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MODULE – 1

1(a) : D.C.Circuits
Structure

1.1 Objective.
1.2 Ohm’s Law
1.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws.
1.4 analysis of series, parallel and series- parallel circuits excited by independent voltage sources.
1.5 Power and Energy.
1.6 Illustrative examples.
1.7 Outcome
1.8 Further readings

1.1 Course Objective:

 Familiarity with and understanding of the basic elements encountered in electric networks.
 To learn the fundamental differences between linear and nonlinear circuits.
 To understand the Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws and their applications to circuits.
 Meaning of circuit ground and the voltages referenced to ground.
 Understanding the basic principles of voltage dividers and current dividers.
 Potentiometer and loading effects.
 To understand the fundamental differences between ideal and practical voltage and current
sources and their mathematical models to represent these source models in electric circuits.
 Distinguish between independent and dependent sources those encountered in electric circuits.
 Meaning of delivering and absorbing power by the source.

1.2 Ohm’s Law: The current flowing through the electric the electric circuit is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the circuit and inversely proportional to the
resistance of the circuit, provided the temperature remains constant.
The limitations of the Ohm’s law are,

1) It is not applicable to the nonlinear devices such as diodes, zener diodes, voltage
regulators ect.
2) It does not hold good for non-metallic conductors such as silicon carbide.
The law for such conductors is given by,
V = K Im where k, m are constants.

(I) Current is what flows on a wire or conductor like water flowing down a river. Current flows from
negative to positive on the surface of a conductor. Current is measured in (A) amperes or amps.

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(E) Voltage Ohm's Law defines the relationships between (P) power, (E) voltage, (I) current, and
(R) resistance. One ohm is the resistance value through which one volt will maintain a current of
one ampere is the difference in electrical potential between two points in a circuit. It's the push or
pressure behind current flow through a circuit, and is measured in (V) volts.
(R) