Virtual work

Virtual work arises in the application of the principle his version of least action principle prior to this work,
of least action to the study of forces and movement of he recognized the virtual work principle to be more fun-
a mechanical system. The work of a force acting on a damental mainly because it could be assumed alone as
particle as it moves along a displacement will be differ- the foundation for all mechanics, unlike the modern un-
ent for different displacements. Among all the possible derstanding that least action does not account for non-
displacements that a particle may follow, called virtual conservative forces.[3]
displacements, one will minimize the action, and, there-
fore, is the one followed by the particle by the principle
of least action. The work of a force on a particle along a
virtual displacement is known as the virtual work. 2 Overview
Historically, virtual work and the associated calculus of
variations were formulated to analyze systems of rigid If a force acts on a particle as it moves from point A to
bodies,[1] but they have also been developed for the study point B, then, for each possible trajectory that the par-
of the mechanics of deformable bodies.[2] ticle may take, it is possible to compute the total work
done by the force along the path. The principle of virtual
work, which is the form of the principle of least action
applied to these systems, states that the path actually fol-
1 History lowed by the particle is the one for which the difference
between the work along this path and other nearby paths
The principle of virtual work had always been used in is zero (to first order). The formal procedure for comput-
some form since antiquity in the study of statics. It was ing the difference of functions evaluated on nearby paths
used by the Greeks, medieval Arabs and Latins, and Re- is a generalization of the derivative known from differen-
naissance Italians.[3] The idea of virtual work was invoked tial calculus, and is termed the calculus of variations.
by many notable physicists of the 17th century, such Consider a point particle that moves along a path which is
as Galileo, Descartes, Torricelli, Wallis, and Huygens, described by a function r(t) from point A, where r(t = t 0 ),
in varying degrees of generality, when solving problems to point B, where r(t = t 1 ). It is possible that the particle
in statics.[3] Working with Leibnizian concepts, Johann moves from A to B along a nearby path described by r(t)
Bernoulli systematized the virtual work principle and + δr(t), where δr(t) is called the variation of r(t). The
made explicit the concept of infinitesimal displacement. variation δr(t) satisfies the requirement δr(t 0 ) = δr(t 1 ) =
He was able to solve problems for both rigid bodies as well 0. The components of the variation, δr1 (t), δr2 (t) and
as fluids. Bernoulli’s version of virtual work law appeared δr3 (t), are called virtual displacements. This can be gen-
in his letter to Pierre Varignon in 1715, which was later eralized to an arbitrary mechanical system defined by the
published in Varignon’s second volume of Nouvelle mé- generalized coordinates qi , i = 1, ..., n. In which case, the
canique ou Statique in 1725. This formulation of the prin- variation of the trajectory qi (t) is defined by the virtual
ciple is today known as the principle of virtual velocities displacements δqi , i = 1, ..., n.
and is commonly considered as the prototype of the con-
temporary virtual work principles.[3] In 1743 D'Alembert Virtual work is the total work done by the applied forces
published his Traite de Dynamique where he applied the and the inertial forces of a mechanical system as it moves
principle of virtual work, based on the Bernoulli’s work, through a set of virtual displacements. When considering
to solve various problems in dynamics. His idea was to forces applied to a body in static equilibrium, the princi-
convert a dynamical problem into static problem by in- ple of least action requires the virtual work of these forces
troducing inertial force.[4] In 1768, Lagrange presented to be zero.
the virtual work principle in a more efficient form by
introducing generalized coordinates and presented it as
an alternative principle of mechanics by which all prob-
lems of equilibrium could be solved. A systematic expo-
3 Introduction
sition of Lagrange’s program of applying this approach
to all of mechanics, both static and dynamic, essentially Consider a particle P that moves from a point A to a point
the D'Alembert’s principle, was given in his Méchanique B along a trajectory r(t), while a force F(r(t)) is applied to
Analitique of 1788.[3] Although Lagrange had presented it. The work done by the force F is given by the integral

1
2 4 STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

4 Static equilibrium
∫ r(t1 )=B ∫ t1 ∫ t1
dr
W = F · dr = F· F · v dt, Static equilibrium is a state in which the net force and
dt =
r(t0 )=A t0 dt t0
net torque acted upon the system is zero. In other words,
where dr is the differential element along the curve that both linear momentum and angular momentum of the
is the trajectory of P, and v is its velocity. It is important system are conserved. The principle of virtual work states
to notice that the value of the work W depends on the that the virtual work of the applied forces is zero for all
trajectory r(t). virtual movements of the system from static equilibrium.
Now consider particle P that moves from point A to point This principle can be generalised such that three dimen-
B again, but this time it moves along the nearby trajectory sional rotations are included: the virtual work of the ap-
that differs from r(t) by the variation δr(t)=εh(t), where plied forces and applied moments is zero for all virtual
ε is a scaling constant that can be made as small as de- movements of the system from static equilibrium. That
sired and h(t) is an arbitrary function that satisfies h(t 0 ) is
= h(t 1 ) = 0. Suppose the force F(r(t)+εh(t)) is the same
as F(r(t)). The work done by the force is given by the
∑m ∑ n
integral δW = F · δr + M · δϕ = 0,
i i j j
i=1 j=1
∫ r(t1 )=B ∫ t1 ∫ t1
d(r(t) + ϵh(t)) where Fi , i = 1, 2, ..., m and Mj , j = 1, 2, ..., n are the
W̄ = F·d(r+ϵh) = F· dt = F·(v+ϵḣ) dt.
r(t0 )=A t0 dt applied
t0
forces and applied moments, respectively, and δri
, i = 1, 2, ..., m and δφj , j = 1, 2, ..., n are the virtual
The variation of the work δW associated with this nearby displacements and virtual rotations, respectively.
path, known as the virtual work, can be computed to be
Suppose the system consists of N particles, and it has f
∫ t1 (f ≤ 6N) degrees of freedom. It is sufficient to use only f
coordinates to give a complete description of the motion
δW = W̄ − W = (F · ϵḣ) dt.
t0
of the system, so f generalised coordinates qk , k = 1, 2,
..., f are defined such that the virtual movements can be
If there is no constraint force, then 6 parameters are
expressed in terms of these generalised coordinates. That
needed to completely describe the motion of P. If there
is,
are k (k ≤ 6) constraint forces, then n = (6 - k) parameters
are needed. Hence, we can define n generalized coordi-
nates qi (t) (i = 1, 2, ..., n), and express r(t) and δr=εh(t)
δri (q1 , q2 , ..., qf ; t), i = 1, 2, ..., m;
in terms of the generalized coordinates. That is,
δϕj (q1 , q2 , ..., qf ; t), j = 1, 2, ..., n.

r(t) = r(q1 , q2 , ..., qn ; t) The virtual work can then be reparametrised by the
generalised coordinates:
h(t) = h(q1 , q2 , ..., qn ; t)
Then, the derivative of the variation δr=εh(t) is given by   
∑
f ∑
m
∂r ∑
n
∂ϕ ∑
f
δW =  Fi ·
i
+ Mj ·
j  δqk  = Qk δqk ,
∑ ∂h n i=1
∂qk j=1 ∂qk
d d k=1 k=1
δr = ϵh = ϵq̇i ,
dt dt i=1
∂qi where the generalised forces Qk are defined as
then we have
∑
m
∂ri ∑
n
∂ϕj
∫ ( ) n (∫ Qk)= Fi · + Mj · ,k = 1, 2, ..., f.
t1 ∑
n
∂h ∑ ∂h t1 ∂qk j=1 ∂qk
δW = F· ϵq̇i
dt = F· ϵq̇i dt . i=1
t0 ∂qi t0 ∂qi
i=1 i=1
Kane[5] shows that these generalised forces can also be
The requirement that the virtual work be zero for an ar- formulated in terms of the ratio of time derivatives. That
bitrary variation δr(t)=εh(t) is equivalent to the set of re- is,
quirements

∑
m
∂vi ∑
n
∂ωj
∂h Qk = Fi · + Mj · , k = 1, 2, ..., f.
Qi = F · = 0, i = 1, . . . , n. ∂ q̇ k ∂ q̇k
∂qi i=1 j=1

