musings, commentary on
Internet and other social issues, and links to other sites the author favors. The
essential characteristics of the blog are its journal form, typically a new entry
each day, and its informal style.

Intranet

Intranet is a system for using the internet utilities on a local network. For example, a
company might put scheduling information, employees manuals and even electronic
forms on an internal web server, This would allow employees to browse and use
this information using a common web browser Intranets may be access outside the
building by people in the organization who have usernames and passwords to
access the network. The Intranet is just Internet technology used in-house. Intranets
use popular and low-cost Internet tools, such as browsers, to give them a cost
advantage over other network strategies, and they do this while they improve a
network’s effectiveness.

64
Internet/Intranet: What’s the Difference?

So what is the difference between the Internet and Intranet? Mainly the location of
the information and who has access to it.

• Internet is public, global and wide open to anyone who has an Internet
connection.

• Intranets are restricted to people who are connected to the private

organization network. Other than that, they work essentially the same way.

Advantages of Intranet Over Internet

A well designed Intranet can offer advantages not found on the Internet. For
example, consider the following:

(1) Access Speed

The local Intranet will operate on the high speed (100 Mbps), Local Area Network
(LAN) which is much faster than similar requests on the Internet (Ethernet using coaxial or
twisted pair cabling is faster than even T- 1 connections to an Internet server). Since the
hardware, software, and connectivity are owned and operated within the organization,
charges for Internet service and high speed connectivity are relatively small.

(2) Security of Sensitive Data and Integrity of Information Resources

The Intranet is a self-contained, private internal network, and, as such, it can easily
be protected from Internet users by a firewall or authentication processes. Access out to the
Internet and in from the Internet can be denied or both controlled and monitored.

(3) Control and Protection

Some common concerns are

• limiting user access to objectionable or irrelevant material on the Internet.

• the amount of time it can take to find reliable information.

• the ever present temptation to be lured into net surfing.

An Intranet allows

• control of what users can access

65
 • selection of what is placed on the Intranet

• a focus on information resources to support the curriculum or mission of the

organization.

• development of the same skill set as the Internet.

• reduction of the time wading through vast resources to find the useful
information.
______________________________________________________________________
3.11 Extranet
_______________________________________________________________________

A buzzword that refers to an intranet that is partially accessible to authorized

outsiders. Whereas an intranet resides behind a firewall and is accessible only to people
who are members of the same company or organization, an extranet provides various
levels of accessibility to outsiders. You can access an extranet only if you have a valid
username and password, and your identity determines which parts of the extranet you can
view.

Extranets are becoming a very popular means for business partners to exchange
information.

Firewall

A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network.

Firewalls can be implemented in both hardware and software, or a combination of both.
Firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private
networks connected to the Internet, especially intranets. All messages entering or leaving
the intranet pass through the firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that
do not meet the specified security criteria.

There are several types of firewall techniques:

• Packet filter : Looks at each packet entering or leaving the network and
accepts or rejects it based on user-defined rules. Packet filtering is fairly
effective and transparent to users, but it is difficult to configure.

• Application gateway: Applies security mechanisms to specific applications,

such as FTP and Telnet servers. This is very effective, but can impose a
performance degradation.

66
 • Circuit-level gateway : Applies security mechanisms when a TCP or IJDP
connection is established. Once the connection has been made, packets can
flow between the hosts without further checking.

• Proxy server: Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network. The
proxy server effectively hides the true network addresses.

In practice, many firewalls use two or more of these techniques in concert.

A firewall is considered a first line of defense in protecting private information. For

greater security, data can be encrypted.

______________________________________________________________________
3.12 Search Engine
_______________________________________________________________________

Search Engines: Used to Search Web Pages, Web site and information on the specific
website on the Internet. Following are the best and popular Search Engines in the World
namely as 1. Yahoo 2. Google 3. Scour :

1. Yahoo

67
 2. Google

3. Scour

______________________________________________________________________
3.13 Summary of the Chapter
_______________________________________________________________________
The Internet is one of the greatest innovations to make its way into the world today.
Almost everybody has heard of the Internet; almost everybody has used the Internet to e-
mail, chat, do research, and even play games.
68
The seed of internet were planted in 1968 when US Department of defence sponsored a
project name ARPANET (Advance Research Projects NETwork) . The goal of this project
was to connect computers of different universities and US defence. Soon the engineers,
scientists, students and researchers began exchanging data and messages on it. In mid 80’s
another federal agency the National Science foundation created a new high capacity
network called NSFnet which was more capable than ARPANET.In internet most
computers are not connected directly to the internet. They are connected to smaller
networks, which in turn are connected through a device that connects dissimilar networks
called the gateways to the internet central interconnecting structure known as the
backbone.
The Internet Architecture Board (TAB) is responsible for approving standards and
allocating resources.
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is responsible for discussing and investigating
the operational and technical problems of internet.
IP Address
Every computer that is part of the Internet is given a unique IP Address. The IP address is
used to identify computers.
Packets : Information being transmitted through the Internet is broken up into small
packets.
Routers : Routers are the devices that transfer packets from one computer to another. They
ensure that the packets reach their destination quickly and efficiently.
Domain Names : Domain names refer to specific computers or organizations on the
Internet. They specify the location of websites, etc.
World Wide Web : The World Wide Web is by far the most exciting and diverse part of
the Internet. These are the web pages you can access to do research, to play games, to
download music, etc. The World Wide Web was born. In 1990, Tim Bemers-Lee created
HyperText Markup Language, or HTML. Using ideas like HTML, URL (Uniform
Resource Locater), and HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), the Internet was able to
expand into the World Wide Web. Web sites could be built and hosted on servers. Links
connected thousands of web sites, making them available to the public.
HTML : HTML is the language used by the web pages in the World Wide Web.
Java : Java is a language that is very similar to C and C++. It can be used to create
programs that can be used in the World Wide Web!
E-mail : E-mail, which stands for electronic mail, is a fast, efficient way by which
you can send letters and messages to people all around the world!
Net etiquette : The Internet, like our everyday lives, has a code of how we should
behave. This network etiquette is called Netiquette.
Web Client And Web Servers : The World Wide Web is based upon clients and servers.
The WWW client is called a Web browser and the WWW server is called Web Server.
Web Site : A location on the net server is called Web site
Home Page: It is the top level web page of a web site. When a web site is opened its home
page is displayed.
Web Portal: It is a web site which hosts other web sites. In other world a web portal has
hyperlinks to many other web sites.
69
Domain Name System(DNS) : A domain name is a way to identify and locate computers
connected to the internet.

Easy availability : The growing availability of telecommunication due to decline costs and
increasing bandwidth has made internet ecommerce wide spread.
• Universality : The potential benefits could be reaped by business and consumers
using internet which can be connected anywhere
• Performance : Internet can handle transmission of animated video audio of any
capacity. It provides its consumers a high function window to the world. Above all
it enables its users to handle everyday networking tasks such as electronic mail
• Reach : Internet can be accessed from anywhere large cities small towns throughout
modem and developing world.
• flexible : Internet technology is highly robust reliable as it spreads digital
information with its incredible flexible and fidelity. The extend of usage is not
restricted to business but to science defence education etc.
• Momentum : Individuals as business get connected to internet at exceptional rate.

Packet filter : Looks at each packet entering or leaving the network and accepts or rejects it
based on user-defined rules. Packet filtering is fairly effective and
transparent to users, but it is difficult to configure.
• Application gateway: Applies security mechanisms to specific applications,
such as FTP and Telnet servers. This is very effective, but can impose a
performance degradation.
• Circuit-level gateway : Applies security mechanisms when a TCP or IJDP
connection is established. Once the connection has been made, packets can
flow between the hosts without further checking.
• Proxy server: Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network. The
proxy server effectively hides the true network addresses.
Search Engines: Used to Search Web Pages and Web site on the Internet. Following are
the Best Search Engines in the World, Yahoo, Google

70
Check your progress
_______________________________________________________________________
1.11 Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks
________________________________________________________________________

1. The Internet is one of the ………………………….to make its way into the world
today. Almost everybody has heard of the Internet; almost everybody has used the
Internet to e-mail, chat, do research, and even play games.
2. The seed of internet were planted in 1968 when US Department of defence
sponsored a project name……………………….
3. The goal of this project was to ………………………………………………and US
defense.
4. Engineers, scientists, students and researchers began exchanging data and messages
on it. In mid 80’s another federal agency the National Science foundation created a
new high capacity network called ……………….which was more capable than
ARPANET.
5. In internet most computers are ………………………to the internet.
6. They are connected to smaller networks, which in turn are connected through a
device that connects …………………………to the internet central interconnecting
structure known as the backbone.

Ans 1. greatest innovations , 2. ARPANET (Advance Research Projects NETwork) ,

3. connect computers of different universities , 4. NSFnet , 5. not connected directly ,
6. dissimilar networks called the gateways

Exercise 2: True and False

State the following statements. Please mark ( T ) on the correct statement and (F) on false
Statement.
1. HTML is the language used by the web pages in the World Wide Web.
2. Java is a language that is very similar to C and C++. It can be used to create
programs that can be used in the World Wide Web.
3. E-mail, which stands for electronic mail, is a fast, efficient way by which you can
send letters and messages to people all around the world.
4. Net etiquette : The Internet, like our everyday lives, has a code of how we
should behave. This network etiquette is called Netiquette.
5. Web Client And Web Servers : The World Wide Web is based upon clients and
servers. The WWW client is called a Web browser and the WWW server is called
Web Server.
6. Web Site : A location on the net server is called Web site

Ans 1 ( T ), 2( T ), 3( T ), 4( F ), 5( T ), 6(T)

71
Exercise 3: Mix and Match
Match statement A with Statement B

S.No Statement (A) Statement (B)

1. is responsible for approving standards and The Internet Engineering

allocating resources. Task Force (IETF)

2. is responsible for discussing and investigating the The Internet Architecture

operational and technical problems of internet. Board (TAB)

3. Every computer that is part of the Internet is given

a unique IP Address. The IP address is used Packets :
to identify computers.

4. Information being transmitted through the Internet IP Address

is broken up into small packets.

5. are the devices that transfer packets from one Domain names
computer to another. They ensure that the packets
reach their destination quickly and efficiently.

6. refer to specific computers or organizations on Routers

the Internet. They specify the location of websites,
etc.

Ans. 1. (2), 2. (1), 3. (4), 4. (3), 5. (6), 6(5)

Exercise 4: Very Short Questions

1. What is Internet? Give a brief history of Internet

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72
 2. Who is the owner of Internet?

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3. What is Internet Architecture Board(IAB)? Explain.

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4. What is Internet Service Provider (ISP)?

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5. Explain Internet Protocol?

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6. What is WWW? Explain its Features and Limitations.

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Exercise 5 : Descriptive Questions

1. Explain any five Internet Protocols
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 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Difference between Internet and Intranet?

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3. Explain the Addressing Mechanism?

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4. What is Search Engine? Explain any three popular search Engines ?

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5. Explain Binary, Decimal, BCD & ASCII Number system?

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74
 Questions

1.Define the following terms

i. Client and Server
ii. Host and Terminal
iii. TCP/IP
iv World Wide Web
v. Email
vi. Web page and Web portal
2.Write short notes on the IP Address
3. What are Blogs?

4. How is the Internet useful?

5.What is Server side programming?

6.Write short notes on the client side programming

7.What is Intranet? What are the advantages of Intranet

75
Chapter – 4: 1. Word Processing
_____________________________________________________________________
1. INTRODUCTION
_____________________________________________________________________
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction to Word Processing
4.3 Word Processing Concepts
4.4 Use of Templates
4.5 Working with Word Documents
4.5.1 Opening / creating new document
4.5.2 Saving a file
4.5.3 Printing of text
4.5.4 Emailing text
4.5.5 Closing
4.5.6 Font selection
4.6 Bullets and Numbering
4.7 Text Formatting
4.8 Paragraph and Page Formatting
4.9 Finding text and Find and Replace text
4.10 Customize quick access tool bar
4.11 Insert menu
4.11.1 Page Break
4.11.2 Tables
4.11.3 Pictures and Shapes
4.11.4 Charts
4.11.5 Insert Hyper Links
4.11.6 Header and footer
4.11.7 Symbols
4.12 Page formatting Page Layout, Themes, Page Setup, Page Background,
Paragraph, Arrange
4.13 Summary of the chapter
4.14 Exercise

_____________________________________________________________________
4.1 Objectives
_____________________________________________________________________
After studying this chapter, students are able to:

 Understand the use of templates.

 Understand the use of bullets and numbering
 Explain the Tabs.

76
  Understand the Basics of Paragraph formatting
 Understand and awareness Page Formatting
 Features of Header and Footer

_____________________________________________________________________
4.2 Introduction to Word Processing
_____________________________________________________________________
The concept of word processing was introduced in 1972. The change in title from
“typist” to “word processor” has improved morale and encouraged Word Processors
to use computers. Word processors used this software to create, edit, and print,
running text in a form of documents which can be stored into computer for a long time
and there is no need to retype the same information again and again as it was on
typewriter. Information can be edited any time and any number of times.
_____________________________________________________________________
4.3 Word Processing concepts
_____________________________________________________________________
For all computer applications, word processing is the most common. To perform
simple typing or word processing, you need a computer and a special software/
program called a Word Processor. A word processor enables you to create a
document, store it electronically on a Hard Disk or any other storage media of a
computer, display it on a screen, modify it by entering commands and characters from
the keyboard, and print it on a printer.
The great advantage of word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make
changes (editing) without retyping the entire document. If you make a typing mistake,
you simply use the arrow keys to replace the cursor and correct your mistake. If you
want to delete a paragraph, you simply remove it, without leaving a trace. It is equally
easy to insert a word, sentence, or paragraph in the middle of a document. Word
processors also make it easy to move sections of text from one place to another within
a document, or between documents. When you have made all the changes you want,
you can send the file to a printer to get a hardcopy.
Some commonly used word processors are:
— Word Perfect
— Perfect Writer
— Word Star
— Lotus Notes
_____________________________________________________________________
4.4 Use of Templates
_____________________________________________________________________

Templates have some features in all documents that are being sent. For example, the
letter pads head or the end of the letters. They may be pre-defined and stored in Boiler
plate text called as Templates. With this example you can easily understand the uses
of Templates.

77
Example1: Letter head of School of Open Learning

School of Open Learning

(Campus of Open Learning)
5, Cavalry Lanes
University of Delhi, Delhi-7
No………….. Dated………..

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Or

Example 2: Letter head of National Institute of Open Schooling(NIOS)

National Institute of Open Schooling

Regional Centre, Delhi
Dated………..

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

How to create Templates using following steps:

You can start with a blank document and save it as a template, or you can create a
template that is based on an existing document or template.

78
 Start with a blank template

1. Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click New.

2. Click Blank document, and then click Create.
3. Make the changes that you want to the margin settings, page size and orientation,
styles, and other formats.

You can also add instructional text, content controls such as a date picker, and
graphics that you want to appear in all new documents that you base on the template.

4. Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click Save As.
5. In the Save As dialog box, do one of the following:
o On a computer that is running Windows Vista, under Favourite Links,
click Templates.
o On a computer that is running Windows XP, under Save in, click Trusted Templates.
6. Give the new template a file name, select Word Template in the Save as type list,
and then click Save.

NOTE You can also save the template as a Word Macro-Enabled Template (.dotm
file) or a Word 97-2003 Template (.dot file).

7. Close the template.

Create a template based on an existing document

1. Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click Open.

2. Open the document that you want.
3. Make the changes that you want to appear in all new documents that you base on the
template.

4. Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click Save As.
5. In the Save As dialog box, do one of the following:
o On a computer that is running Windows Vista, under Favourite Links,
click Templates.
o On a computer that is running Windows XP, under Save in, click Trusted Templates.
6. Give the new template a file name, select Word Template in the Save as type list,
and then click Save.

NOTE You can also save the template as a Word Macro-Enabled Template (.dotm
file) or a Word 97-2003 Template (.dot file).

7. Close the template.

79
 Create a new template based on an existing template

1. Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click New.

2. Under Templates, click New from existing.
3. Click a template that is similar to the one that you want to create, and then
click Create New.
4. Make the changes you want to the margin settings, page size and orientation, styles,
and other formats.

You can also add instructional text, content controls such as a date picker, and
graphics you want to appear in all new documents that you base on the template.

5. Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click Save As.
6. In the Save As dialog box, do one of the following:
o On a computer that is running Windows Vista, under Favorite Links, click Templates.
o On a computer that is running Windows XP, under Save in, click Trusted Templates.
7. Give the new template a file name, click Word Template in the Save as type box,
and then click Save.

NOTE You can also save the template as a Word Macro-Enabled Template (.dotm
file) or a Word 97-2003 Template (.dot file).

8. Close the template.

Fig 4.1 Opening of a Template

Advantages:

80
Word processors vary considerably, but all word processors have following
advantages and features

Insert text : Allows you to insert text anywhere in the document.

Delete text : Allows you to erase characters, words, lines, or pages as easily as you
can cross them out on paper.

Cut and Paste : Allows you to remove (cut) a section of text from one place in a
document and insert (paste) it somewhere else.

Copy : Allows you to duplicate a section of text.

Margins : page size and margins: Allows you to define various page sizes and
margins, and the word processor will automatically readjust the text so that it fits.

Search and replace : Allows you to direct the word processor to search for a
particular word or phrase. You can also direct the word processor to replace one
group of characters with another everywhere that the first group appears.

Word Wrap : The word processor automatically moves to the next line when you
have filled one line with text, and it will readjust text if you change the margins.

Page Numbers : The Word Processor allows page numbering, with a single command
all the pages can be numbered.

Print Preview : Allows view of a document, how the document would be, how much
space is given on the top of the document or the bottom of the document. All we can
see before taking printout.

Print : Allows you to send a document to a printer to get hardcopy. Word processors
that support only these features (and maybe a few others) are called text editor. Most
word processors, however, support additional features that enable you to manipulate
and format documents in more sophisticated ways. These more advanced word
processors are sometimes called full-featured word processors. Full-featured word
processors usually support the following features:

File Management : Many word processors contain file management capabilities that
allow you to create, delete, move, and search for files.
29
Footnotes and cross-references : Automates the numbering and placement of
footnotes and enables you to easily cross-reference other sections of the document.
Graphics : Allows you to embed illustrations and graphs into a document. Some
word processors let you create the illustrations within the word processor; others let
you insert an illustration produced by a different program.

81
Header, Footer, and page numbering : Allows you to specify customized headers
and footers that the word processor will put at the top and bottom of every page. The
word processor automatically keeps track of page numbers so that the correct number
appears on each page.

layout : Allows you to specify different margins within a single document and to
specify various methods for indenting paragraphs.

Macro : A macro is a character or word that represents a series of keystrokes. The

keystrokes can represent text or commands. The ability to define macros allows you to
save yourself a lot of time by replacing common combinations of keystrokes.

Mail Merge : Same text can be sent to more than one person by adding common text
with data.

Merges : Allows you to merge text from one file into another file. This is particularly
useful for generating many files that have the same format but different data.
Generating mailing labels is the classic example of using merges.

Spell checker : A utility that allows you to check the spelling of words. It will
highlight any words that it does not recognize.

Tables of contents and indexes : Allows you to automatically create a table of

contents and index based on special codes that you insert in the document.

Windows : Allows you to edit two or more documents at the same time. Each
document appears in a separate Window. This is particularly valuable when working
on a large project that consists of several different files.

Print Preview: A document appears on the display screen exactly as it will look when
printed.
The line dividing word processors from desktop publishing systems is constantly
shifting. In general, though, desktop publishing applications support finer control over
layout, and more support for full-color documents.

_____________________________________________________________________
4.5 Working with Word Documents
_____________________________________________________________________

Microsoft word is part and parcel of Microsoft office. Fig 1.1 shows one of the
way to open the Microsoft Word i.e. press Start Button ฀ Select Programs ฀
Select Microsoft Office ฀ Microsoft office Word 2007or whatever word your
computer has
4.5.1 Opening / creating new document

82
 Fig. 4.2 Shows how to open Microsoft word

The word window contains various components they are

1. Home
2. Insert
3. Page Layout
4. References
5. Mailing
6. Review
7. View
8. PDF(if installed)
Some of the default tool bars are shown in the Figure No 1.2

Fig. 4.3 Menus of Microsoft word

Fig. 4.4. View of Microsoft word

83
When we open document in MS-Word it looks like the same Working with word
document :
Office Button:
Office Button is used like File Menu to open an existing document / creating a new
document. Which is part of Menu Bar can be used for Creating a new document or
Opening of previously stored document in a given below Figure. No. 1.4

Fig 4.5 Opening of a New Document

New Option is used to open the new blank document and short cut key Ctrl
+N (Control key and N both keys to be pressed simultaneously).

84
 Fig 4.5 Opening of a Template

Open Option is used to open already/previously stored file short cut key is Ctrl + O
see fig

Fig 4.6 Opening of a file from list of files

4.5.2 Saving a file

Save Option is used to store the contents of a document short key for doing this is
Ctrl+S. see fig

85
 Fig 4.7 Saving of the file

Save As Option is used to save contents with a different file name. This option
also used to save multiple copies of the same file with different name. see fig

Fig 4.8 saving of a file

Save As Option is used to save contents with a different file name. This option
also used to save multiple copies of the same file with different name and different
formats shown in the formats. see fig

86
 Fig 4.9 save as file

These formats are namely as word document, Word Template, word 97-2003
document, find add-ins for other file formats and other formats

Fig 4.10 Save in different formats / version of the MS word Documents

4.5.3 Printing of Text

Print This option is used to take printout of the document. Print, quick print and print
preview. There are many options in this option like how many copies you want to
print, On which printer you print, Printing pages from .... to …. etc. the Short key is
Ctrl+P.
Print Preview Option comes under print options which is used to provide view
before printing of the document.

87
 Fig 4.11 Print of the file option

Prepare option is used to view and edit document properties, check the document
for hidden metadata, increase the security of the document and check for
features not supported by earlier versions of word.

Fig 4.12 Opening of a Prepare

Properties is used to view and document properties such as Authors , title,

subjects, keywords, category, status and comments. See fig for properties.

Fig 4.13 Opening of a Properties under prepare command

88
 Check the document for hidden meta data and personal information. You can
find and remove hidden data and personal information from the document. see
fig

You can use the Document Inspector to find and remove hidden data and personal
information in Word documents that were created in Office Word 2007 and earlier
versions. It is a good idea to use the Document Inspector before you share an
electronic copy of your Word document, such as in an e-mail attachment.

1. Open the Word document that you want to inspect for hidden data and personal
information.
2. Click the Microsoft Office Button , click Save As, and then type a name in
the File name box to save a copy of your original document.

IMPORTANT It is a good idea to use the Document Inspector on a copy of your

original document because it is not always possible to restore the data that the
Document Inspector removes.

3. In the copy of your original document, click the Microsoft Office Button , point
to Prepare, and then click Inspect Document.
4. In the Document Inspector dialog box, select the check boxes to choose the types of
hidden content that you want to be inspected. For more information about the
individual Inspectors, see What information can the Document Inspector find and
remove from Word documents?
5. Click Inspect.
6. Review the results of the inspection in the Document Inspector dialog box.
7. Click Remove All next to the inspection results for the types of hidden content that
you want to remove from your document.

89
 4.5.4 Emailing of Text

Send Option is used to send the copy the document to the Email or Fax.

Create an email message

1. Click New Email, or press Ctrl + N.

2. If multiple email accounts are configured in Microsoft Outlook, the From button
appears and the account that will send the message is shown. To change the account,
click From.
3. In the Subject box, type the subject of the message.
4. Enter the recipients' email addresses or names in the To, Cc, or Bcc box. Separate
multiple recipients with a semicolon.

To select recipients' names from a list in the Address Book, click To, Cc, or Bcc, and
then click the names that you want.

I don't see the Bcc box. How do I turn it on?

To display the Bcc box for this and all future messages, click Options, and then in
the Show Fields group, click Bcc.

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5. Click Attach File to add an attachment. Or click Attach Item to attach Outlook items,
such as email messages, tasks, contacts, or calendar items.

TIP If you don’t like the font or style of your mail, you can change the way it looks.
It’s also a good idea to check the spelling in your message before sending.

6. After you finish composing your message, click Send.

Please Note : If you can't find the Send button, you may need to configure an email
account.

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4.5.5 closing

Close Option is used to close the existing files open for use.

Following Short cut keys can be used to open various options of Menu Bar
> Alt + F Key or with the help of mouse file menu can be activated
> Alt + E key or by click mouse on Edit menu, edit menu can be activated
> Alt + V key or by clicking mouse on View Menu be activated
> Alt + I Key or clicking mouse on Insert menu can be activated
> Alt + O key or clicking mouse on format menu can be activated
> Alt + T key or clicking mouse on Tools menu can be activated
> Alt + A key or clicking mouse on Table menu can be activated
> Alt + W key or clicking mouse on Window menu can be activated
> Alt + H key or clicking mouse on Help menu can be activated
Fig. 1.4

Fig 3.25 Home Menu Option is used for Cut, paste, formatting of text and type of text
alignment of the text

1. Clipboard
2. Font
3. Paragraph
4. Styles
5. Editing

Fig 3.26

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4.5.6 Font selection

Fig 3.27 font option under HOME MENU

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4.6 Bullets and numbering
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Fig 3.28 use of bullet and numbers for main point and numbering of the text.

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Fig 3.29 for numbering of points in the text

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4.7 Text Formatting
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Fig 3.30Test Alignment

There are four types of text alignments

1. Left Alignment
In case of left alignment text starts from left side of the page and blank spaces
comes on the right side of the page.
2. Centre Alignment
In case of Centre alignment text starts from centre of the page and blank spaces
comes on the right side and left side of the page.
3. Right Alignment
In case of Right alignment text starts from Right side of the page and blank
spaces comes on the left side of the page.
4. Justified Alignment
In case of left alignment text starts from left side of the page and touches on the
right side of the page and blank spaces comes between the text.

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4.8 Paragraph Formatting
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There are various methods of paragraph formatting. Here are some of the methods
mentioned below. You have to use and practice and see the impact of these
commands.

Fig 3.31 paragraph settings : Includes Line spacing, indentation, and alignment

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 Fig 3.31 for shading

Fig 3.32 for sorting

Fig 3.33 border

Fig 3.34 Increase an decrease indent

Fig 3.36 show / hide paragraph spaces only

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4.9 Finding text and find and replace text
_____________________________________________________________________

Find command is used to find the specific text / number from the file. After finding
the text or number you can also replace the text/ number with some other text /
number. For example if you typed Vaneeta in the text but that is Navneeta. So with the

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help of find with replace command you can change this particular word with navneeta
in the entire text. You can try using this example.

Example 1: find and replace command

Vaneeta and sunita are good friends and they used to visit gym every day in the
morning. Vaneeta used to call Sunita every day but one day sunita did not come for
calling vaneeta. That day vaneeta did not wake up and missed the gym.

(You have to use find and replace command and replace Vaneeta with Navneeta)

Fig. 3.37 find and replace command

Fig 3.38 find command in MS Word

Fig 3.39 Replace all command will replace all the words according to the example

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_____________________________________________________________________
4.10 Customize quick access toolbar
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Fig 3.40 short cut commands including UNDO,REDO ,PRINT, OPEN can be use

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4.110 Insert Menu
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Insert menu comprise following commands

Pages
Tables
Illustrations
Links
Header and footer
Text
Symbols
Here are some of the Insert menu commands for the use of the students. Students are
advise to use these command.

Fig 3.41 for insert menu option

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Fig 3.41a shows page command

Cover page: this command is used for design cover page of the word document file.
There are many cover pages given in this command. These in built cover pages helps
in may cover page for a document file.

Fig 3.42 shows various types of cover pages

Blank Page : this command is used to create blank page in the document file

Page Break : This command is used to creating a blank page in the document file. If
you want to start some text from next page then this page break command is used for
creating page break.

4.11.1 Page Break

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 4.11.2 Tables

Fig.3.43 Inserting Table. 8 Rows and 10 columns can insert according the given table
option

Fig.3.45 Insert Table

Fig. 3.46 Insert Picture ( from illustration) from File

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Fig 3.47 Insert Clip Art

Fig 3.48 Insert Shapes

Fig 3.49 Insert Smart Art

4.11.4 Insert Charts

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 Fig 3.50 Insert Chart

4.11.5 Insert Hyper Links

Fig 3.51 Hyper Link

3.52 book mark

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 Fig 3.53 cross reference

4.11.6 Header and Footer

Header and footers are used for common text / page numbers on every page of the text
documents. The content in the header will appear at the top of each printed page

Fig 3.54 how to edit Header of the document

The content in the footer will appear at the bottom of each printed page for example
page numbering on every page of the text.

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Fig 3.55 how to edit footer of the document

4.11.7 Insert Symbols

Fig 3.60 symbols like Equation and Symbol

Fig . 3.61 Equation

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Fig 3.62 shows various types of Symbols

Fig 3.56

Fig 3.57

Fig 3.58

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 Fig 3.59

page formatting Page Layout, Themes, Page Setup, Page Background, Paragraph,
Arrange

Fig 3.63 page formatting Page Layout, Themes, Page Setup, Page Background,
Paragraph, Arrange

3.64 themes

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 3.65 orientation

Fig 3.66 page setup

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Fig 3.67 see command for page size

3.68 type of page sizes

3.69 multiple columns can be created

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109
110
Fig 4.18 REFERENCES MENU includes Table of Contents, Footnotes, Citations &
Bibliography, Captions, Index , Table of Authorities

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Fig Foot note

112
 Mail Merge: Use mail merge to create mass mailings that you individualize for each
recipient. You can add individual elements to any part of a label, letter, envelope, or
email, from the greeting to the entire document, even images. Word automatically fills
in the fields with recipient information and generates all the individual documents. In
this course we’ll start with email, and then move on to letters and envelopes. See fig
………..

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 Fig 4.19 Option MAILINGS provide following important options these are Create
document for mailing, Start Mail Merge, Write & Insert Fields and Preview Results
with Finish

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 Example 1: Mail Merge two documents, in document1 type common matter in
document2 type only data of students.

Fig. 4.20 Option REVIEW provide important options these are Proofing, Comments,
Tracking, Changes, Compare, Protect

Fig 4.10 spelling and grammar comes under the review menu the short of this
command is F7
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Fig 4.21 Option VIEW provide important options these are Document Views,
Show/Hide, Zoom, Window, Macros

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117
Uses of following keys in the Microsoft word :
Backspace
This arrow key is called back space. This key is placed above the Enter Key.
This key can be used to delete left side characters.
Delete Key
This key is a part of six keys combination (INSERT, HOME, PAGE UP,
DELETE, END, PAGE DOWN). On the keyboard this key can be used to delete
characters on the right side of the cursor.
Let us suppose the Suresh is typed as Sumesh and m is to be changed as r.
Now place mouse pointer (cursor) after m. Press back space and now m is erased.
Then type r. Now Sumesh become Suresh. Or place the cursor before m and press
del m is deleted. Now enter r. The word is typed correctly.
There are two modes in Word-OVR and INS. OVR mode is overwriting mode
and INS mode is insertion mode. The later mode can be selected by pressing INS
Button on the keyboard. Insert a word or sentence and then continue typing in
the MS Word. Then press enter and save the document.
Space between lines can be given by pressing processing enter button on the
keyboard. Paragraph can be started by printing enter and then tab key to set
the initial space for first line. Selecting text can be done by placing the mouse
pointer on the word and double clicking. Now the word is selected. If sentence is
to be selected, use shift + ctrl key and + “ (right arrow) key. Now the sentence will
be fully selected.
Lines can also be selected by placing the mouse pointer on the line and press
double click that will select on one word for selecting complete paragraph press
one more click (means press triple click) then complete paragraph will be selected.
Buttons for editing command:
LEFT ARROW = Move cursor one character Left of the current position
RIGHT ARROW = Move cursor one character right of the current position
Ctrl + Left Arrow = Move cursor to Previous word
Ctrl + Right Arrow = Move cursor to Next Word
END = End of the Same line
Home = Beginning of the same line
Up Arrow = Line Above
Down Arrow = Line Below
Ctrl+Up arrow = Previous screen Page
Ctrl+ Down arrow = Next Page
Page Up = Previous Page

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Page Down = Next Screen Page
Ctrl+ Pg Up = Previous Page Top
Ctrl + Pg Down = Next Page Top
Ctrl + Home = First Line beginning
Ctrl + End = End of the Document
UNDO and REDO : these commands are part of Edit menu. If the Undo
button is pressed then the last change made is deleted and the original text is
displayed (means it will cancel new changes). If Redo button is pressed then the
changes made will be displayed in the document
Undo can be done in three ways
Click undo button
Press ctrl+ Z keys
Open edit menu and press undo command. Redo can be done in three ways
Select Edit Menu ฀ click Redo button
Or
Press ctrl + Y keys
Or
Click Red Button in the Standard Tool Bar.
MOVING TEXT
Text can be moved from one place to another. Let us suppose the document in
the abc.doc contains three paragraphs. Now the second paragraph is to be moved.
Go to file menu and Open new document or press ctrl N. Now document is seen.
Now place the cursor any where the second paragraph and click the mouse left
button three times. The entire second paragraph is selected. Now go to Edit Menu,
Select Cut command and click. The entire second paragraph is selected and a
thick dotted line rotates round the paragraph.
Moving of the text cannot be done until or unless text will be selected.
Following key board commands can be used to select the text.
Shift + Left Arrow = One character left side is selected
Shift + Right Arrow = One character Right side is selected
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Shift + Ctrl +Left Arrow = Left Word
Shift + Ctrl + Right Arrow = Right Word
Shift + End = End of the line
Shift + Home = Beginning of the line
Shift + Up Arrow = Previous line
Shift + Down Arrow = Next Line
Shift + Ctrl +End = From point to End of the Document is selected
Shift + Ctrl + Home = From point to Beginning of the Document is
selected
Cut can be done in three ways:
In this command selected text will disappear, and this command is used to
move the text from one place to another place.
1. Open Edit menu and select Cut command and click.
2. Press ctrl Z in the keyboard.
3. Use cut button on the standard tool bar

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Copy text : In this command hole text will remain on the same place and copy
of the text can be used at many places in the document (Like photocopy of the
master page).
Select the text paragraph by clicking the mouse button three times after
placing the cursor on the paragraph. Open edit menu and select the copy command
and press click or press ctrl C keys or use copy button on the standard tool bar.

Now the paragraph is copied.

Paste : This command can only be used if cut or copy command used earlier,
means Cut and Copy commands are incomplete without using paste command.
To paste following steps can be used:
1. Open Edit Menu and select the Paste Command after using Cut / copy
command.
2. Select the place by single click (where to paste text)
3. Press Ctrl V in the key board or Open Edit Menu ฀ Select Paste
Command.
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Formatting
Formatting includes many aspects, some of them are:
1. formatting of Font, Font size, Font type and Font Style317
2. Bold, Italic and Underline.
3. Large Italic and Underline
4. Large dropped capital letters
5. Word Art special effects
6. Paragraph Indents
7. Paragraph Alignment
8. Spacing, Hanging Indent
9. Line Spacing
10. Borders
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11. Shading
12. Margins
13. Auto Format
14. Bullets and Numbering
15. Table and Grid lines
16. Header and Footer
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4.14. Exercise
_____________________________________________________________________

Check your progress

Exercise1

State true/False
(a) In word, the search cannot be case sensitive
(b) It is possible to submit the search to only a part of the document
(c) It is not possible to cancel the search in between a search operation.

Ans . (a) F (b) F (c) T

Exercise 2
Short Question

Q.1. How are simple and complex tables created in a MS Word document? (9)
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Q.2. What is Clip Art? How is the picture or Clip Art inserted in a document
from clip Gallery? (9)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Q.3. How are document templates used in MS Word?

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Why is MS Word called a WYSIWYG program?
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_____________________________________________________________________
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2. Where does a text or graphic go when you cut or copy it?

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3. What is word wrapping?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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4. What is Mail Merge? How this can be use in MS Word? Explain with suitable
example?
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

5. Write the following in the format as shown

We come across several documents in our work life everyday. Some of
these are listed as follows:
(a) Documents that are used for identification
(i) Business cards
(ii) Certificates
(iii) Labels
(b) Documents that provide reference
(i) Index
(ii) Contracts
(iii) Calendar
(iv) Lists
6. Give a footer ‘ B.Com programme’ in the centre of the footer. The footer
should also consist of page no/s and total no. of pages on the right side.
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7. Why do you indent text? Do you think indentation can replace page
margins?
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8. Give advantages of find and replace feature of Word processor.

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_____________________________________________________________________
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9. What are the uses of tab stops? What are the different tab stops available?

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10. What is use of word? Explain its applications?

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11. Give a footer ‘ B.Com programme’ in the centre of the footer. The footer
should also consist of page no/s and total no. of pages on the right side.
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

12. Why do you indent text? Do you think indentation can replace page
margins?
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13. Give advantages of find and replace feature of Word processor.

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14. What are the uses of tab stops? What are the different tab stops available?
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Chapter – 5 Spreadsheet and Its Business Applications
_____________________________________________________________________
1. INTRODUCTION
_____________________________________________________________________
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Introduction to worksheet
5.3 Worksheet Concepts
5.4 Methods of building a workbook
5.5 Important features of Excel
5.6 Shaving Workbook
5.7 Editing in workbook
5.8 Entering data in a cell
5.9 Formula copying
5.10 Moving data from selected cells
5.11 Rearranging worksheet
5.12 Project evolving multiple spreadsheets
5.13 Printing worksheet
5.14 Summary of the chapter
5.15 Exercise

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5.1 Objectives
_____________________________________________________________________
After studying this chapter, students are able to:

 Understand the use of creating, saving and editing worksheet.

 Understand insert, delete worksheet
 Explain the entering of data in cells.
 Understand the formula coping
 Understand moving data from selected cells
 Understand rearranging worksheet
 Understand Printing of worksheet

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5.2 Introduction to Spreadsheet
_____________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION
It might some time you realized the importance of computer in everybody’s
life. It has now come to a stage that without computers it will be very difficult to
perform certain tasks in our life, for example, banking transaction, railway,

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airlines and other transport reservation, traffic controls etc. Many business
applications require the analysis of data, which may involve statistical and
mathematical calculations. In these kinds of financial and commercial
applications Spread Sheet Software plays an important role. The Spread Sheet
makes the calculations, analysis and presentation of any numerical data in a
very simple and effective way.
There are quite a few application packages available in this category, viz.
Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pro,Symphony, Excel, etc. Ms Excel is Windows based Spread
Sheet developed by Microsoft Corporation.

Fig 5.1Exploring the Excel Window

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5.3 Spreadsheet concepts
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Spreadsheet is defined as a large sheet containing a matrix of rows and columns. It is

an effective tool for keeping track of all sorts of data like student attendance, marks
and grades, a list of major purchases and amounts etc. It provides the facility to
organize data into rows and columns. Excel is one of the Microsoft Office tools,
which is used to create spreadsheets.

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_____________________________________________________________________
5.4 Methods of building a worksheet
_____________________________________________________________________

Explain the method for building a worksheet.

The worksheet is a grid of Columns (designated by letters) and Rows
(designated by numbers).. It is the important part of Excel. The letters and
334 Computer Fundamentals and Information System
numbers of the columns and rows called labels are displayed in gray buttons across
the top and left side of the worksheet.
The intersection of a column and a row is called a cell. Shown in fig 5.1 and the cell
reference is A1 ( A means column name and 1 means row name)

Fig 5.1 shows the cell which is intersection of coloumn ( shown in alphabets and row
shown in numbers only) Each cell on the spreadsheet has a cell address that is the
column letter and the row number.
The column name and row number forms the address. For example, in the first row
the first column has the address A1, the next column B1, like this. The second row of
first column has the address A2. Cell is formed by the interaction section of column
and row, formula has to be used only with reference to cell address.
The left most line shows the numbers from 1 to 18 rows and the top most line of the
worksheet shows A to I columns. However, there are 256 columns and 16384 rows in
the worksheet. The Excel worksheet is about 7 meters wide and 100 meters long. The
rows are numbered from 1 to 16,384. The columns are named as A to Z then AA, AB,
AC,…, BA, BB, etc.
Data Type in a Worksheet
MS-Excel recognizes four types of data.
1. Numbers
2. Text
3. Formula

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4. Date and Time

1. Numbers or Numeric Data :- This can be any numerical value, consisting of digits
( 0-9), leading + or – sign, decimal point (.), and numerical operators are +, -, /, *, %,
(, ) , $, E, e,. If you type the data, which begins with any other character, then it will
be treated as nonnumeric value.

2. Alphanumeric or Text Data :- The text data, may contain a combination of

alphabets, spaces, digits and any other characters; for example, 75XYZ , 75-123, ABC
12. Texts are aligned to the left of the cell.
This may be changed using the alignment command, from the formatting tool bar.

3. Formula :- Formula is sequence of values, Cell-addresses, names, function or

operators in a cell that produces a new value from existing values. It is a equation that
analyzes data on a worksheet.
Formula in MS-Excel start with = sign. The formula = A4+B7 will add the contents of
cell A4 and B7 and put the resulting value in the current cell.

4. Date and Time :- Microsoft Excel stores dates as sequential numbers known as
serial values. Excel stores the time as a decimal fraction because time is considered as
a portion of a day. Dates and time are values and, therefore can be added, subtracted
and included in other calculations.
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5.5 Important features of Excel
_____________________________________________________________________

Different applications for which spreadsheet can be usefully deployed are :–

1. Ledgers
2. Banking forms
3. Income statements
4. Annual reports
5. Pay rolls
6. Budgets
7. Admission lists
8. Railway reservation
9. Ranking analysis
10. Cost analysis
11. Mathematical calculation
12. Standard calculation
13. Financial calculation
14. Tax calculation
15. Tender or Quotation
16. Billing aspects
17. Trigonometric function

Using Excel in Computer

127
1. Open Program Manager Window.
2. If not opened double click the icon of Program Manager to ask windows to open.
3. If Excel is installed in a separate window, double click the icon for that window to
open.
4. If Excel is in Microsoft office window, open Microsoft office window by double
click its icon.
5. Locate the icon MS Excel and click or highlight the icon by key board arrows and
press enter.
6. Excel program is displayed in the screen.
36
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5.6 SAVING THE WORK BOOK
_____________________________________________________________________

The file should be saved before switching off the computer. The worksheet
entries are first stored in RAM and they are to be saved in the hard disk or the
floppy disk. See fig 5.2 showing saving of workbook for that purpose, the file is to be
saved by giving a name.

Fig 5.2 shows saving of workbook using various methods

1. Use save button on the standard tool bar.

2. Use save Command from the file menu
3. Use Keyboard keys ^S to Save the file
4. Use close in the work sheet window. The MS office assistant will ask “ Do
you want to save the file? Press Enter. The file will be saved with .xlsx tag.

128
 339
Some of the important points to be noted are that the worksheet is mostly
used for manipulation of data at various levels. High Level manipulations are
done in the worksheet. Keyboard and Mouse are mostly used as input devices.

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130
131
132
133
134
_____________________________________________________________________
5.7 Editing in work book
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What does Editing of Cells mean? Explain.

Editing is the concept of making changes, modification or corrections in the
data as well as positioning data as per requirements. Data can be edited only if
the concerned cell is made active. Some of the functions of editing and functions
are to be studied.

Alignment of data

Fig 5.3 shows various types of alignments in ms excel

The data in the cell may be either left aligned or right aligned as default. Number will
be right and the character data are aligned left in default. For example, Name is
aligned left in the cell and 85 is aligned right in the cell.
To change the alignment in cells the alignment button can be used for this purpose
formatting tool bar is to be used.
In the formatting tool bar, there are four buttons for alignment. They are
(a) Right align (b) Left align (c) Center align (d) Center across column
Marks Marks Marks Marks

135
A specific cell or a series of range of cells can be selected for alignment proposes.
After selecting the cell or series of cells, place the pointer on the specific button,
right or left or center align and press. The cell data or center cells data will be
aligned as per instructions.
The center across the columns button can be pressed for aligning data in C
particular cell. For example, the cell data mark-sheet can be selected and then
the button center across columns is to be pressed. Then the data will be aligned
center across columns.

Wrap text command is used to wrap text in the specified cell , shown in fig 5.5a

Fig 5.5a wrap text command

For example showing below “This is my wraping of text “ in a single sentence
and wrap text command will fold the text according to the shape / size of the of
the cell. Shown in fig 5.6

Result shown in fig 5.7

Fig 5.8 shows how to merge and centre text in excel file using merge & centre
command.

Fog 5.8 merge & centre command.

See fig 5.9 “type this line in a cell “this is my wraping of text”shown in fig 5.10

Fig 10 shows a single line typed in the excel

Fig 5.11 shows that all three cell A,B,C are merged together and comes into
centre of the these three cells.

136
_____________________________________________________________________
5.8 Entering data in a cell
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A is the column name and 1 is the row number and the cell reference is A1 as
the same B is the name of the column and 1 is the row number. These cell
references used in formulas where as there is no need to write values.
Fig. 2.3 A
Editing Cell Data
Editing can be done only in active cells. Press F2 or double click the cell for editing.
The status bar shows edit and the formula bar shows the data in the cell.343
Editing can be done in the cell or in the active bar. Press Home key to get the cursor to
the first position that is left of data in the cell. Press Del key to delete and enter “and
press enter” The data is aligned right.
Label prefix characters and label itself can be edited by F2 key. If Excel is operating
in Insert mode, typing can be done. OVR shows the Overtype mode and INS shows
the Insert mode.
If many changes are to be done, editing can be done directly by selecting the cells and
entering new data. It replaces the entire old data with new data. Confirm button can be
clicked or Enter can be pressed to save changes in the cells. Sum function is an inbuilt
function.
For example, formula = C3 + D3 + E3 +F3 + G3 + H3 can be easily added if
the sum function is clicked which is in the status bar. Ranges can also be specified
in Formula bar which can be used for sum function. Select the cell and to get the
result press = Sum (C5: E5)
Example :
Sometimes error may occur if any non-numeric data are entered in the cells.
Sum function can be used for numbers only and not for characters.
Sometimes if the range is not given the formula is displayed in the cell and
the results can be got.

If you want total activate cell A9 and type total : Then activate cellB9 by
arrow key. See fig 5.12 & 5.13

Fig 5.12 showing formula

137
 Fig 5.13 showing solution using formula

You can add sales total vertically or add BLD in horizontal manner by pointer.
It may be either:
= Sum (D2 : D7) or
= Sum (E2 :E7)
Mouse can be used to click the Sum function in the tools bar.

Change of Row Height or Column Width

Sometimes the data entered in the cell may require more space than the column width.
The full data or numerals cannot be visible in the cell. Sometimes the character entries
may not be visible as the column width is not sufficient. For this purpose column
width is to be changed. Changes in column width can be made.

Fig 5.14 for cells command

138
Fig 5.15 shows the way you can change the size of the cells with row height and
coloumn width command in the Home Menu-> Cells
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5.7 INSERTING, DELETING WORKSHEETS
_____________________________________________________________________

Fig. 5.17 shows how to use insert, delete and renameing worksheet

139
Fig 5.18 shows Insert worksheet
350 fig
Worksheet can be inserted using Insert Menu command. See fig 5.17 and fig 5.18 You
can also name the sheet1,sheet 2, sheet 3 according to your choice and work using
rename command. Steps to rename the sheet1 are given below:
1. Select the Sheet1 Press right click of the mouse and select rename command shown
in the figure below. Give new name according to your choice after using rename
command give new name to the sheet1 of your choice shown in the figure below
(Sheet1 rename to Payroll)
Selected Sheet can be deleted using delete command. Steps to remember are select the
sheet ->right click the mouse ->select delete command.

_____________________________________________________________________
5.8 FORMULA COPYING
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Fig. 5.19

If you copy formula from D2 cell to F2 cell the cell references will change
automatically. This is somehow advantage of Excel that Total class/ marks is
calculated for every employee.

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But in some cases we need same Cell value for all calculations, see figure 5.21 using $
to fix Cell references by putting $sign in front and after the Alphabet ($A$) for
example given below Instalment Amount is same for all calculations so we are using
= $B$1 to $B$6 cell reference , see figure 5.21.

Fig.5.21 use of $ for fixed cell reference

Opening a new file
Select the MS Excel program directly by clicking the Icon in the Desktop if it is in
Desktop.
If MS Excel is in the programs menu, select MS Excel from program and click. By
using keyboard form windows key. Use arrow key to select the program menu and
then MS Excel program and press Enter. Now MS Excel window with Book 1 opens
and it will be a new work-sheet.
If any one of the existing files say mark list .xls is to be opened. Open file menu Alt +
F and use key to select open command. Standard Tool bar contains a button Open.
Now the files will be opened. The open dialog box will save some of the files,
directories, sub-directories and Excel files and the directories drive.
File can be opened by typing the File menu in the text area provided. You can open
the file of your choice. Otherwise you can use the scroll bar to select the required file.

_____________________________________________________________________
5.10 MOVING DATA
_____________________________________________________________________

The worksheet file already prepared may have to be changed or moved to some other
files or area. All the columns and row may not be needed and hence the data required
are to be removed.
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Data can be short and filter using short & filter command

Movement of data can be done by moving cell data. All cells can be moved or some
specific cells can be moved.
The ways for moving data are :
(1) Use of cut and paste command, and
(2) Mouse movement.
Cut and paste

The required columns and rows can be selected by for the purpose of moving.
For example, the file has the following:

Fig 5.20 shows salary statement

The general method is to select the required cells, order cut and then go to the area
already selected, order for paste. In this case if first 4 rows are to be moved the
following should be done. Make A1 cell active by pressing ^Home or Home key or by
mouse. For cutting A1 cell : Dotted moving line is seen in the border around the cell.
The dotted moving line is called as “MARQUEEING”. Now the status bar shows
select the destination and press enter or choose paste. Now use arrow key to move the
pointer to C1 from A1. Then press enter key. Or use mouse to select or activate C1
cell.
^V can be used for paste command that is the short cut key.
Now the data is moved from A1 cell to C1 cell.
Mouse pointer shape may be in three kinds:
1. When the pointer is inside the cell.
2. Arrow mark when it is outside the borders.
3. If the pointer is in the right corner (bottom) of the border.

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Without releasing the button drag the mouse pointer to C1 cell. A Grey border is seen
around C1 cell. If the mouse button is released the data is moved to C1 cell.

Copying data to another area

If the same data are to be copied in another area, then copy command can be used.
1. Copying data in single cell.
2. Copying data in range of cells.
3. Copy the data to C new location.
4. Copy the data to C new area in the worksheet.
For example, if the data in B1 cell is to be copied in H1 cell.
Activate B1 cell by using arrow keys or mouse. Open Edit menu-use Copy command.
Select the new cell H1 by activating the cell by arrow key or mouse click. Paste
command. Now the data in B1 is pasted in H1 also.
For erasing the cell data
— Activate B2 cell and press Del.
— Now data in B2 is deleted.
— Activate B2 cell and press shift key use arrow or arrow to select cells
and release the button. Now series of cells are selected.
— Press Del in keyboard.
— The selected cells are cleared and data are erased.

For the purpose of deleting rows

Move mouse pointer to row (left side) and click and right click. Delete dialog box will
appear. Select shift cells up or entire row options. Then the entire row will be deleted.
In the similar manner, series of rows and columns can be deleted. Model :
Delete using Keyboard
— Activate B1 cell or B2 cell using pointer.
— Open Edit menu, select Delete command.
— Delete dialog box is opened.
— Select shift cells up or entire row and Press OK.
— Now the cell row is deleted.
Delete using keyboard
— Activate any column in C by using arrow key.
— Press Ctrl + Space bar to select column C.
— Right click mouse or press Shift + F 10.
— Short cut menu appears. Choose delete command.
— Now rows are deleted. If column is selected then column will be deleted.

Entering data in workbook.

In the formula bar, now A1 is seen. In the status bar, the word Ready is
found. The mode indicator shows ready. The terms such as edit, point, etc. can
be seen as mode indicators. The cells can save values and formula. The values
may be characters or numerals. The word length should not be more than 255
characters.

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Examples of numeric entries :
2346
0.2346
23.46
+23.46
-23.01
#345
(567) – this is taken as – 567
If any non-numeric characters are found then the entire cell will be a non- numeric
cell. Example, 10th March, 1990-91, 34 + 5, 1234_76, etc. Non-numeric or characters
entries
Sampath Raj
Sunandha
V. Pad
K.S.V.
Accounting year
7.2.98

_____________________________________________________________________
2.11 REARRANGING WORKSHEET
_____________________________________________________________________

Rearranging can be done by selecting worksheet for example salary of Feb

2009 should come before salary of March 2009.In WINDOW menu arrange
option can also be use to arrange. See figure below

_____________________________________________________________________
2.12 PROJECT INVOLVING MULTIPLE SPREADSHEETS HANDLING
OPERATORS IN FORMULA
_____________________________________________________________________

There are four types of operators in Excel as follows:

1. Arithmetical Operators
2. Relational Operators
3. Text Concatenation Operator

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4. Reference Operators

Arithmetical Operators Relational Operators Text concatenation Reference Operators

Operator
num( ) Parenthesis > Greater than : (colon)– Range
^ Exponential < Less than Operator
# Multiplication <= Less than or equal
/ Division to &
+ Addition >= Greater than or
- Subtraction equal to , (Comma) – Union
= Equal to Operator
Not equal to

Examples for Operators:

Arithmetical Operators:
Arithmetic operation can be entered in the formula bar.
Example:= 3 ^ 3 * 7 – 9
Here as per the operator precedence first 3 ^ 3 will be evaluated that is 27.
Then * is done 27 × 7 = 189 – 9 = 180 will be displayed. Brackets can be used for
changing the results 3 ^ 3 * (7 – 9) = 27 * (-2) = - 54
Operator precedence
^ - exponential
* - Multiplications
/ - Division
÷ - Remainder
+ - Addition
- - Subtraction

1. Parenthesis : = 7*(5+4) gives 63

2. Exponential : = 7^2 gives 49
3. Multiplication : = 5 * 6 gives 30
4. Division : = 45 / 9 gives 5
5. Subtraction : = 35-6 gives 29

Relational Operators:
1. Greater than : = 7>5 returns TRUE
2. Less than : = 7<5 returns FALSE
3. Less than or equal to : =5<=7 returns TRUE
4. Greater than or equal to : = 7>= returns FALSE
5. Equal to : = 7=9 returns FALSE
6. Not equal to : = 59 returns TRUE

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Text Concatenation Operator
Example : =”Sampath”&Raj” gives SampathRaj
Reference Operators:
: Colon = B2:B10 means reference from cell B2 to B10.
, Comma = SUM (B2:B10,D2:D10) means adding the values from B2 to B10
and D2 to D10.

_____________________________________________________________________
2.13 Printing Worksheet
_____________________________________________________________________

Print button on a standard tool bar enables to print entire or a part of the worksheet.
When you print, you can change the page set up, i.e., top, bottom, left, etc. We can
print the Mark list. XLSX worksheet that we had created. Print command can be used
only on worksheet that is locked in memory of the PC.
• Open the MARK LIST.XLSX work sheet.

• Open the menu and choose see figure below and use

the print Command.

• Then Excel displays print dialog box.
It helps us to select what to print. It also has select options such as the number of
copies, page range and to set up page and printer. In the top left corner of the dialog
box, it displays the name of the printer and the printer type. The printer name can be
selected by pressing printer set up button. If you try to print with a different printer
you are using, then it is selected in the print dialog box. Else you may not get the
correct print-out.
The print dialog box contains a number of options. However, the default options are
current worksheet. By default Excel prints one copy of the current sheet. The Excel
worksheets have multiple sheets. It is used for complex tasks. Most of these can be
completed within a single sheet. Press ENTER or Click the OK button. Excel starts
146
printing the worksheet. Print dialog box differs according to the specification. The
print has various options such as selection, selected sheets, entire workbook. Number
of copies can also be changed. Range can be selected. Either all pages can be typed or
pages from-to-can be printed.
In the dialog box there are buttons with O.K., cancel, page set-up, Print preview,
printer set-up and Help. Printer Set-up and help can be studied separately. Page Set-
up: In the page set-up dialog box, following options are available :
Orientation may be portrait or Landscape, Paper printing may be horizontal
or vertical. Sealing can be done as adjust to % of size. Fit to page can be given,
wide can also be given. Page size can be selected. Print quality may also be
selected. Use mouse pointer to click the options available.

Exercise for practice

Exercise 1

Short Questions
Q.1. What is word wrap command how this command is used in MS Excel. Explain
with the help of suitable example?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Q2. What is Align and Centre command? What is the purpose of using this command
give example?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Q.3.What is a chart? List out some of the different charts available in MS

Excel. 369
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Q.4. What do you mean by cell reference in MS Excel? What are the different types of
references?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Q.5. Why is formatting of spreadsheets required?

147
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Q.6. What do you mean by circular reference in MS Excel?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Q.7. What are Header and Footer Selections? Explain in detail.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Q8. How to resize the cell (column width and Row width) using commands?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Exercise for practice

Exercise 2

Long questions
1. What are the features of MS Excel ?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. What are common errors of MS Excel?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. How Header and Footer can be inserted?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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4. Differentiate between Workbook and Worksheet
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

5. Write the cell address of the following cells:

(a) 14th row and 2nd column
(b) 10th row and 1st column
(c) 150th row and 52nd column
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

6. What do you understand by cell referencing, including absolute and

Relative cell referencing?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

7. What is the default alignment of numbers and text in Excel?

(SOL,DU,2010)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

8. What is Excel Screen? State the items in Excel Screen.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

9. What does Auto Fill means? Explain.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

10. What are header and footer selections? Explain in detail.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

11. What is meant by range of columns? Explain its use.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

12. Explain the method for building a worksheet.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

13. What does editing of cells mean? Explain.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

14. What is Watermark? How this can be used in printing of Fee receipt, Marksheet
of SOL? Explain.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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151
 Chapter 6

Generally used spread sheet functions

_____________________________________________________________________
1. INTRODUCTION
_____________________________________________________________________
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Functions in MS Excel
6.3 Structure of a function
6.4 Financial
6.5 Logical
6.6 Mathematical
6.7 Statistical
6.8 Exercise

_____________________________________________________________________
6.1 Objectives
_____________________________________________________________________
After studying this chapter, students are able to:

 Understand the use of functions

 Understand the structure of the function
 Understand the data used in function
 Understand the use of various function under statistical function
 Understand the use of various function under Mathematical function
 Understand the use of various function under Financial function
 Understand the use of various function under Logical function

_____________________________________________________________________
6.2 Functions in MS-Excel
_____________________________________________________________________

Functions are predefined or in built formulas that can perform calculations by using
specific values or range of cells, called arguments, in a particular order, or Figure 6.1
is showing how you can use functions.

First go to Formulas -> Function Library

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Figure 6.1, Figure 6.2 , Figure 6.3 and fig 6.4 will help to use all the four functions in
your syllabus structure. Functions can be used to perform simple or complex

Fig. 6.1 functions

calculations. Function can be called from Function Library see in the figure no 6.2, a
list of available functions will appear or by a short cut method if you click a cell and
press SHIFT+F3 a list of available functions will appear see in the figure no 6.2

Fig 6.2 function library

Some to the commonly used following functions are:
1. Mathematical function see fig 6.3

Fig. 6.3 Mathematical functions

2. Statistical function see fig 6.4

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 Fig 6.4 Statistical functions

3. Financial functions see figure 6.5

Fig 6.5 financial functions

4. Logical functions see figure 6.6

Fig 6.6 Logical functions

In figure 6.2 you can find various functions but most commonly used functions

153
are financial , Mathematical & Trigonometric ( Math & Trig), Statistical and
Logical.

_____________________________________________________________________
6.3 Structure of a function
_____________________________________________________________________

Structure : The structure of a function begins with an equal sign (=), followed by the
function name, an ([)opening parenthesis, the arguments for the function separated by
commas, and a (])closing parenthesis.
Arguments : Arguments can be numbers, text, logical values such as TRUE or
FALSE, Group of numbers (array), or cell references. The argument you designate
must produce a valid value for that argument. Arguments can also be constants,
formulas, or other functions.
Entering formulas : When you create a formula that contains a function, the Insert
Function dialog box helps you enter worksheet functions. As you enter a function into
the formula, the Insert Function dialog box displays the name of the function, each of
its arguments, a description of the function and each argument, the current result of
the function, and the current result of the entire formula.

See example given below the SUM function adds all the numbers
specified in the argument i.e. values or can be range of the numbers like A1 cell
to A10 cell.
378
Example

= Name of the function ( parameter1, parameter 2)

= SUM(number1, number2)
Or
= SUM(A1,A2, A3,A4)
Or
= SUM(A1:A4)

_____________________________________________________________________
6.4 Financial Functions
_____________________________________________________________________
PMT
Calculates the payment for a loan based on constant payments and a constant interest
rate.
Syntax is = PMT(rate,nper,pv,fv,type) Rate – Interest rate for the loan.
Nper – Total number of payments for the loan.
Pv – Present value, or the total amount that a series of future payments is
worth now; also known as the principal.

154
Fv – Present value, or a cash balance you want to attain after the last payment is
made. If fv is omitted, it is assumed to be 0 (Zero), that is, the future value of a loan is
0.
Type - is the number 0 (Zero) or 1 and indicates when payments are due. Set type
equal to 0 or omitted If payments are due at the end of the period. 1 If payments are
due at the beginning of the period.
Remarks
The payment returned by PMT includes principal and interest but no taxes, reserve
payments, or fees sometimes associated with loans. Make sure that you are consistent
about the units you use for specifying rate and nper if you make monthly payments on
a four-year loan at an annual interest rate of 12 percent, use 12%, 12 for rate and 4*12
for nper. If you make annual payments on the same loan, use 12 percent for rate and 4
for nper.
Tip – To find the total amount paid over the duration of the loan, multiply the
returned PMT value by nper.
Examples
The following formula returns the monthly payment on a Rs. 20,000 loan at an annual
rate of 16 percent that you must pay off in 20 months.For the same loan, if payments
are due at the beginning of the period, the payment is: PMT (16% / 12, 20, 20,000, 0,
1) equals -- Rs. 1,130.79 The following formula returns the amount someone must
pay to you each month if you loan that person Rs. 10,000 in at 24 percent and want to
be paid back in 10 months.
You can use PMT to determine payments to annuities other than loans. For example,
if you want to save Rs. 50,000 in 18 years by saving a constant amount each month.
You can use PMT to determine how much you must save. If you assume you’ll be
able to earn 6 percent interest on your saving, you can use PMT to determine how
much to save each month.
PMT (6%/12, 0, 50,000) equal –Rs.129.08
If you pay Rs.129.08 into a 6 percent savings account every month for 18 years, you
will have Rs. 50,000.

IPMT
Returns the interest payment for given period for an investment based on periodic,
constant payments and a constant interest rate.

Syntax of the function is =IPMT(RATE,PER,NPER,PV,FV,TYPE)

Rate – Interest rate per period.
Per – Period for which you want to find the interest and it must be in the
range 1 to Total number of payment periods in an annuity( NPER)
Nper – Total number of payment periods in an annuity.
Pv – present value or the lump-sum amount that a series of future payments is worth
right now. Fv – future value or a cash balance you want to attain after the last payment
is made. If fv is omitted, it is assumed to be 0 (the future value of a loan, for example,
is 0).
Type – number 0 or 1 and indicates when payments are due. If type is omitted, it is
assumed to be 0.

155
Remarks
Make sure that you are consistent about the units you for specifying rate and
Nper. If you make monthly payments on a four-year loan at 12 percent annual

Interest, use 12%/12 for rate and 4*12 for Nper. If you make annual payments on the
same loan, use 12% for rate and 4 for Nper. For all the arguments, cash you pay out,
such as deposits to savings, is represented by negative numbers; cash your receive,
such as dividend checks, is represented by positive numbers.

PPMT
Returns the payment on the principal for a given period for an investment based on
periodic, constant payments and a constant interest rate.
Syntax
PPMT (rate,per,nper,pv,fv,type) Rate – is the interest rate per period.
PER – specifies the period and must be in the range 1 to nper.
Nper – is the total number of payment periods in an annuity.
Pv – is the present value and the total amount that a series of future payments is worth
now.
Fv – is the future value, or a cash balance you want to attain after the last
payment is made. If fv is omitted, it is assumed to be 0 (Zero), that is, the future value
of a loan is 0.
Type – is the number 0 or 1 and indicates when payments are due.
Set type equal to
O or omitted If payments are due at the end of the period 1 If payments are due at the
beginning of the period
Remark
Make sure that you are consistent about the units you use for specifying rate and nper.
If you make monthly payments on a four year loan at 12 percent annual interest, use
12%12 for rate and 4*12 for nper. If you make annual payments on the same loan, use
12%12 for rate and 4 for nper.

Examples
The following formula returns the principal payment for the first month of a two-year
Rs.2,000 loan at 8 percent annual interest:
The following formula returns the principal payment for the last year of a 10-year Rs.
200,000 loan at 8 percent annual interest:
PPMT (16%, 10, 400000) equals –Rs. 71345.20
Value in RED Colour means this is payment. You can also change loan amount with
negative amount then this RED Colour figure will not come.

156
_____________________________________________________________________
6.5 Logical Function
_____________________________________________________________________

AND
Returns TRUE if all its arguments are TRUE; returns FALSE if one or more
arguments is FALSE.
AND Condition is used where both the conditions must be true for example Student
must clear Xth and XIIth class for getting admission into Graduation.(Means student
must have passed Xth Class and XII th Class before getting admission into college)
383
Syntax
AND (logical1, logical2,…)
Logical1, logical2, … are 1 to 30 conditions you want to test that can be either TRUE
or FALSE.
1. The arguments must evaluate to logical values such as TRUE or FALSE, on the
arguments must be arrays or references that contain logical values.
2. If an array or reference argument contains text or empty cells, those values are
ignored.
3. If the specified range contains no logical values, AND returns the #VALUE! Error
value.
See example
Examples
AND (2+2=4, 2+3=5) equals TRUE
AND (TURE, TRUE) equals TRUE
AND (TRUE, FALSE) equals FALSE
If B1:B3 contains the values TRUE, FALSE, and TRUE, then:
AND (B1:B2) equals FALSE
If B4 contains a number between 1 and 100, then:
AND (1<B4, B4<100) equals TRUE
Suppose you want to display B4 if it contains a number strictly between 1 and 100,
and you want to display a message if it is not. If B4 contains 104 then:
IF (AND(1<B4, b4<100), b4, “The value is out of range.”) equals “The value is out of
range.”
If B4 contains 50, then:
IF(AND(1<B4<B4<100), B4, “The value is out of range.”) equals 50
Example
Student must clear Xth and XIIth class for getting admission into Graduation.
(Means student must have passed Xth Class and XII th Class before getting admission
into college)
= IF(AND(B5 = ”PASSED”, C5 = ”PASSED”), ”ELEGIBLE OF ADMISSION IN
GRADUATION”,”NOT ELEGIBLE FOR ADMISSION INTO GRADUATION”)
4
FALSE
Returns the logical value FALSE.
Syntax

157
FALSE ( )
Remark. You can also type the word FALSE directly onto the worksheet or into the
formula, and Microsoft Excel interprets it as the logical value FALSE.
IF
Returns one value if a condition you specify evaluates to TRUE and another value if it
evaluates to FALSE. Use IF to conduct conditional tests on values and formulas.
Syntax
IF (logical_test,value_if_ture,value_if,false)
Logical_test – is any value or expression that can be evaluated to TRUE or
FALSE
Value_if_true – is the value that is returned if logical_test is TRUE. If
logical_test is TRUE and value_if_true is omitted, TRUE is returned.
Value_if_true can be another formula.
385
Value_if_false – is the value that is returned if logical_test is FALSE. If
logical_test is FALSE and value_if_false is omitted, FALSE is returned.
Value_if_false can be another formula.
Examples
In the following Example, if the value in cell A10 is 100, then logical_test is
TRUE, and the total value for the range B5:B15 is calculated. Otherwise,
logical_test is FALSE, and empty text (“ “) is returned that blanks the cell that
contains the IF function.
IF(A10=100,SUM(B5:B15),””)
Suppose an expense worksheet contains in B2:B4 the following data for “Actual
Expenses” for January, February, and March: 1500, 500, 500. C2:C4 contains the
following data for “Predicted Expenses” for the same periods: 900, 925 You can write
a formula to check whether you are over budget for a particular month, generating text
for a message with the following formulas:
IF(B3>C2, “Over Budget”, “OK”) equals “Over Budget”
IF(B3>C3, “Over Budget”, “OK”) equals “OK”
Suppose you want to assign letter grades to numbers referenced by %age.
See the following table:
= IF(I3>90,”A”,IF(I3>80,”B”,IF(I3>70,”C”,IF(I3>60,”D”,IF(I3>50,”E”,”F”)))))
NOTE : “A” = These ” ” are used only in case of Character otherwise
there is no need of ” “in case of numeric results required for example
386
Basic is given but calculate DA,HRA,TA etc. you can check this in Part-B
examples.
OR
Returns TRUE if any argument is TRUE; returns FALSE if all arguments are FALSE.
Syntax
OR (logical1,logical2,…)
Logical1,logical2,… are 1 to 30 conditions you want to test that can be either TRUE
or FALSE.
The arguments must evaluate to logical values such as TRUE or FALSE, or in array or
references that contain logical values.

158
If an array or reference argument contains text, numbers, or empty cells, those values
are ignored.
If the specified range contains no logical values, OR returns the #VALUE! error
value.
You can use an OR array formula to see if a value occurs in an array. To enter an
array formula, press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER in Microsoft Excel 97 for Windows.
Examples
OR(1+1=1,2+2=5) equal FALSE
If A1:A3 contains the values TRUE, FALSE, and TRUE, then:
OR(A1:A3) equals TRUE
TRUE
Returns the logical value TRUE.
Syntax
TRUE( )
Remark. You can enter the value TRUE directly into cells and formulas without
using this function. The TRUE function is provided primarily for compatibility with
other spreadsheet programs.
_____________________________________________________________________
6.6 Mathematical Function
_____________________________________________________________________

ABS
ABS returns the absolute value of a number. The absolute value of a number is the
number without its sign.
Syntax
Example :
ABS(number)
Put following numbers in the excel sheet you will get these results to understand
the concept of ABS function Number absolute number
=ABS(2%) Result will be
2% =.02
1/2 =0.5
2-4 = 2
2*-4 =8
2/-5 =0.4

RAND
Returns an evenly distributed random number greater than or equal to 0 and less than
1. A new random number is returned every time the worksheet is calculated.
Syntax
= RAND( )
If you want to find random numbers between 0 to 50 then try formula given:

= RAND()*50 (value will be generated between 0 to 50 only) = 88(

Remarks

159
If you want to generate a random real number between 50 to 100 then use the given
below formula.
=RAND( )*(b – a) + a
Here B will the maximum number b= 100 and a will the minimum number i.e. a= 50
If you want to use RAND to generate a random number but don’t want the numbers to
change every time the cell is calculated, you can enter = RAND( ) in the formula bar
and then press F9 to change the formula to a random number. B will the higher no

RANDBETWEEN
Returns a random number between the numbers you specify. A new random number is
returned every time the worksheet is calculated. If this function is not available, and
returns the #NAME? error, install and load the Analysis Tool Pak add-in. How?
On the Tools menu, click Add-Ins. In the Add-Ins available list, select the Analysis
Tool Pak box, and then click OK. If necessary, follow the instructions in the setup
program.
Syntax
ROUND
ROUND(number,num_digits)
Number is the number you want to round.
389
Num_digits specifies the number of digits to which you want to round number.
• If num_digits is greater than 0 (zero), then number is rounded to the specified
number of decimal places.
• If num_digits is 0, then number is rounded to the nearest integer.
• If num_digits is less than 0, then number is rounded to the left of the decimal point.

See Examples
Formulas for ROUND Function0
ROUND (2.15, 1) equal 2.2 ROUND(2.149, 1) equals 2.1
ROUND (-1.475, 2) equals -1.48 ROUND(21.5, -1) equals 20
ROUNDDOWN
Rounds a number down, toward zero.
Syntax
ROUNDDOWN(number,num_digits)
Number is any real number that you want rounded down.
Num_digits is the number of digits to which you want to round number.
Remark
• ROUNDDOWN behaves like ROUND, except that it always rounds a
number down.
• If num_digits is greater than 0 (zero), then number is rounded down to
the specified number of decimal places.
• If num_digits is 0 or omitted, then number is rounded down to the nearest
integer.
• If num_digits is less than 0, then number is rounded down to the left of
the decimal point.
Examples

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ROUNDDOWN(3.2, 0) equals 3 ROUNDDOWN(76.9, 0) equals 76
ROUNDDOWN(3.14159, 3) equals 3.141
ROUNDDOWN(-3.14159, 1) equal -3.1
ROUNDDOWN(31415.92654, -2) equals 31,400
ROUNDUP
Rounds a number up, away from 0 (zero).

Syntax
ROUNDUP(number,num_digits)
Number is any real number that you want rounded up.
Num_digits is the number of digits to which you want to round number.
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Remark
• ROUNDDOWN behaves like ROUND, except that it always rounds a number up.
• If num_digits is greater than 0 (zero), then number is rounded up to the specified
number of decimal places.
• If num_digits is 0 or omitted, then number is rounded up to the nearest integer.
• If num_digits is less than 0, then number is rounded up to the left of the decimal
point.
Examples
ROUNDDOWN(3.2, 0) equals 4 ROUNDDOWN(76.9, 0) equals77
ROUNDDOWN(3.14159, 3) equals 3.142
ROUNDDOWN(-3.14159, 1) equal -3.2
ROUNDDOWN(31415.92654, -2) equals 31,500

SQRT
Returns a positive square root.
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Syntax
SQRT (number)
Number is the number for which you want the square root.
= SQRT(16)
=4
Remark
If number is negative = SQRT(-16) Then, SQRT returns the #NUM! error value.
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SUM
Adds all the numbers in a range of cells.
Syntax
SUM(number1,number2, …)
Number1,number2, .are 1 to 30 arguments for which you want the total value or sum..
Remarks
Numbers, logical values, and text representations of numbers that you type directly
into the list of arguments are counted. See the first and second examples following.

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If an arguments is an array or reference, only numbers in that array or reference are
counted. Empty cells, logical values, text, or error values in the array or reference are
ignored.

SUMIF
Adds the cells specified by a given criteria.
Syntax
SUMIF(criteria range, criteria,,sum_range)
Criteria_Range is the range of cells you want to evaluate the criteria
Criteria is the criteria in the form of a number, expression, or text that defines which
cells will be added. For Example Commission of two flats which are greater than
200000 lacs. Is 49000
Sum_range are the actual cells to sum i.e. to pick values from this range.
The cells in sum_range are summed only if their corresponding cells in range match
the criteria. If sum_range is omitted, the cells in criteria_range are summed.
Example
Suppose A1:A4 contain the following property values for four homes :
Rs. 100,000, Rs. 200,000, Rs. 300,000, Rs. 400,000, respectively. B1:B4 contain
the following sales commissions on each of the corresponding property values:
Rs. 7,000, Rs. 14,000, Rs. 21,000, Rs. 28,000.
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SUMIF(A1:A4,
“>200000”,B1:B4)
equals Rs. 49,000

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SUMSQ Returns the sum of the squares of thearguments.
Syntax
SUMSQ (number 1, number 2 …)
Number1, number2, … are 1 to 30 arguments
for which you want the sum of the squares. You can also use a single array or a
reference to an array instead of arguments separated by commas.
Example
SUMSQ (3, 4) equals 25

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6.7 Statistical Function
_____________________________________________________________________

AVEDEV
Returns the average of the absolute deviations of data points from their mean.
AVEDEV is a measure of the variability in a data set.
Syntax
AVEDEV(number 1, number 2, …)
Number 1, number 2, … are 1 to 30 arguments for which you want the
average of the absolute deviations. You can also use a single array or a reference
to an array instead of arguments separated by commas
Remarks
• The arguments must be either numbers or names, arrays, or references
that contain numbers.
• If an array or reference argument contains text, logical values, or empty
cells, those values are ignored; however, cells with the value zero are
included.
AVEDEV is influenced by the unit of measurement in the input data.5
Example
AVEDEV(4, 5, 6, 7, 5, 4, 3) equals 1.020408
AVERAGE
Returns the average (arithmetic mean) of the arguments.
Syntax
AVERAGE(NUMBER1,NUMBER2,…)
Number 1, number 2, … are 1 to 30 numeric arguments for which you want
the average.
Remarks. The arguments must either be numbers or be names, arrays, or
references that contain numbers. If an array or reference argument contains
text, logical values, or empty cells, those values are ignored; however, cells with
the value zero are included.
TIP : When averaging cells, keep in mind the difference between empty cells
and those containing the value zero, especially if you have cleared the Zero values
check box on the View tab (Options command, Tools menu). Empty cells are not
counted, but zero values are.
CORREL

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Returns the correlation coefficient of the array1 and array2 cell ranges. Use
the correlation coefficient to determine the relationship between two properties.
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For Example, you can examine the relationship between a location’s average
temperature and the use of air conditioners.
Syntax
CORREL(array1,array2)
Array 1 is a cell range of values.
Array 2 is a second cell range of values.
Example
CORREL ({3,2,4,5,6},{9,7,12,15,17}) equals 0.997054
FRQUENCY
Calculates how often values occur within a range of values, and then returns
a vertical array of numbers. For Example, use FRQUENCY to count the number
of test scores that fall within ranges of scores. Because FRQUENCY to return an
array, it must be entered as an array formula.
Syntax
FRQUENCY(data_array,ins_array)
Data_array is a set of values for which you want to count frequencies. If
data_array contains no values, FRQUENCY returns an array or zeros.
Bins_array is an array (Set) of or reference to intervals into which you want
to group the values in data_array. If bins_array contains no values, FRQUENCY
returns the number of elements in data_array.
Remarks
• FRQUENCY is entered as an array formula after you select a range of
adjacent cells into which you want the returned distribution to appear.
• The number of elements in the returned array is one more than the number
of elements in bins_array
• FRQUENCY ignores blank cells and text.
• Formulas that return arrays must be entered as array formulas. To get
the output in an array, press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER instead of enter
only.
Example
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FRQUENCY(A2:E6,B9:B13) equals {7;3;4;6;5}
INTERCEPT
Calculates the point at which a line will Intersect the y-axis by using existing
x-values and y-values. The intercept point is based on a best-fit regression line
plotted through the known x-values and known y-values. Use the intercept when
you want to determine the value of the dependent variable when the independent
variable is 0 (zero). For Example, you can use the INTERCEPT function to
predict a metal’s electrical resistance at 0ºC when your data points were taken at
room temperature and higher.
Syntax
INTERCEPT(known_y’s,known_x’s)
Known_y’s is the dependent set of observations or data.

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Knows_x’s is the Independent set of observations or data.
Remarks
• The arguments should be either numbers or names, arrays, or references
that contain numbers.
• If an array or reference argument contains text, logical values, or empty
cells, those values are Ignored; however, cells with the value zero are
included.
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• If known_y’s and known_x’s contain a different number of data points or
contain no data points, INTERCEPT returns the #N/A error value.
Example
INTERCEPT({2, 3, 9, 1, 0,}, {6, 5, 11, 7, 5}) equals 0.0483871
MAX
Returns the largest value in a set of values.
Syntax
MAX(number1,number2,…)
Number1, number2, … are 1 to 30 numbers for which you want to find the
maximum value.
Remarks
You can specify arguments that are numbers, empty cells, logical values, or
text representations of numbers. Arguments that are error values or text that
cannot be translated into numbers cause errors.
If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in that array or
reference are used. Empty cells, logical values, or text in the array or reference
are ignored. If logical values and text must not be ignored, use MAX instead.
If the arguments contain no numbers, MAX returns 0 (zero).
MIN
Return the smallest number in a set of values.
Syntax
MIN(number1,number2,…)
Number1, number2, … are 1 to 30 numbers for which you want to find the
minimum value.
Remarks
You can specify arguments that are numbers, empty cells, logical values, or
text representations of numbers. Arguments that are error values or text that
cannot be translated into numbers cause errors.
If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers in that array or
reference are used. Empty cells, logical values, or text in the array or reference
are ignored. If logical values and text should not be ignored, use MINA instead.
If the arguments contain no numbers, MIN returns 0.
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MODE
Returns the most frequently occurring, or repetitive, value in an array or
range of data. Like MEDIAN, MODE is a location measure.
Syntax
MODE(number1,number2,…)

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Number1, number2, … are 1 to 30 arguments for which you want to calculate
the mode. You can also use a single array or a reference to an array instead of
arguments separated by commas.
Remarks
• The arguments should be numbers, names, arrays, or references that
contain numbers.
• If an array or reference argument contains text, logical values, or empty
cells, those values are ignored; however, cells with the value zero are
included.
• If the data set contains no duplicate data points, MODE returns the #N/A
error value.
SLOPE
Returns the slope of the linear regression line through data points in
known_y’s and known_x’s. The slope is the vertical distance divided by the
horizontal distance between any two points on the line, which is the rate of change
along the regression line.
Syntax
SLOPE (known_y’s,known_x’s)
Known_y’s is an array or cell range of numeric dependent data points.
Known_x’s is the set of independent data points.
Remarks
• The arguments must be either numbers or names, arrays, or references
that contain numbers.
• If an array or reference argument contains text, logical values, or empty
cells, those values are ignored; however, cells with the value zero are
included.
• If known_y’s and known_x’s are empty or have a different number of data
points, SLOPE returns the #N/A error value.
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Example
SLOPE({2,3,9,1,8,7,5},{6,5,11,7,5,4,4,}) equals 0.3.5556

=STDEV
STDEV(number1,number2,...)
Number1, number2, ... are 1 to 30 number arguments corresponding to a
sample of a population. You can also use a single array or a reference to an array
instead of arguments separated by commas.
Remarks
STDEV assumes that its arguments are a sample of the population. If your
data represents the entire population, then compute the standard deviation using
STDEVP.
The standard deviation is calculated using the “n-1” method. Arguments can
either be numbers or names, arrays, or references that contain numbers. Logical
values and text representations of numbers that you type directly into the list of
arguments are counted. If an argument is an array or reference, only numbers
in that array or reference are counted. Empty cells, logical values, text, or error

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values in the array or reference are ignored.
Arguments that are error values or text that cannot be translated into
numbers cause errors. If you want to include logical values and text
representations of numbers in a reference as part of the calculation, use the
STDEVA function.
STDEV uses the following formula:

AVERAGE FUNCTION

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where ON B8 is the sample mean AVERAGE(number1,number2,…) and n is the
sample size.
Example
Suppose 10 tools stamped from the same machine during a production run are
collected as a random sample and measured for breaking strength. The example may
be easier to understand if you copy it to a blank worksheet.
401
_____________________________________________________________________
6.8 Exercise Practical Questions
_____________________________________________________________________

Check your progress

Exercise 1: Practical Questions
1. How can you generate random numbers between 100 and 200? Explain?
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_____________________________________________________________________

2. Explain Round function. How it is different from round down and roundup
functions.
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_____________________________________________________________________
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3. Explain AND, IF and OR function with suitable example.

