Chapter 1

Review of Matrices

1.1 Definitions
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers of the form

 

a11 a12 a13 · · · a1n 
 
 a21 a22 a23 · · · a2n 
 
 · · · a3n 
 a31 a32 a33 
 
 .. .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . . 
 
am1 am2 am3 · · · amn

• We usually use capital letters (for example, A, B, C, . . .) for the names of matrices,
and we usually use lowercase letters (for example, a, b, c, . . .) to represent the numbers
inside of a matrix.

• The numbers inside a matrix are called the elements or entries of the matrix.

• The sequence of all entries on a horizontal line is called a row, and the sequence of all
entries on a vertical line is called a column. We number the rows from top to bottom,
and the columns from left to right.

• The entry in the kth row and lth column of a matrix A is denoted by akl .

• A matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m × n matrix, or a matrix of order

m × n.
Example 1.1.1.
 
2 −3 4 5
 
 7 4 3 
(a) A =  6  is a 3 × 4 matrix since it has 3 rows and 4 columns.
3 1 2 4

The entry in the 2nd row and 4th column of A is 3, and so we write a24 = 3.

1
  
1
 
 2 
 
(b) B =   is a 4 × 1 matrix.
 3 
 
4
It can also be referred to as a column matrix or a column vector.
[ ]
(c) C = 1 2 −3 4 −1 is a 1 × 5 matrix.

It can also be referred to as a row matrix or row vector.

Further Definitions:

• If a matrix has order n×n (that is, if the number of rows equals the number of columns)
then the matrix is called square.

• The main diagonal of a square matrix consists of the entries on the diagonal from
the top left corner of the matrix down to the bottom right corner of the matrix.

• A diagonal matrix is a square matrix in which all of the entries which are not on the
main diagonal must equal zero.

• A triangular matrix is a square matrix in which

– all the entries which lie below the main diagonal are zero, or
– all the entries which lie above the main diagonal are zero.

Example 1.1.2.
 
1 2 
(a) D =  is a 2 × 2 square matrix.
3 −4
 
2 0 0
 
(b) E = 
 0 −3 0 
 is a 3 × 3 square matrix.
0 0 −6

We see that E is a 3 × 3 diagonal matrix.

(Note that E is also a 3 × 3 triangular matrix.)

   
1 2 −3 1 0 0
   
   0 
(c) F =  0 4 5  and G =  2 4  are 3 × 3 triangular matrices.
0 0 −6 −3 5 −6

2
1.2 Matrix Operations

Matrix equality. Two matrices are equal if they have the same order and their correspond-
ing entries are equal.
   

a b   e f 
= if and only if a = e, b = f, c = g and d = h.
c d g h

Matrix addition. Two matrices can be added if they have the same size. We add two such
matrices by adding the corresponding entries.
     

a b   e f   a+e b+f 
+ =
c d g h c+g d+h
For example,
     
1 7

1 3   4 =
5  2 2
+
2 −1 −1 −3 1 −4

Scalar multiplication. Any matrix can be multiplied by a single number (scalar). We do

this by multiplying all the entries of the matrix by that number.
   
a b   ka kb 
k =
c d kc kd
For example,
   
1 3   4 12 
4 =
2 −1 8 −4

Matrix multiplication. The product AB of two matrices A and B is defined if and only
if the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B.

 
 .n columns  ··· ··· ··· ···
. .. .. ..
 
 . . . .  n  ··· ··· ··· ··· 
   
   
  rows  ··· ··· ··· ··· 
.. .. .. ..  
. . . . ··· ··· ··· ···
A B

To calculate the entry in the (i, j) position (that is, in the ith row and j th column) of
AB, we multiply the ith row of A by the j th column of B.

3
 Example 1.2.1.
    

a b   e f   ae + bg af + bh 
=
c d g h ce + dg cf + dh

If A has order m × n and B has order n × p then AB has order m × p

Example 1.2.2.
    

3 2   a b c   3a + 2d 3b + 2e 3c + 2f 
=
4 1 d e f 4a + 1d 4b + 1e 4c + 1f

Example 1.2.3.
   