The terms Qi are called the generalized forces associated The principle of virtual work requires that the virtual
with the virtual displacement δr. work done on a system by the forces Fi and moments Mj
 3

vanishes if it is in equilibrium. Therefore, the generalized

forces Qk are zero, that is
a = |rA − rP |, b = |rB − rP |,

which are the distances from the fulcrum to the input

δW = 0 ⇒ Qk = 0 k = 1, 2, ..., f. point A and to the output point B, respectively.
Now introduce the unit vectors eA and eB from the ful-
4.1 Constraint forces crum to the point A and B, so

An important benefit of the principle of virtual work is

that only forces that do work as the system moves through rA − rP = aeA , rB − rP = beB .
a virtual displacement are needed to determine the me-
This notation allows us to define the velocity of the points
chanics of the system. There are many forces in a me-
A and B as
chanical system that do no work during a virtual displace-
ment, which means that they need not be considered in
this analysis. The two important examples are (i) the in-
vA = θ̇ae⊥
A, vB = θ̇be⊥
B,
ternal forces in a rigid body, and (ii) the constraint forces
at an ideal joint. where eA⊥ and eB⊥ are unit vectors perpendicular to eA
Lanczos[1] presents this as the postulate: “The virtual and eB, respectively.
work of the forces of reaction is always zero for any The angle θ is the generalized coordinate that defines
virtual displacement which is in harmony with the given the configuration of the lever, therefore using the for-
kinematic constraints.” The argument is as follows. The mula above for forces applied to a one degree-of-freedom
principle of virtual work states that in equilibrium the mechanism, the generalized force is given by
virtual work of the forces applied to a system is zero.
Newton’s laws state that at equilibrium the applied forces
are equal and opposite to the reaction, or constraint ∂vA ∂vB ⊥ ⊥
forces. This means the virtual work of the constraint Q = FA · ∂ θ̇ − FB · ∂ θ̇ = a(FA · eA ) − b(FB · eB ).
forces must be zero as well.
Now, denote as FA and FB the components of the forces
that are perpendicular to the radial segments PA and PB.
These forces are given by
5 Law of the Lever
A lever is modeled as a rigid bar connected to a ground FA = FA · e⊥
A, FB = FB · e⊥
B.
frame by a hinged joint called a fulcrum. The lever is op-
erated by applying an input force FA at a point A located This notation and the principle of virtual work yield the
by the coordinate vector rA on the bar. The lever then formula for the generalized force as
exerts an output force FB at the point B located by rB.
The rotation of the lever about the fulcrum P is defined
by the rotation angle θ. Q = aFA − bFB = 0.

The ratio of the output force FB to the input force FA

is the mechanical advantage of the lever, and is obtained
from the principle of virtual work as

FB a
MA = = .
FA b
This equation shows that if the distance a from the ful-
crum to the point A where the input force is applied is
greater than the distance b from fulcrum to the point B
where the output force is applied, then the lever amplifies
the input force. If the opposite is true that the distance
from the fulcrum to the input point A is less than from
This is an engraving from Mechanics Magazine published in the fulcrum to the output point B, then the lever reduces
London in 1824.
the magnitude of the input force.
Let the coordinate vector of the point P that defines the This is the law of the lever, which was proven by
fulcrum be rP, and introduce the lengths Archimedes using geometric reasoning.[6]
4 7 DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM FOR RIGID BODIES

6 Gear train The formula above for the principle of virtual work with
applied torques yields the generalized force
A gear train is formed by mounting gears on a frame so
that the teeth of the gears engage. Gear teeth are de-
∂ωA ∂ωB
signed to ensure the pitch circles of engaging gears roll Q = TA − TB = TA − TB /R = 0.
on each other without slipping, this provides a smooth ∂ω ∂ω
transmission of rotation from one gear to the next. For The mechanical advantage of the gear train is the ratio
this analysis, we consider a gear train that has one degree- of the output torque TB to the input torque TA, and the
of-freedom, which means the angular rotation of all the above equation yields
gears in the gear train are defined by the angle of the input
gear.
TB
MA = = R.
TA
Thus, the speed ratio of a gear train also defines its me-
chanical advantage. This shows that if the input gear ro-
tates faster than the output gear, then the gear train ampli-
fies the input torque. And, if the input gear rotates slower
than the output gear, then the gear train reduces the input
torque.