_____________________________________________________________________
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4. Explain the difference between count, counta, countblank functions.

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5. Explain slope and intercept functions. How they can be used in regression
equations?
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_____________________________________________________________________

6. Explain PMT function. How can it be used in loan and lease statement.
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

7. Explain the difference between AND and OR functions. What are their
applications?
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

8. What is SUMIF Function? Where we can use this function explain with the help of
suitable example.
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Exercise 2: Short Question Answers

1. Differentiate Sort and Filter Command. (DU,SOL,2010)

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2. Difference between PMT, PPMT and IPMT Functions

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3. Explain the structure of Function with suitable example.

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_____________________________________________________________________

4. Explain any three Logical Functions with suitable examples.

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5. Explain any three Statistical Functions with suitable examples.

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6. Explain any four Mathematical functions with examples

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7. Explain any three financial functions with examples

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 Chapter 7

Presentation Software
_____________________________________________________________________
1. INTRODUCTION
_____________________________________________________________________
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Advantages of Presentation
7.3 Creating a Presentation
7.4 Templates
7.5 Editing
7.6 Sorting
7.7 Inserting a worksheet object
7.8 Inserting a graph and editing
7.9 Inserting drawing objects
7.10 Layouts
7.11 Exercise

_____________________________________________________________________
7.1 Objectives
_____________________________________________________________________
After studying this chapter, students are able to:

 Understand the advantages of presentation

 Understand the Creating a Presentation
 Understand the Templates
 Understand the Editing
 Understand the Sorting
 Understand the various layouts and drawing objects
_____________________________________________________________________
7.2 Advantages of Presentations
_____________________________________________________________________
Effective communication is very important for the success of any enterprise or a
human being. Before the advent of computers, any lecture or presentation involved the
use of Chalk, blackboard and even sometime overhead projectors, physical models,
slides, handouts, etc. Out of these chalk and blackboard is the oldest method and is not
effective in communicating the ideas. The visual aids like overhead projectors,
physical models, slides, etc. improved the communication in effectively transferring
the ideas from one person to the other.
To help us in creating a presentation using a computer, Microsoft Office suite includes
presentation graphics software called PowerPoint. Using PowerPoint you can create
presentation material in the form of charts graphics, slides, handouts, speaker’s notes,

171
etc. These may be organized in the form of slides which are electronic presentations
that can be seen on your computer screen or on some other screen using a projection
device.

ADVANTAGES OF PRESENTATIONS
1. It is a very useful software that deals with multimedia presentation.
2. The slides of MS-PowerPoint can have text, graphs, tables, graphics, photographs,
sound and even music.
3. Various animation effects make the presentations through MSPowerPoint more
effective and attractive.
4. Various combinations of background and foreground colours can be chosen.
5. Using MS-PowerPoint one can create: on-screen presentation, web presentation,
overhead transparencies, 35mm slides, printouts, notes, handouts and outlines.
6. Features like design, AutoContent Wizard ClipArt pictures, editing etc. that are
available in MS-PowerPoint helps the user to develop the slides easily and effectively.
7. Carrying a CD containing MS-PowerPoint slides show is much easier than carrying
a set of transparencies or a set of slides.
8. Colour and Black and white transparencies for the OHP (Over Head Projector);

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7.3 Creating a Presentations
_____________________________________________________________________

Creating a presentation in Microsoft PowerPoint involves starting with a basic design;

adding new slides and content; choosing layouts; modifying slide design, if you want,
by changing the colour scheme or applying different design templates; and creating
effects such as animated slide transitions. The information below focuses on the
options available to you when you start the process.
The New Presentation task pane in PowerPoint gives you a range of ways with which
to start creating a presentation. These include:
Blank Start with slides that have minimal design and no colour applied to them.
Existing presentation Base your new presentation on one that you have already
written and designed. This command creates a copy of an existing presentation so you
can make the design or content changes you want for the new presentation.
Design template Base your presentation on a PowerPoint template that already has a
design concept, fonts, and color scheme. In addition to the templates that come with
PowerPoint, you can use one you created yourself.
Templates with suggested content Use the AutoContent Wizard to apply a design
template that includes suggestions for text on your slides. You then type the text that
you want.
A template on a Web site Create a presentation using a template located on a Web
site.
A template on Microsoft.com Choose from additional PowerPoint templates in the
Microsoft Office Template Gallery. These are arranged according to type of
presentation.
Note The hyperlink in this topic goes to the Web. You can switch back to Help at any
time.
Content inserted from other sources
You can also insert slides from other presentations or text from other applications
such as Microsoft Word.

Fig. 7.1Create a presentation using blank slides

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Blank Presentation: Blank presentation contains only the outline and there will be no
presentations. It contains values for colour, font, etc.

Fig. 7.2 presentation using blank slides

Pick a Look Wizard contains different models of presentation. User can select the
“look and feel.” User can create the presentation for black and white transparencies,
colour transparencies, on-screen presentation etc. Slide background, notes, audience
handout etc. can also be included in the slide.
1. On the Standard toolbar, click New.
2. If you want to keep the default title layout for the first slide, go to step 3.
If you want a different layout for the first slide, in the Slide Layout task pane, click the
layout you want.
3. On the slide or on the Outline tab, type the text you want.
4. To insert a new slide, on the toolbar, click New Slide, and click the layout you
want.

Fig. 7.2a presentation using blank slides

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for each new slide, and add any other design elements or
effects you want.
6. When you finish, on the File menu, click Save, type a name for your presentation,
and then click Save.

Create a new presentation from an existing one

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 Fig. 7.2b

When you follow these steps, you create a copy of an existing presentation so you can
make design and content changes to it for a new presentation, without altering the
original.
1. If the New Presentation task pane isn’t displayed, on the File menu, click New.
2. Under New from existing presentation, click Choose presentation.
3. In the file list, click the presentation you want, and then click Create New.
4. Make the changes you want to the presentation, and then on the File menu, click
Save As.
5. In the File name box, type a name for the new presentation.
6. Click Save.

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7.4 Templates
_____________________________________________________________________

Create a presentation using a design template

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 Fig. 7.3 use of templates
Design Templates: Template is used to create presentation based on existing models.
The template determines the colour scheme, font and other designs.
1. If the New Presentation task pane isn’t displayed, on the File menu, click New.
2. Under New, click From Design Template.
3. In the Slide Design task pane, click a design template that you’d like to apply.
4. If you want to keep the default title layout for the first slide, go to step 5. If you
want a different layout for the first slide, on the Format menu, click Slide Layout, and
then click the layout you want.
5. On the slide or on the Outline tab, type the text for the first slide.
6. To insert a new slide, on the toolbar, click New Slide, and click the layout you want
for the slide.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 to keep adding slides, and add any other design elements or
effects you want.

8. To save the presentation, on the File menu, click Save; in the File name box type a
name for the presentation, and then click Save.
Note If you have created a template, it will appear, in alphabetical order according to
what you named it, among the Microsoft PowerPoint templates in the Slide Design
task pane.
Create a presentation using suggested content
1. If the New Presentation task pane isn’t displayed, on the File menu, click New.
2. Under New, click From AutoContent Wizard, and then follow the instructions in
the wizard.
3. In the presentation, replace the text suggestions with the text you want, and then
make any other changes you want, such as adding or deleting slides, adding art
elements or animation effects, and inserting headers and footers.

176
4. When you finish, on the File menu, click Save, type a name in the File name box,
and then click Save.

AutoContent Wizard : It contains various steps for creating. The wizard contains
many simple questions and the user can fix the content and the model of presentation.

Presentation style contains some formatting options. Presentation options contain title,
footer, last date of slide updating, slide number etc.

AutoContent Wizard starts by providing ideas and an organization for the

presentation. There are presentation types, presentation style, presentation options and
Finish.

Design Templates contains various types of templates. Some of them are Arstv,
Azure, Bamboo, Blends, Blue Diagonal, Blueprint, Bold Stripes, Cactus, Capsules,
Cheders, Cirus, Expedition, Factory etc.

Pre-designed Slide layouts are already designed for the user. Some of them are – Title
Slide, Bulleted List, Two Column Text, Table, Text, Chart, Organizational Chart,
Chart, Text and Clip Art, Title only, Blank Slide etc.

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_____________________________________________________________________
7.5 Editing
_____________________________________________________________________

Opening an Existing presentation:

7.3 OPENING AN EXISTING PRESENTION

Select O. Open an Existing presentation – Select the files.ppt-Click OK.

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 Fig. 7.5
Work Area
The work area of the PowerPoint contains Outline Area, Menu Bar, Toolbar,
Slide area etc. In the bottom, there will be view buttons, Status bar, Drawing
tool, notes area etc.

Views in PowerPoint
Five different views are available in PowerPoint.

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1. Normal View : In which only the current slide is seen
2. Outline View : in which a test outline of the presentation is seen.
3. Slide Sorter View : In which thumbnail images of each slide in the
presentation are seen.
4. Notes Page View : In which a small image of the slide is accompanied by
a notes section
5. Slide Show : In which a full sized version of each slide is seen on the full
computer screen.

MASTERS IN MS POWERPOINT
Masters are like that of a letterhead. The Matters incorporated will not change
like the name of the firm, address, logo, date, reference etc.
There are many masters in PowerPoint. They are Slide Master, Title Master,
Handout Master, The Notes Master etc.
Slide Master
Slide Master is used to control text characteristics of the presentation. Font
Type, Font Size, Color, background color and effects such as shadowing, bullet
style etc. can be controlled. For this purpose, Text Box Button on the Drawing
Toolbar can be used.
Title Master
Title master is used to show a different look for titles. It will create more
emphasis for the title.
Notes Presentation
Notes Presentation is used to add the items on the notes which may be art,
text, headers etc. Slides can be viewed in Black and White. For this purpose:
View - Black and White – Click. Slide Miniature is used to minimize the slide. It
is a tiny slide that resembles the current slide. For this purpose:
View – Slide Miniature – Click.
Zooming can also be done.
Handout Master

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Handout master is used to add items in the presentation. Items such as text,
art, header, footers, date, time, page number etc can be added in the presentation.

Slide Master
You must be working in slide View to edit text, images, or colors on the slide.

Fig. 7.6

There are two options in slide master

1. Insert Slider Master
2. Insert Layout

Insert Slide Master: This is used to add a new slide master to the presentation

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Insert Layout : Add a new slide master to the presentation . CTRL +M is used

Outline View
In outline view you can quickly scan the entire presentation, edit text, but
not the color of text or do a spell check. You could also print the outline view to
keep for speaker’s notes as you present your show.
Fig. 7.7

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7.6 Shorting
_____________________________________________________________________

Slide Shorter View

Fig. 7.8

• This is one of the most useful views. From this view you can.
• Click and drag to move a slide to a new position in presentation.
• Copy a slide and Paste a duplicate into the presentation

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• Set a transition for each individual slide or for the entire presentation.
• Choose the method of Building text.
• Get an overview of what the entire presentation will look like.

Note page View

This view suggests two principal uses:-

• Print a set of these for use as speaker’s notes. In each notes section below the slide
image you might record important point you want to be sure your audience knows
about before going to the next slide. Do not try to say everything you want to say on
the slide.
• Leave the notes area blank and print a set of these for each person in your audience.
Encourage them to make notes regarding the slide.

Slide Show

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• Click last button on view menu.

• Slides are displayed in full screen view.

• Used for making on O screen presentation.

• Next slide is brought up, when mouse is clicked or any key on the keyboard.

• Previous slide is brought up, when mouse is right clicked or page up key is pressed.

• Slides can be timed to come up one after the other automatically.

Handout master is used to add items in the presentation. Items such as text,
art, header, footers, date, time, page number etc can be added in the presentation.

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 Figure 7.9 : Handout Master
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7.7 INSERTING A NEW SLIDE
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A new slide can be inserted as follow:

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Fig 7.6 insert various types of slides
Home –> New Slide – >Click;

There are many type of slide available namely as shown in the fig 7.6 above

1. Title Slide

2. Title and content

3. Title only

4. Blank

5. Content with caption

6. Picture with caption

7. Custom layout

And
Insert – Duplicate selected Slide – Click. Inserting Slide Number:
Insert – Slide from outline
Insert – Reuse sides

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_____________________________________________________________________
7.8 Editing a Presentation
_____________________________________________________________________

Editing a presentation by inserting and deleting text is very simple. To insert

text, you move the insertion point ( the blinking bar ) to where you want to insert
the text. You move the insertion using the arrow keys on the keyboard or by
using the mouse to click where you want to move the insertion point. Once the
insertion point is where you want, just start typing.
There are a couple of ways to delete text. One way to delete text is to place the
insertion point to the left of the text you want to delete and press the <Backspace>
key. Another way to delete text is to place the insertion point to the right of the
text you want to delete and press the < Delete> key.

_____________________________________________________________________
7.8a Method of Inserting ClipArt and Pictures and Method of inserting Tables in
MS PowerPoint
_____________________________________________________________________

Inserting ClipArt and Pictures:

Insert – Illustrations – Picture see figure above

For inserting other pictures, objects, movies, sounds and charts, follow the
same procedure.

Inserting Tables:

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 Insert – Tables – Click; Columns and Rows – Type and – Click.

Insert – links

Insert-text

Insert- media clips

Meeting Minder
Meeting Minder is one of the special features of PowerPoint. It helps to take notes
during the presentation. For example, the participants may review the presentation and
prepare notes during the presentation. For example, the participants may review the
presentation and prepare notes on the finer points and gather information on the on-
going project or note on the trends.
Right Click on the mouse button – Select Meeting Minder – or Tools – Meeting
Minder – Type the notes in the area.
Scheduling a Meeting
Scheduling of meeting can be done: Contacts button – Categories – Select
the Category – Click.
Rehearse Timings
Rehearse Timings is the time for movement of slides during slide show.
Timings can be set for slides before rehearse and it will be automatic.
Slide show – Rehearse Timings. Use the buttons in the dialog box and set
timings in seconds for each and every slide.
Advance button is used to move to the next slide.
Pause button is used to pause recording time during the process of rehearsal.
RECORDING VOICE OR SOUND IN POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

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Audio comments can be included to the slides. Narrations can also be added
for a web-based presentation. For this purpose there should be a sound card and
a microphone.
Recording can be done as follows: Slide Show – Record Narartion.
In the Record narration box, select appropriate buttons such as Ok., Cancel,
Set Microphone level, Change Quality and Browse.
Microphone checking can be done using Microphone Check box.
Sound selection can be done.
Then Insert the narration on the slides as an embedded object and to begin
recording click OK button. Save it with narration and timing. To save any
narration, click No. Now the narration alone is saved with each slide.
BROADCASTING PRESENTATION
Broadcasting presentation is presenting the slides on line to other users on
the network. There must be URL and timings should be scheduled. The
presentation will be as if it is real and may be shown in desired manner.
Broadcasting can be done in the following manner:
Slide Show – Online Broadcast - SetUp and Schedule – Click.
Now the Broadcast Schedule dialog box appears. Set the required model. There
are two major steps in Broadcasting presentation.