 
1 2 −3 
2 3
 1 × 2 + 2 × 1 + −3 × 4 1 × 3 + 2 × 6 + −3 × 5
  1 6  = 



 
4 5 6 4×2+5×1+6×4 4×3+5×6+6×5
4 5
 
−8 0 
= 
37 72

Transpose. The transpose AT of a matrix A is obtained by putting the ith row of A into
the ith column of AT . If A has order m × n then AT has order n × m.
 
 
2 9
2 4 1   
Example 1.2.4. If A =  T 
then A =  4 9 

9 9 6
1 6

4
1.3 Properties of Matrix Operations
1.3.1 Addition Properties

A+B = B+A
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
A+O = A = O+A
A + −A = O = −A + A

The matrix O is called the zero matrix, and −A is called the negative of A.

In the above properties, A, B, C, O and −A all have the same order. Thus, for example,
     
a b  0 0  −a −b 
(a) if A =  then O =  and −A = 
c d 0 0 −c −d

     
a b 0 0 −a −b
     
   
(b) if A =  c d  then O =  0 0  and −A =  −c −d 


e f 0 0 −e −f

1.3.2 Multiplication Properties

Provided that each of the following matrix products exists, we have

A(B + C) = AB + AC
(B + C)A = BA + CA
A(BC) = (AB)C
However, usually AB ̸= BA

For a square matrix A, we have:

AO = O = OA
and AI = A = IA

where I is a diagonal matrix with ones on the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere.

The matrix I is called the identity matrix, and must have the same order as A.

5
For example:
 
1 0 
If A is 2 × 2 then I = 
0 1
 
1 0 0
 
If A is 3 × 3 then I =  
 0 1 0 
0 0 1

Note: It is important to realize that, if we choose any two matrices A and B, then usually

AB ̸= BA

For example, consider the matrices A and B given below:

   
3 6  −10 −4 
Example 1.3.1. Let A =  and B = 
−4 −8 5 2

Then

      
3 6 −10 −4 −30 + 30 −12 + 12 0 0
AB =   = = 
−4 −8 5 2 40 − 40 16 − 16 0 0

and

      
−10 −4 3 6 −30 + 16 −60 + 32 −14 −28
BA =   = = 
5 2 −4 −8 15 − 8 30 − 16 −7 14

In this example,

AB ̸= BA

6
1.3.3 Exercises
1. Find
       
2 −2   0 3  4 2   3 43 
(a)  + (b)  +
7 4 −1 0.6 − 2
3
−1 −4 3

2. Find
     
2 − 12  3 14  5 8 
(a) −2  (b) 4  (c) 3 
3 0 −1 0 6 −4

3. Find
     
3 −2   0 3  2 −1   2 4 
(a)  (b)  1
7 4 −1 4 2
4 3 −3

4. Given that     
3 1 4 2 7 1 18 55 19
    
 1 5 x   8 2 8  =  51 89 59  ,
    
2 6 5 1 8 2 57 66 60
find x.

7
1.4 The Determinant and Inverse of a 2 × 2 Matrix.
The matrix B is the inverse of A if AB = I = BA .

Not all matrices have inverses. When a matrix A does have an inverse B, then the inverse
is unique (i.e., it has no other inverses), and we write A−1 instead of B. Thus

AA−1 = I = A−1 A

 
a b 
For A =  , we define the determinant of A by
c d

det(A) = ad − bc
 
 
 a b 
We sometimes write   instead of det(A) .

 c d 

If det(A) ̸= 0 then we have

 
1  d −b 
A−1 = .
det(A) −c a

Then A−1 satisfies

AA−1 = I = A−1 A
as required.

Note: If det(A) = 0 then A−1 does not exist, and we say that A is singular.

 
2 3 
Example 1.4.1. Find the determinant and the inverse of the matrix A =  .
4 0

Solution.
 
 
 2 3 
We have det(A) =   = 2 × 0 − 3 × 4 = −12

 4 0 

and
 −1    
2 3  1  0 −3   0 1
A−1 =  = = 1 4 
4 0 −12 −4 2 3
− 61

8
1.4.1 Exercises
1. Evaluate
     
     
 1 0   1 1   3 1 
(a)  
 (b)  
 (c)  

 0 2   1 1   2 1 

2. Find the inverse of the following matrices:

     
3 1  1 0  1 0 
(a)  (b)  (c) 
2 1 0 2 0 1

1.5 Solving Matrix Equations

Consider the matrix equation AX = C, where X is an unknown matrix.