7 Dynamic equilibrium for rigid

bodies
If the principle of virtual work for applied forces is used
on individual particles of a rigid body, the principle can
be generalized for a rigid body: When a rigid body that
is in equilibrium is subject to virtual compatible displace-
ments, the total virtual work of all external forces is zero;
and conversely, if the total virtual work of all external
forces acting on a rigid body is zero then the body is in
Illustration from Army Service Corps Training on Mechanical
equilibrium.
Transport, (1911), Fig. 112 Transmission of motion and force
by gear wheels, compound train If a system is not in static equilibrium, D'Alembert
showed that by introducing the acceleration terms of
The size of the gears and the sequence in which they en- Newton’s laws as inertia forces, this approach is gen-
gage define the ratio of the angular velocity ωA of the eralized to define dynamic equilibrium. The result is
input gear to the angular velocity ωB of the output gear, D'Alembert’s form of the principle of virtual work, which
known as the speed ratio, or gear ratio, of the gear train. is used to derive the equations of motion for a mechanical
Let R be the speed ratio, then system of rigid bodies.
The expression compatible displacements means that the
ωA particles remain in contact and displace together so that
= R.
ωB the work done by pairs of action/reaction inter-particle
The input torque TA acting on the input gear GA is trans- forces cancel out. Various forms of this principle have
formed by the gear train into the output torque TB exerted been credited to Johann (Jean) Bernoulli (1667–1748)
by the output gear GB. If we assume, that the gears are and Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782).
rigid and that there are no losses in the engagement of the
gear teeth, then the principle of virtual work can be used
7.1 Generalized inertia forces
to analyze the static equilibrium of the gear train.
Let the angle θ of the input gear be the generalized co- Let a mechanical system be constructed from n rigid
ordinate of the gear train, then the speed ratio R of the bodies, Bᵢ, i=1,...,n, and let the resultant of the applied
gear train defines the angular velocity of the output gear forces on each body be the force-torque pairs, Fᵢ and Tᵢ,
in terms of the input gear, that is i=1,...,n. Notice that these applied forces do not include
the reaction forces where the bodies are connected. Fi-
nally, assume that the velocity Vᵢ and angular velocities
ωA = ω, ωB = ω/R. ωᵢ, i=,1...,n, for each rigid body, are defined by a single
 5

generalized coordinate q. Such a system of rigid bodies

is said to have one degree of freedom.
Fj + Q∗j = 0, j = 1, . . . , m,
Consider a single rigid body which moves under the ac-
tion of a resultant for F and torque T, with one degree which can also be written as
of freedom defined by the generalized coordinate q. As-
sume the reference point for the resultant force and torque d ∂T ∂T
is the center of mass of the body, then the generalized in- dt ∂ q̇ − ∂q = Qj , j = 1, . . . , m.
j j
ertia force Q* associated with the generalized coordinate
q is given by The result is a set of m equations of motion that define
the dynamics of the rigid body system.
If the generalized forces Q are derivable from a potential
∗ ∂V ∂⃗
ω energy V(q1 ,...,q ), then these equations of motion take
Q = −(M A) · − ([IR ]α + ω × [IR ]ω) · .
∂ q̇ ∂ q̇ the form

This inertia force can be computed from the kinetic en-

ergy of the rigid body, d ∂T ∂T ∂V
− =− , j = 1, . . . , m.
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj ∂qj
In this case, introduce the Lagrangian, L=T-V, so these
1 1
T = MV · V + ω⃗ · [IR ]⃗
ω, equations of motion become
2 2
by using the formula
d ∂L ∂L
− = 0 j = 1, . . . , m.
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj
( )
d ∂T ∂T These are known as Lagrange’s equations of motion.
Q∗ = − − .
dt ∂ q̇ ∂q