SLIDE NAVIGATION
Slide Navigator is used to navigate between slides.
Right Click the mouse button on the screen. The options will be as follows:
Next, Previous, Go, Meeting Minder, Speaker Notes, Point Options, Screen,
Help and End Show. In the Go Option, there are Slide Navigator, By Title,
Customs show, Previously viewed options are available.
Select the required option and click.
ANIMATION AND METHOD OF CREATING ANIMATION IN
POWERPOINT
Animation is the process of moving objects, graphics, text, logos, charts and
diagrams in different directions. It may be from the top, bottom, or sideward etc.
It enables to focus on the important points, control the flow of information.
Some of the animation types are:
Off, Drive in, Flying, Camera, Flash Once, Laser Text, Typewriter, Reverse
Order, Drop-in. Fly from top, Animate Chart, Wipe Right, Dissolve, Split Vertical
out, Appear etc.
Slide Show – Preset Animation – Click.
CUSTOM ANIMATION
Custom Animation can be done to customize the animation process. For this
purpose:
1. Select the text, object, - Slide show – Custom Animation;
2. Effects Tab or Chart Effects Tab – Check Animate slide object –
3. Text animation style – Direction – select the choices –
4. Introduce text, All at Once / By word / By letter – Click;
5. Paragraphs can also be selected and custom animation can be done.
6. Preview and then click OK.

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SLIDE TRANSITION
Slide Transition can be done and can be added to the slide. Customized
Transition will present a live like presentation.
Slide Show – Slide Transition – Effects Box – Type of Transition –
Apply – Apply to ALL – Repeat for each slide; Preview – O.K.
Hide and Unhide Slides: Slides can be hidden and can be got back the following
manner:
Slide Show – Hide Slide; Now it will contain a null sign.
To unhide the slide: Slide Show – Unhide;
Custom Show
Custom show is the time of customized presentation. Required slides can be
selected and also be changed in the order. It is a type of presentation inside
presentation. This method is useful for having presentations for different audience
at different times using identical presentations. There will be jumps in the order
and groups.
Slide Show – Custom Show – Select New – In the dialog box changes the
order, delete etc. – Click O.K.
Add, remove, Up and Down arrow buttons can be used to change the position
of slides.
Navigation may be Forward Navigation, Reverse Navigation or Existing the
show. This can be done using Left click, Enter button, backspace button or Esc
Key etc.

_____________________________________________________________________
7.8 GRAPHS – CREATING GRAPHS
_____________________________________________________________________

The simple and effective way of presentation of data is presentation through

charts or graphs. It is a pictorial representation of data.
Insert – Graph – Select the Graph – Edit – Paste special if it is in Ms Excel.
There are various types of graphs. Some of them are:
Area Graph, Bar Graph, Column Graph, Doughnut Graph, Line Graph, Pie
Graph, Radar Graph, XY Scatter Graph, Surface Graph, Bubble Graph, Stock
chart, 2-D or 3-D charts.
Creating Graphs
Graphs can be created in the following manner:
Select New Slide – Type of Chart – Text Slide – Ok
Double click to add Chart command button is seen. Click;
Then there will be datasheet with MS Graph Example. Change the data labels
and change data. Click OK. Now new graph is created. Rows and Columns in
data sheet can be used by selecting the entire row or column and clicking Del
Command or pressing Del kay.

METHODS OF RUNNING A SLIDE SHOW

Slide show presentation can be done for viewing the slide information in an

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interesting manner.
Slide Show button in the left – Bottom corner of the window. Or View – Slide
show – Click slide show button. Dialog box can also be used to run the show. In
the dialog box, the range of slides can be selected and then show can be started.
The PowerPoint does not run the slide show. Slide is displayed in the entire
screen. Automatic advance option, timings etc. can be defined for the slides. Or
Right click the mouse, select the required options and run the show. Mouse point
can be converted into an electronic pen by clicking the pen / Pointer selector box
in the extreme right bottom of the slide. Areas in the screen can also be
highlighted.
Method of Printing a Presentation
MS-PowerPoint presentation can be printed on each page in the following
manner:
Slides are printed on each page on by one. Notes Page prints each slide with
speaker’s notes. Handout (2 slides per page) prints two slides on each page.
Handout (3 slides per page) prints three slides per page. Handouts (6 slides per
page) print sex slides per page. Outline view prints only text part of the slides
printed.
For Printing:
File – Print –Select the print required – Print dialog box – Number of copies
– O.K.
Inserting chart
You can create a chart from scratch in Microsoft PowerPoint, or you can import
a Microsoft Excel worksheet or chart. The default charting program for
PowerPoint is Microsoft Graph, and it is installed automatically with PowerPoint.
When you create a new chart in PowerPoint, Microsoft Graph opens and a chart is
displayed with its associated data in a table called a datasheet. You can enter your own
data on the datasheet, import data from a text file or Lotus 1-2-3 file, import or insert a
Microsoft Excel worksheet or chart, or paste data from another program. Microsoft
PowerPoint window Pie Chart Microsoft Graph window with datasheet with Bar
Chart When you work on a chart, the Microsoft Graph program appears, with its own
menus and buttons (or, if you have inserted an Excel chart, Excel menu and buttons
appear, integrated with the PowerPoint menus) so that you can modify the chart. For
example, you might want to change the chart type from pie to column, make the text
larger, or add new colors. Information about how to modify charts is available from
the Help menu on your menu bar while you are working on a chart.
Add a chart
Do one of the following:
1. Create a chart
2. On the Insert menu, click Chart.
3. To replace the sample data, click a cell on the datasheet, and then type
the information you want.
To return to the slide, click outside the chart.
Tip
Microsoft PowerPoint comes with slide layouts that include placeholders for
charts. To create a new slide by using one of these layouts, click New Slide on the

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Insert menu, and then select one of the layouts that contains a chart placeholder.
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Import a Microsoft Excel chart
1. On the Insert menu, click Chart.
2. Switch to the datasheet. If the datasheet is not visible, click View Datasheet
to display it.
3. If you want the imported data to begin at a cell other than the upper-left
cell on the datasheet, select the cell you want.
4. On the Edit menu, click Import File.
5. In the Look in box, click the drive, folder, or Internet location that contains
the file, and click the *.xls file format in the Files of type box.
6. Double-click the file you want to import.
7. In the Import Data Options dialog box, select the sheet you want to import.
You can import only one sheet.
8. Do one of the following:
• To import all the data on the worksheet, click Entire sheet under
Import.
• To import part of the data, click Range, and then type the range of
data you want. For example, to import cells A1 through B5, type A1:B5
in the Range box. If the range is named, you can type the name instead
of the range reference.
If you selected a cell in step 3, clear the Overwrite existing cells check box.
Delete data from a chart
You can delete data from a chart, including the corresponding data on the worksheet.
Or, you can delete the data series without losing any data on the worksheet or
datasheet.
1. In Microsoft PowerPoint, double-click the chart you want to change.
2. Switch to the datasheet. If the datasheet is not visible, click View Datasheet to
display it.
3. Do one of the following:
• Delete data from a chart and worksheet
• Select the information you want to delete.
• Press DELETE.
• To return to the slide, click outside the chart.
Delete a data series from the chart without deleting the corresponding data from the
worksheet or datasheet
• Double-click the row or column header for the data series that you don’t want to
show in the chart.
• To return to the slide, click outside the chart.
Note If you want to put the data series back in the chart, double-click the row or
column header again.
Edit data in a chart
Do one of the following:
Edit data for a chart created in Microsoft PowerPoint with
Microsoft Graph
1. In PowerPoint, double-click the chart in which you want to edit data.

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2. Switch to the datasheet. If the datasheet is not visible, click View Datasheet to
display it.
3. Click a cell, and then type the text or numbers you want.
4. For information about working on the Microsoft Graph datasheet, click
Microsoft Graph Help on the Help menu.
5. To return to the slide, click outside the chart or datasheet.
Note If you change existing text or values, the chart changes to reflect the new data.
Edit data for a chart created in Microsoft Excel
1. In PowerPoint, double-click the chart in which you want to edit data.
2. The menus and toolbars change to show the Microsoft Excel menus and buttons.
3. Click the tab for the sheet that contains the data for the chart — for example,
Sheet1.
4. Type the new data in the cells on the worksheet.
5. For information about working with Microsoft Excel worksheets, click
Microsoft Excel Help on the Help menu.
6. To make sure that the chart is displayed in the PowerPoint presentation when you
return to the slide, click the tab for the sheet that contains the chart — for example,
Chart1.
To return to the slide, click outside the chart.
Add data to a chart
1. In Microsoft PowerPoint, double-click the chart you want to change.
2. Switch to the datasheet. If the datasheet is not visible, click View Datasheet to
display it.
3. Do one of the following:
Enter data
1. Click a cell, and then type the text or numbers you want.
2. For information about working on the datasheet, click Microsoft Graph Help on the
Help menu.
3. To return to the slide, click outside the chart.
Note The first row and column of the datasheet are reserved for text that identifies the
information in that row or column. In the case of an xy (scatter) or bubble chart, the
first row or column contains values.
Import data
1. If you want the imported data to begin at a cell other than the upper-left
cell on the datasheet, select the cell you want.
2. On the Edit menu, click Import File.
3. Double-click the file you want to import.
4. Do one of the following:
Import a text file
• Follow the instructions in the Text Import Wizard dialog boxes.
Import a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet or chart
1. In the Import Data Options dialog box, select the sheet you want to import.
You can import only one sheet.
2. Do one of the following:
• To import all the data on the worksheet, click Entire sheet under
Import.

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• To import part of the data, click Range, and then type the range of
data you want. For example, to import cells A1 through B5, type A1:B5
in the Range box. If the range is named, you can type the name instead
of the range reference.
3. If you selected a cell earlier in the procedure, clear the Overwrite existing
cells check box.
Link to data
When you link to data in another program, such as a Microsoft Word table or
Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, all existing data from the Microsoft Graph datasheet
is deleted.
1. In the source program, select the data you want to link to the datasheet of
the PowerPoint chart. For example, if you are working in an Excel
worksheet, select a range of cells.
2. On the program’s Edit menu, click Copy.
3. In PowerPoint, switch to the datasheet of the chart.
4. On the Edit menu, click Paste Link.
Note The chart will be updated when the data in the source program changes.
Inserting Drawing Objects
You can add a variety of diagrams, using the diagramming tools on the Drawing
toolbar. Diagram types include Cycle, Target, Radial, Venn, and Pyramid. Use the
diagrams to illustrate various conceptual material and enliven documents and
presentations (diagrams are not numerically based).
Diagram (radial type) Diagram toolbar Drawing sizing handle Drawing border
When you add or change a diagram, the diagram appears with drawing space around
it, outlined by a non-printing border and sizing handles. You can size the diagram by
using sizing commands to make the drawing area larger so you have more room to
work, or you can get rid of extra space by fitting the border more closely to the
diagram.
Format the entire diagram with preset styles; or, format pieces of it like you format
shapes — add colour and text, change line weight and style, and add fill textures, and
backgrounds. Use the Diagram toolbar that appears with your diagram to add elements
or segments and to move them forward or backward. You can also animate a diagram
to direct focus to different pieces of a diagram and control the flow of information
during a presentation.
Flowcharts
Flowcharts (or flow diagrams) can be created using a combination of AutoShapes on
the Drawing toolbar, including flowchart shapes and connectors.
On the Drawing toolbar, click Diagram. Click one of the following diagram types:
• Venn
• Cycle
• Pyramid
• Target
• Radial
Click OK.
Do one or more of the following:

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If you want to add text to an element in the diagram, right-click the element, click Edit
Text, and then type the text.
For cycle and target diagrams, you can only add text to the text placeholders that
appear when you insert the diagram or diagram element.
If you want to add an element, click Insert Shape on the Diagram toolbar.
If you want to add a preset design scheme, click AutoFormat on the Diagram
toolbar, and select a style from the Diagram Style Gallery.
Click outside the drawing when you are finished.

_____________________________________________________________________
7.10 Layouts
_____________________________________________________________________

Layouts
“Layout” refers to the way things are arranged on a slide. A layout contains
placeholders, which in turn hold text such as titles and bulleted lists and slide content
such as tables, charts, pictures, shapes, and clip art. A basic layout with placeholders
for a title and a bulleted list.
A layout with three placeholders: for title, a bulleted list, and content such as a table,
diagram, chart, or clip art.
Each time you add a new slide, you can choose a layout for it in the Slide Layout task
pan. Layouts come in a whole range of configurations; you can also choose a blank
layout.
Using Auto Layout
Microsoft PowerPoint automatically adjusts the layout if you insert items that don’t fit
the original layout. For example, if you use a layout with only one placeholder for
content such as a table, and you then insert a picture after inserting the table, the
layout adjusts, adding a placeholder for the picture.
Rearranging the layout
You can move placeholders in a layout to different positions, make them different
sizes, and format them with fill colors and borders. This applies to slides and notes
pages; on handouts, you can only change the header and footer placeholders. Also,
you can make these changes on individual slides or notes pages or on the slide master,
notes master, or handout master. For consistency throughout a presentation, it may be
best to make changes to the master.
If you adjust the placeholders on a notes page or slide and then you want the original
layout back, you can reapply the original layout. If you delete placeholders on a
master, you can restore the original placeholder on the master using the Master Layout
command on the Format menu.

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Insert command

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Also Try Animation in your presentations, following commands with options are
shown in the figures shown below

following commands with options are shown in the figures shown below

following commands with options are shown in the figures shown below

following commands with options are shown in the figures shown below

following commands with options are shown in the figures shown below

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following commands with options are shown in the figures shown below

following commands with options are shown in the figures shown below

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199
_____________________________________________________________________
7.11 Exercise
_____________________________________________________________________
Check your progress

Exercise 1

QUESTIONS
Q.1. What is the Function of Microsoft PowerPoint? How can effective
PowerPoint presentations delivered?
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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Q.2. What are the uses and features of Microsoft PowerPoint?
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_____________________________________________________________________

Q.3. How many slides can you have in a PowerPoint?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Q.4. What do you mean by handouts, speaker notes and outlines? Why
are they used?
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Q.5. What is the difference between animation and transition?

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_____________________________________________________________________
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Exercise 2

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. What is PowerPoint presentation?

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_____________________________________________________________________
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2. What is the purpose of creating the master slides?

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3. Name the different types of views.

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4. What are templates?

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________________________

5. How do you create a multilevel bulleted list?

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6. How can you add slide transitions to a slide show?
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7. Write the steps to embed an excel chat into the slide show.
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8. What are handouts?

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9. Explain the “Pack and Go” command and its utility

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10. What is Layout? Explain various types of layouts in Presentation?
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11. Write steps how to Import Excel data and charts into power point presentation?

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 Chapter 8:
Practical applications
1. INTRODUCTION
_____________________________________________________________________
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Loan and Lease
8.3 Ratio Analysis
8.4 Graphical Representation of Data
8.5 Payroll Statement
8.6 Frequency Distribution and its statistical parameters
8.7 Regression
8.8 Exercise

_____________________________________________________________________
8.1 Objectives
_____________________________________________________________________
After studying this chapter, students are able to:

 Understand the use of Loan and Lease in applications

 Understand the various types of ratios, Current Ratio, liquidity ratio
 Understand the representation of data graphically
 Understand the statement of payroll
 Understand the distribution of statistical parameters
 Understand the analysis of regression
_____________________________________________________________________
8.2 Loan and Lease Statement
_____________________________________________________________________
8.2 LOAN AND LEASE STATEMENT
When an amount is borrowed or Loan taken against some assets such a transaction will
require a settlement about the time during which the amount will be paid, the periodicity of
payment like monthly, quarterly, half yearly or yearly), and rate of interest to be paid.
Instalments payment may keeping these in mind an Equated Periodic Payment Installment is
calculated using PMT function in Excel and a statement is prepared for a complete period of
loan remains unpaid. This statement is called Loan and Lease Statement.
The problem of preparing loan & lease statement will be studied in three
stages:

Stage one: where statement is for annual payment and for fixed number of years

Stage two: where statement is for one or more payments in a year and for fixed number of
years.
Stage three: None of the parameters are fixed A totally genera l i ze d worsheet.
Preparing loan &

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Lease Statement in three Stages are Various columns can be used for the calculation of the
instalment

1. Instalment number.
This column refers to the installment number for which the calculations are being made in a
particular row.
407

2. Opening Balance.
The outstanding loan amount in beginning of a period. This amount is normally the closing
balance for the last period. For the first installment the opening balance will be the original
loan amount.