We cannot divide by A. Instead, we multiply both sides of the equation by A−1 (if A−1
exists). In particular, if A−1 exists then we can solve the above equation for the matrix X,
as follows:

AX = C ⇒ A−1 AX = A−1 C (multiplying both sides of the equation on the left by A−1 )

⇒ IX = A−1 C

⇒ X = A−1 C .

Similarly,

XA = C ⇒ XAA−1 = CA−1 (multiplying both sides of the equation on the right by A−1 )

⇒ X = CA−1 .

Note that

• Multiplying on the left is called premultiplying.

• Multiplying on the right is called postmultiplying.

9
Example 1.5.1. Find the matrix X such that
   
2 3   9 0 
X = .
4 0 1 1

Solution.
   −1
2 3  2 3 
Since  is on the right of X, we multiply on the right by  .
4 0 4 0
Now
   
2 3  9 0 
X = 
4 0 1 1
  −1   −1
2 3  2 3  9 0  2 3 
⇒X = 
4 0 4 0 1 1 4 0
   
9 0   1  0 −3 
⇒ XI = 
1 1 −12 −4 2
  
1  9 0   0 −3 
⇒X =
−12 1 1 −4 2
 
1  0 −27 
=
−12 −4 −1
 
9
0
=  1 1
4 
3 12

1.5.1 Uniqueness of Solutions

Sometimes there can be more than one matrix X such that AX = C, or there could be none!
When there is only one X such that AX = C, we say that AX = C has a unique solution.

Consider the matrix equation AX = C .

We have the following result:

• When det(A) ̸= 0 then AX = C has a unique solution.

This unique solution is given by X = A−1 C.

• When det(A) = 0 then AX = C either has • infinitely many solutions,

or • no solutions.

10
1.5.2 Exercises
1. Find the matrix X such that
       
−1 2   9 2  2 2   8 6 
(a) X  = (b) X  =
−3 1 −7 4 2 −5 −13 −1

       
1 0   2 1  0 1   1 2 
(c) X  = (d) X  =
3 2 1 0 −1 0 0 0

2. Find the matrix Y such that

       
−1 2  9 2  −1 2  1 
(a)  Y = (b)  Y =
−3 1 −7 4 −3 1 −2

       
2 2  8 6  2 2  3
(c)  Y = (d)  Y = 
2 −5 −13 −1 2 −5 1

3. Find the matrix Z such that

           
3 1   1 2   4 1  2 −1   0 1   3 −1 
(a)  Z = (b)  1
Z =
2 2 2 5 0 1 1 2
2 4 0 2

1.6 Simultaneous Equations with 2 unknowns

An equation of the form ax + by = p (where a, b and p are constants) represents a straight

line in the x, y-plane.

The system of equations

ax + by = p
cx + dy = q

represents two lines in the x, y-plane. When we solve these equations simultaneously, we are
finding the point of intersection of the two lines. We can write the above system of equations
in matrix form as follows:     

a b 
x =
p .
c d y q

11
Example 1.6.1. Solve the following system of equations:

2x + 3y = 8
x − 4y = −7

Solution.

We need to find x and y such that both of the above equations are satisfied.
To do this, we write the above system in matrix form:
    

2 3  x   8 
= .
1 −4 y −7
 
2 3 
Then we premultiply the matrix equation by the inverse of  to get
1 −4

   −1  

x  2 3  8 
=  
y 1 −4 −7

  
1  −4 −3   8 
=
−11 −1 2 −7

 
1  −11 
=
−11 −22

 
1
=  .
2

Thus x = 1 and y = 2.

12
1.6.1 To Solve a System of Equations:

(a) Write the system of equations

ax + by = p
cx + dy = q

in matrix form:     

a b  x   p 
= .
c d y q

(b) Calculate the determinant  

 
 a b 
∆ =   = ad − bc.

 c d 

(c) If ∆ ̸= 0 then we have a unique solution given by

   −1  

x   a b  
p 
= .
y c d q

(d) If ∆ = 0 then either

• there are no solutions.