A system of n rigid bodies with m generalized coordinates 8 Virtual work principle for a de-
has the kinetic energy
formable body
∑n
1 1 Consider now the free body diagram of a deformable
T = ( M Vi · Vi + ω⃗ i · [IR ]⃗
ωi ), body, which is composed of an infinite number of dif-
2 2
i=1 ferential cubes. Let’s define two unrelated states for the
which can be used to calculate the m generalized inertia body:
forces[7]
• The σ -State (Fig.a): This shows external surface
forces T, body forces f, and internal stresses σ in
( ) equilibrium.
d ∂T ∂T
Q∗j = − − , j = 1, . . . , m.
dt ∂ q̇j ∂qj • The ϵ -State (Fig.b): This shows continuous dis-
placements u∗ and consistent strains ϵ∗ .

7.2 D'Alembert’s form of the principle of The superscript * emphasizes that the two states are un-
virtual work related. Other than the above stated conditions, there is
no need to specify if any of the states are real or virtual.
D'Alembert’s form of the principle of virtual work states Imagine now that the forces and stresses in the σ -State
that a system of rigid bodies is in dynamic equilibrium undergo the displacements and deformations in the ϵ -
when the virtual work of the sum of the applied forces State: We can compute the total virtual (imaginary) work
and the inertial forces is zero for any virtual displacement done by all forces acting on the faces of all cubes in two
of the system. Thus, dynamic equilibrium of a system different ways:
of n rigid bodies with m generalized coordinates requires
that • First, by summing the work done by forces such
as FA which act on individual common faces
(Fig.c): Since the material experiences compatible
δW = (F1 + Q∗1 )δq1 + . . . + (Fm + Q∗m )δqm = 0, displacements, such work cancels out, leaving only
the virtual work done by the surface forces T (which
for any set of virtual displacements δq . This condition are equal to stresses on the cubes’ faces, by equilib-
yields m equations, rium).
6 8 VIRTUAL WORK PRINCIPLE FOR A DEFORMABLE BODY

• Second, by computing the net work done by stresses To continue our derivation, we substitute in the equilib-
or forces such as FA , FB which act on an individual rium equation ∂σ
∂xj + fi = 0 . Then
ij

cube, e.g. for the one-dimensional case in Fig.(c):

( ∂u∗ ) ∂u∗ ∂σ ∫ ∫
FB u∗ + dx −FA u∗ ≈ σdV +u∗ dV = ϵ∗ σdV −u∂u∗i
f dV
σ + u
∂σij
dV =
∂ui
σij − ui fi dV
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
ij i
∂x ∂x
V j j V j
∂σ
+f =0
∂x The first term on the right hand side needs to be broken
Integrating over the whole body gives: into a symmetric part and a skew part as follows:

∫
V
ϵ∗T σ dV – Work done by the body forces ∫ ∫ [( ) ( )]
f. ∂ui 1 ∂ui ∂uj ∂ui ∂uj
σij − ui fi dV = + + − σij −
V ∂xj V 2 ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xi
∫ [ ( )]
Equating the two results leads to the principle of virtual 1 ∂ui ∂uj
work for a deformable body: = ϵij + − σij − ui fi dV
2 ∂xj ∂xi
∫V
∫ = ϵij σij − ui fi dV
Total external virtual work = ϵ∗T σdV (d) ∫V
V = ϵ : σ − u · fdV
where the total external virtual work is done by T and f. V

Thus, where ϵ is the strain that is consistent with the specified

displacement field. The 2nd to last equality comes from
∫ ∫ ∫ the fact that the stress matrix is symmetric and that the
u∗T TdS + u∗T fdV = ϵ∗T σdV (e) product of a skew matrix and a symmetric matrix is zero.
S V V

The right-hand-side of (d,e) is often called the internal Now recap. We have shown through the above derivation
virtual work. The principle of virtual work then states: that
External virtual work is equal to internal virtual work
when equilibrated forces and stresses undergo unrelated ∫ ∫ ∫
but consistent displacements and strains. It includes the u · TdS = ϵ : σdV − u · fdV
principle of virtual work for rigid bodies as a special case S V V
where the internal virtual work is zero.
Move the 2nd term on the right hand side of the equation
to the left:
8.1 Proof of Equivalence between the
Principle of Virtual Work and the ∫ ∫ ∫
Equilibrium Equation u · TdS + u · fdV = ϵ : σdV
S V V
We start by looking at the total work done by surface trac-
tion on the body going through the specified deformation: The physical interpretation of the above equation is, the
External virtual work is equal to internal virtual work
∫ ∫ when equilibrated forces and stresses undergo unrelated
but consistent displacements and strains.
u · TdS = u · σ · ndS
S S For practical applications:
Applying divergence theorem to the right hand side
yields:
• In order to impose equilibrium on real stresses and
forces, we use consistent virtual displacements and
∫ ∫
strains in the virtual work equation.
u · σ · ndS = ∇ · (u · σ) dV
S V
• In order to impose consistent displacements and
Now switch to indicial notation for the ease of derivation. strains, we use equilibriated virtual stresses and
forces in the virtual work equation.
∫ ∫
∂
∇ · (u · σ) dV = (ui σij ) dV
V ∂xj These two general scenarios give rise to two often stated
∫V
∂ui ∂σij variational principles. They are valid irrespective of ma-
= σij + ui dV terial behaviour.
V ∂xj ∂xj
 7

8.2 Principle of virtual displacements This relation is equivalent to the set of strain-
compatibility equations as well as of the displacement
Depending on the purpose, we may specialize the vir- boundary conditions on the part Su . It has another
tual work equation. For example, to derive the principle name: the principle of complementary virtual work.
of virtual displacements in variational notations for sup-
ported bodies, we specify:
9 Alternative forms
• Virtual displacements and strains as variations of the
real displacements and strains using variational no- A specialization of the principle of virtual forces is the
tation such as δ u ≡ u∗ and δ ϵ ≡ ϵ∗ unit dummy force method, which is very useful for com-
• Virtual displacements be zero on the part of the sur- puting displacements in structural systems. According to
face that has prescribed displacements, and thus the D'Alembert’s principle, inclusion of inertial forces as ad-
work done by the reactions is zero. There remains ditional body forces will give the virtual work equation
only external surface forces on the part St that do applicable to dynamical systems. More generalized prin-
work. ciples can be derived by:

The virtual work equation then becomes the principle of • allowing variations of all quantities.
virtual displacements: • using Lagrange multipliers to impose boundary con-
ditions and/or to relax the conditions specified in the
∫ ∫ ∫ two states.
T T
δ u TdS + δ u fdV = δϵT σdV (f)
St V V
These are described in some of the references.
This relation is equivalent to the set of equilibrium equa- Among the many energy principles in structural mechan-
tions written for a differential element in the deformable ics, the virtual work principle deserves a special place
body as well as of the stress boundary conditions on the due to its generality that leads to powerful applications
part St of the surface. Conversely, (f) can be reached, in structural analysis, solid mechanics, and finite element
albeit in a non-trivial manner, by starting with the dif- method in structural mechanics.
ferential equilibrium equations and the stress boundary
conditions on St , and proceeding in the manner similar
to (a) and (b).
10 See also
Since virtual displacements are automatically compatible
when they are expressed in terms of continuous, single- • Flexibility method
valued functions, we often mention only the need for con-
sistency between strains and displacements. The virtual • Unit dummy force method
work principle is also valid for large real displacements;
• Finite element method in structural mechanics
however, Eq.(f) would then be written using more com-
plex measures of stresses and strains. • Calculus of variations
• Lagrangian mechanics
8.3 Principle of virtual forces
• Müller-Breslau’s principle
Here, we specify:

• Virtual forces and stresses as variations of the real 11 References

forces and stresses.
[1] C. Lánczos, The Variational Principles of Mechanics, 4th
• Virtual forces be zero on the part St of the surface Ed., General Publishing Co., Canada, 1970
that has prescribed forces, and thus only surface (re-
action) forces on Su (where displacements are pre- [2] Dym, C. L. and I. H. Shames, Solid Mechanics: A Varia-
tional Approach, McGraw-Hill, 1973.
scribed) would do work.
[3] Danilo Capecchi, History of Virtual Work Laws,
The virtual work equation becomes the principle of vir- Springer-Verlag, Italy, 2012
tual forces:
[4] René Dugas, A History of Mechanics, Courier Corpora-
tion, 2012
∫ ∫ ∫
T T [5] T. R. Kane and D. A. Levinson, Dynamics: theory and
u δ TdS + u δ fdV = ϵT δσdV (g)
Su V V
applications, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1985
8 12 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[6] Usher, A. P. (1929). A History of Mechanical Inventions.

Harvard University Press (reprinted by Dover Publications
1988). p. 94. ISBN 978-0-486-14359-0. OCLC 514178.
Retrieved 7 April 2013.

[7] T. R. Kane and D. A. Levinson, Dynamics, Theory and

Applications, McGraw-Hill, NY, 2005.

12 Bibliography
• Bathe, K.J. “Finite Element Procedures”, Prentice
Hall, 1996. ISBN 0-13-301458-4
• Charlton, T.M. Energy Principles in Theory of Struc-
tures, Oxford University Press, 1973. ISBN 0-19-
714102-1

• Dym, C. L. and I. H. Shames, Solid Mechanics: A

Variational Approach, McGraw-Hill, 1973.
• Greenwood, Donald T. Classical Dynamics, Dover
Publications Inc., 1977, ISBN 0-486-69690-1
• Hu, H. Variational Principles of Theory of Elasticity
With Applications, Taylor & Francis, 1984. ISBN
0-677-31330-6

• Langhaar, H. L. Energy Methods in Applied Mechan-

ics, Krieger, 1989.

• Reddy, J.N. Energy Principles and Variational Meth-

ods in Applied Mechanics, John Wiley, 2002. ISBN
0-471-17985-X
• Shames, I. H. and Dym, C. L. Energy and Finite
Element Methods in Structural Mechanics, Taylor &
Francis, 1995, ISBN 0-89116-942-3

• Tauchert, T.R. Energy Principles in Structural Me-

chanics, McGraw-Hill, 1974. ISBN 0-07-062925-0

• Washizu, K. Variational Methods in Elasticity and

Plasticity, Pergamon Pr, 1982. ISBN 0-08-026723-
8
• Wunderlich, W. Mechanics of Structures: Vari-
ational and Computational Methods, CRC, 2002.
ISBN 0-8493-0700-7
 9

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text
• Virtual work Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_work?oldid=709609152 Contributors: Heron, Stevertigo, AugPi, Samw,
Charles Matthews, BenFrantzDale, Bender235, Mdd, TVBZ28, Linas, Polyparadigm, Milez, Mandarax, Who, ChrisChiasson, Sanpaz,
Grafen, SmackBot, Commander Keane bot, Bluebot, Uthbrian, Beuh dave, Basar, Myasuda, Gregbard, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, WinBot,
JAnDbot, Magioladitis, WolfmanSF, Salih, Skier Dude, Plasticup, Jakster holland, VolkovBot, Thurth, BertSen, Kropotkine 113, Remag
Kee, Abdullah Köroğlu~enwiki, Addbot, Kaktus Kid, Ettrig, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Materialscientist, Dontknowhow, Ldemasi,
J04n, LucienBOT, Calleman21, Jzana, YurritAvonds, Kiwakwok, Mamerto puebla, Hajatvrc, EmausBot, Relue62, Ferriwheel, Ὁ οἶστρος,
Maschen, BG19bot, Prof McCarthy, F=q(E+v^B), Manoguru, ChrisGualtieri, Matty.007, Steve14941, Donosauro and Anonymous: 42

13.2 Images
• File:Archimedes_lever_(Small).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Archimedes_lever_%28Small%
29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Archimedes_lever_(Small).jpg Original artist: Mechanics
Magazine
• File:Transmission_of_motion_by_compund_gear_train_(Army_Service_Corps_Training,_Mechanical_Transport,_1911).jpg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Transmission_of_motion_by_compund_gear_train_%28Army_Service_
Corps_Training%2C_Mechanical_Transport%2C_1911%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scan from (1911) Mechanical
Transport, HMSO, pp. p. 145,fig. 112 Original artist: Andy Dingley (scanner)

13.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0