3. Interest due.
Interest from the data of last the installment payment to the data of current installment
payment. This can be directly calculated by using IPMT function in excel.

4. Equated Periodic Installment.

Periodic Payment Installment is calculated keeping in view the frequency or periodicity of
payment (monthly, half yearly, quarterly, or yearly), and rate of interest to be paid and the
time during which it is paid. This should cover the loan outstanding, as well as the interest on
the outstanding amount, in a manner that all the installments are equal. PMT function in
Excel is used for this purpose.

5. Closing Balance.
It is obtained by adding interest due in opening balance and deducting the installment paid.
This will automatically become the opening balance for the next period.

6. Principal Component in Equated Periodic Installment.

This is found by deducting the interest due for that particular period (row) from the Equated
Periodic Installment. It can also be directly calculated by using PPMT function in Excel.

8.2.1 BASIC INPUTS FOR LOAN & LEASE

1. Amount of Loan
2. Rate of Interest
3. Time of Loan (Period)
4. Periodicity

Question: Rs. 2,40,000/- borrowed at 24% p.a. rate of interest to be repaid in

24 instalments (Yearly) in 24 years.
Solution: The figure 1 gives the appearance of final work sheet. The figure 8.1
displays the formula and functions used in the work sheet.
408

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Fig. 8.1

Fig. 8.2. Formula display of figure 1.

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Fig. 8.2. Formula display of figure 2.

Fig. 8.2a Formula display of figure 3.

Fig. 8.2b Formula display of figure4 .

Cell numbers C2, C3, C4 contains the information given in the question. Installment amount
in C5 has been calculated using PMT function. Look for all the formula in figure in the
corresponding cell. Since 24 installments are to paid, cells from A7 to A30 is filled with
Installment (Year wise) 1 to 30. For payment number 1, the Opening Balance is normally the
loan amount. Therefore a formula is entered in cell B7 (=C2). In C7, interest is calculated on
the opening balance given in cell B7 (=B7*$C$3). $ Sign before C and 3 refers to absolute
referencing, which is done to avoid the change during copy operation. The same way the D7
is filled with the installment calculated using PMT function. This same way the D7 is filled
with (=$C$5), this too you do not want to change during copy operation, therefore, you put $
sign before C and Before 5. Closing balance is naturally Opening Balance, plus interest,
minus installment. Therefore in cell E8 we enter (=B7+C7-D7). This completes the first row.
In the second row, the opening balance the closing balance of previous period. Thus B8 will
be replaced with =E7. This completes the formula entering. Copy from cell B8 to B9…B30,

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Cell C7 to C8..C30, cell to D8..D30 and Cell E7 to E8..E30. Now it will appear exact in
figure 2.

8.2.2 STAGE SECOND

At stage two, one more dimension is added. That is periodicity, meaning one or more than
one installments paid in a year. This too is a generalized worksheet except for total number of
installments paid/due during the loan period.
Question: Loan amount is Rs.60000/- borrowed at 12% p.a. rate of interest to be repaid in 12
equal Half yearly installment i.e. loan period is 6 years and two installments are paid in a
year.
In Cell numbers E5 .. F8, we displays the various option of installments mode are available,
with their respective codes. Code 1 stands for yearly payments, Code 2 stands for Half yearly
payments, Code 3 stands for monthly payments, Code 4 stands for quarterly payment. In cell
E4 we write the option selected, which is 2 in this particular question.

Now we add two more rows for information to be calculated from the provided information
i.e. Effective rate and Total installments.
Effective rate is obtained by dividing rate of interest per annum with 1 for yearly, with 2 for
half yearly, with 4 for quarterly and with 12 for monthly. The same way total installments is
obtained by multiplying years period with 1 for yearly, with 2 for half yearly, with 4 for
quarterly and with 12 for monthly.
Now installment amount will be calculated by using effective rate and total
installment. Also every place where we use rate of interest we will use effective rate of
interest, and for period total number of installments. Figure 7 gives the layout of worksheet
and figure 8 gives the background printout of formula used in figure 7
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STAGE 3 (stage2 with garbage cleaning):
If may be noted, that at stage 1and 2 the worksheet is a generalized, except for the change in
period. We try to change the period from 6 to 4 in the worksheet at stage 2, keeping the
payments at half yearly intervals. Thus the total payments will be equal to 4 × 2 = 8. The
resultant worksheet is shown in figure 9. You will note that at installment number 8, the
closing balance is zero. The worksheet should have ended at this point. But it continued with
irrelevant information, for installment numbers 9, 10, 11 & 12. The information in cell
number A 18 .. E 21 is referred as garbage. At stage 3 we will improve the worksheet in
which such garbage does not appear, and the worksheet is truly generalized for all changes in
the information provided. Figure number 10 shows a worksheet which takes care of garbage.
In figure 11, the corresponding formula for each cell is displayed.

STAGE 3 worksheet with Formula.

The problem of garbage was encountered, because at no place in the sheet, we have
instructed to stop. In a loan repayment, at least one installment will be paid. But more than
one is not a certainty. On this assumption, on comparing figure number 8 and figure number
11, you will notice that row number 10 (showing payment number 1 ) is identical in both, and
all changes are in subsequent rows where we are asking to stop, if the payment number has
reached the limit of total installment to paid as shown on cell number B8. Now, in cell A11,
we do not write 2 automatically, as done in figure 4. We check the value in cell A10 with the
value in cell B8 (indicating total installments) and if the value in A10 is less that B8 (total
installments), meaning by, that we have to continue and we fill the cell A11 with a value one
larger than the value in A10 by entering the following formula in cell A11:
=IF(A 10 < B8,a10+1,” “)

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and we copy this formula from cell A11, to cells A12 to A250 (assuming that in a transaction
there can be maximum of 240 installments) Now cells B11, C11, D11, and E11 will be
dependent on the fact, whether A11 is blank or it contains any value. If A11 is blank, then
B11, C11, D11, and E11 will also be blank otherwise they will contain the same value as
calculated in figure 4. Thus the following formula will be entered in B11, C11, D11, and E11
respectively:
= IF(A11 = “” “”,E10)
= IF(A11 = “” “”,B11*$B$7)
= IF(A11 = “” “”,$B$6)
= IF(A11 = “” “”,B11+C11 – D11)
All these cells will be copied up to row number 250.
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You will notice that later part of formula is the same as given in figure. This completes the
preparation of a generalized loan and lease statement.

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8.3 Ratio Analysis
_____________________________________________________________________

8.3 RATIO ANALYSIS

In a financial statement, absolute figures, always, do not convey meaningful information.
Ratio analysis is a technique under which relationship between figures of the financial
statement is expressed as a ratio. For example a statement that profit of the company is
Rs.30000/- may be correct, but does not give the picture of profitability of the company. If
we state, that profits are 30% of sales, definitely it conveys that is the profitable one. There
may be various ratios for various purposed. We will cover only two of the Financial Ratios
like: See figure 4.3.
1. Current Ratio
2. Liquidity Ratio

Fig. 4.3

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412
Fig. 4.4

Fig. 4.4a

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8.4 Graphical Representation of Data
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8.4. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA

Four different types of charts are shown in figure 13. These chart types are:
1. Clustered Column with 3-d effect.

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Fig. 4.5

2. Exploded Pie
3. Clustered column
4. Pie

Fig. 4.6

We will create chart using the following steps:

1. Select the data range to be used for chart.
2. Click the chart button on the tool bar.
3. A dialog box will open showing the types of charts/graphs available. We will select any
one type.
4. On hand side of dialog box, there will be may sub options. Click on the desired sub option.
5. Finally click on finish option. The chart is ready.
6. If you want to format the chart, instead clicking on FINISH, click on NEXT. A new dialog
box asking for following will open.
(a) Title
(b) Axes
(c) Gridlines
(d) Legend
(e) Data Labels

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(f) Data Tables
Give the requisite information and then click to complete the graph.
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8.5 Payroll Accounting
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8.5 PAYROLL
Question: Prepare a generalized worksheet to produce a payroll statement
in the format given below:
Emp. Name, Basic, Performance Dearness, House Rent, Provident Income, Gross,
No Pay Grade, Allowance, Fund, Tax Pay, Net Salary
Employee is entitled Basic Pay, Dearness Allowance (DA), House Rent Allowance (HRA). A
Gross salary is the total of these three. Out of Gross Salary employee contributes 10% of
Basic pay + DA towards PF and pays 25% of Gross Salary as Income tax. Net Salary is found
after deducting PF and ITAX from the Gross Salary. DA is calculated 150% of Basic Pay for
those having basic up to Rs.16,000 and 100% for those having more than Rs. 16,000 with a
condition that a person having basic more than Rs. 16,000 get a minimum DA of Rs. 24,000.
HRA for employee of Performance Grade ‘A’ is Rs. 1,600, for B is Rs. 1,200 and for C
Rs.1,000.

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Solution : A worksheet incorporating the above information is shown in
figure 1.

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Figure 2

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In Cells E2 formula to calculate DA is shown in figure

Figure 3
In Cells F2 formula to calculate HRA is shown in figure 3

Figure 4
In Cells G2 formula to calculate Gross Salary is shown in figure 4

Figure 5
In Cells H2 formula to calculate DA is shown in figure 5

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Figure 6 with formula
In Cells I2 formula to calculate Income Tax is shown in figure 6

Figure 7 with formula

In Cells J2 formula to calculate Income Tax is shown in figure 7

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8.6 Frequency distribution and its statistical parameters
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Frequency Distribution and its statistical parameters. Frequency distribution is a table in

which number of times (called frequency), values for a variable occur within a range of
values (known as class). The data tabulated in a frequency distribution is called grouped data.

Question: In cells A3 …J12(100 cells) enter positive numbers randomly as values of certain
observation. Group this data into 10 classes. Calculate:
(i) Mean from individual observation
(ii) Standard Deviation from individual observation.
(iii) Smallest observed value.
(iv) Largest observed value.
(v) Frequencies.
(vi) Mean from grouped data.
(vii) Standard Deviation from grouped data.
Solution: below Figure shows the final worksheet for the above problem.
Cell A1…J12 show title of worksheet and observations. In cells A3…J12 (100cells)
observation values are entered.
4

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17
(i) In cell J13, mean from individual observation is calculated using function
Average. Formula entered in cell J13, is =AVERAGE(A3:J12),returned
answer is 20.97023

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(ii) In cell H13, standard deviation from individual observation is calculated
using function STDEV. Formula entered in cell H13, is =STDEV(A3:J12),

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which returned answer as 20.97023.

(iii) In cell f13 largest observed value is found using formula:

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(iv) =MAX(A3:J12)

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(v) Frequencies: To find the frequencies, first we have to group the data. For grouping, class
interval, is the first thing is to be decided. The class interval are calculated by dividing the
difference in the largest and smallest value by number of classes desired.
Approximate interval= (largest value-Smallest value)/ no of classes
In our question since we desire to have 10 classes:
Approximate interval = (99 – 1) / 10 = 9.8

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Thus we decide our group interval as 10 starting with 1 out groups are entered in cells
A15…B24 (column ‘A’ having the lower limits and column ‘B’ having the upper limits). We
reserve the cells C15…C24 to show corresponding frequencies.

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HOW TO CALCULATE FREQUENCY
Frequency function is used to calculate, the number of time, the values are falling with in a
particular group. Frequency returns a vertical array, as an answer, as a answer,
therefore must be entered as an array formula. We have already reserved cells C15…C24
to show the output (frequencies).
Steps in entering the Formula
1. Select the cells C15…C24. You will find cells C16..C24 have changed color and C15
remains white (at this stage, till the frequencies appear in cell C15..C4, please do not tough
mouse or change the current cell in any manner).
2. Enter formula. When you enter formula, it will show in cell C15, but is
valid for the full array of cells i.e. C15 .. C24. Formula requires the reference to cells
containing data (referred as data array) and also the range containing the upper limits
(referred as bins array). The following formula will be entered:
=FREQUENCY(A3:J12, B15:B24)
3. Press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER. You have to strike on ENTER keeping the SHIFT and
CTRL keys pressed. Please note that Enter key will be the last in the above sequence.
Mean from grouped data. For calculating mean we require the total of
the product of mid values of the group with frequencies.
Steps:
1. To find the mid values of group, in cells D15, we enter formula as :
= (A15+B15)/2
Which is copied to cells A16 .. A24.

2. To find the product of mid values with frequency, in cells E15, we enter
formula as :
= (D15*C15)
which copied to cells E16..E24
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3. To find total observations, we sum up the cells C15..C24, in cell C25 we
Enter formula:
= sum(C15:C24)

4. To find sum of product of frequency and mid-value we enter, in cell E25

the following formula:
= sum (E15:E24)

5. To find the MEAN in cell I18 we enter formula as:

= E25/C25

6. Standard Deviation from grouped data. For calculating S.D. we

require, additionally, sum of product of frequency with square of mid
values. In cell number C15, we enter the formula as given below to find
the product of frequency with square of mid values:
= C15*D15*D15
This is copied to cell F16….F24. In cell F25 we have obtained the sum of
F15..F24 with the formula =sum(F15:F24). S.D. is obtained by entering following
formula In cell 117:
=SQRT((F25/C25)-(E25/C25)^2)

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_____________________________________________________________________
8.7 Linear Regression Analysis
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8.7.Linear Regression Analysis (use of intercept and slops): Regression analysis helps in
estimating a dependent variable, the value of which is associated with other variable known
as independent variable. For fitting a regression line, the method of lease square criterion is
followed. The linear equation that represents the simple linear regression model is:
Y=a + bx
Where ‘y’ is the value of dependent variable, ‘a’ represent the value of ‘y’ when ‘x’ is zero.
In other words, it is constant and in EXCEL is calculated by INTERCEPT function. ‘b’
represent the angle of regression line and in EXCEL is calculated by slope function. It is also
called regression coefficient.
QUESTION
Given data for 10 recent shipment made by the company. A record of distance in miles and
time taken was made. Draw a regression line after finding the estimated time of delivery,
from the given information:
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Fig 8.9 A

The worksheet given in figure 8.9A, 8.9 B and 8.9C shows original data (for distance in
miles) in cells A11…A20, and data for delivery time in cells B11…B20. In cell E8 intercept
is calculated using the formula in cell C18
=INTERCEPT(B7:B16,A7:A16).

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Fig 8.9 B

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Likewise in cell slope is calculated using the formula in cell
C19 (=SLOPE(B7:B16,A7:A16)). With the help of calculated intercept and slope, we have
estimated the value of ‘y’ for all values of ‘x’,

Fig 8.9 C

by putting in cell C7 the formula =$C$18+$C$19*A7, then copying it to cells C7…C16.

Exercise 1: Practice questions

1. Rs. 4,80,000/- borrowed at 12% p.a. rate of interest to be repaid in 48 instalments
(Yearly) in 48 years.
2. Employee is entitled Basic Pay, Dearness Allowance (DA), House Rent Allowance
(HRA). A Gross salary is the total of these three. Out of Gross Salary employee
contributes 20% of Basic pay + DA towards PF and pays 25% of Gross Salary as
Income tax. Net Salary is found after deducting PF and ITAX from the Gross Salary.
DA is calculated 150% of Basic Pay for those having basic up to Rs.16,000 and 100%
for those having more than Rs. 16,000 with a condition that a person having basic
more than Rs. 16,000 get a minimum DA of Rs. 42,000. HRA for employee of
Performance Grade ‘A’ is Rs. 10,600, for B is Rs. 10,200 and for C Rs.10,000.
3. Enter positive numbers randomly as values of certain observation from 0 to 100 and
frequency between 0-10, 11-20, 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, 51-60, 61-70, 71-80, 81-90, 91-
100. Group this data into 10 classes.

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