– In this case, the equations represent two parallel lines which don’t intersect.
or

• there are infinitely many solutions.

– In this case the equations represent the same line, and so any point on this
line is a solution.

13
Example 1.6.2. Solve the following system of equations:

2x + 3y = 6
4x + 6y = −12

Solution.

In matrix form, we have

    

2 3  x   6 
=
4 6 y −12

Note that the determinant

 
 
 2 3 
  = 2 × 6 − 3 × 4 = 12 − 12 = 0 .
 
 4 6 

Therefore, there is no solution or there are infinitely many solutions.

Graphically, the lines 2x+3y = 6 and 4x+6y = −12 are non-intersecting parallel
lines:
ppppppp y
ppppppp 6
ppppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp
sppp
2 ppppppppppppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp 2x + 3y = 6
ppppppp
ppppppp ppppppp
ppppppp ppppppp
ppppppp ppppppp
sppppppp pppspppp -
ppppppp ppppp x
−3 ppppppppppp 3 ppppppppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp
pppsppp
−2 ppppppppppppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp 4x + 6y = −12
ppppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp
pp

Therefore, there is no solution.

14
Example 1.6.3. Consider the following simultaneous system of linear equations, where k
is a constant:

kx + 3y = 4
3x + ky = 5 .

(a) Write down the system of equations in matrix form

AX = B .

Solution.

    

k 3  x   4 
= .
3 k y 5

(b) Calculate the determinant of the matrix A found in (a).

Solution.

   
 
k 3   k 3 
A= and so det(A) =   = k2 − 9 .

3 k  3 k 

(c) Find the value(s) of k for which the system has a unique solution.

Solution.

There is a unique solution if and only if

det(A) ̸= 0

⇔ k 2 − 9 ̸= 0

⇔ (k − 3)(k + 3) ̸= 0

⇔ k ̸= 3 and k ̸= −3

⇔ k ∈ R \ {3, −3} .

15
1.6.2 Exercises
1. Solve the following systems of equations:

(a) 2x + 3y = 8 (b) 2x − y = −5
x + 4y = 9 x + 3y = 1

(c) 2x + 3y = 6 (d) 2x + 3y = 6
4x + 6y = 3 4x + 6y = 12

2. Consider the following simultaneous system of linear equations, where p is a constant:

3x + py = 9
(p + 1)x + 2y = 9 .

(a) Show that the system has a unique solution if and only if p ∈ R \ {−3, 2}.

(b) Find the value(s) of p for which the system has infinitely many solutions.

(c) Find the value(s) of p for which the system has no solution.

Hint for (b) and (c): Consider the cases p = −3 and p = 2 separately, i.e., substitute
p = −3 into the system and then try to solve the system; do the same for p = 2 .

16
Chapter 15

Answers

15.1 Answers for Chapter 1 Exercises

[ ] [ ]
2 1 7 45
1.3.3: 1. (a) (b)
6 4.6 − 3
14
2
[ ] [ ] [ ]
−4 1 12 1 15 24
2. (a) (b) (c)
−6 0 −4 0 18 −12
[ ] [ ]
2 1 1 11
3. (a) (b)
−4 37 13 −10

4. x = 9

1.4.1: 1. (a) 2 (b) 0 (c) 1

[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 −1 1 2 0 1 0
2. (a) (b) 2 (c)
−2 3 0 1 0 1

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
3 −4 26
7
2
7
1
2
1
2 2 −1
1.5.2: 1. (a) (b) −67 −12
(c) (d)
1 2 14 7 1 0 0 0
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
23 −6
5 5 1 1 2 1 17
2. (a) 34 2
(b) (c) (d) 14
5 5 1 3 1 4
[ ] [ ]
38 −15 3 − 32
3. (a) 1
4 (b) − 14
−42 17 −22 3

1.6.2: 1. (a) (1, 2) (b) (−2, 1) (c) No solution

(d) More than one solution: any point on the line 2x + 3y = 6.

2. (a) Omitted (b) p = 2 (c) p = −3 .

159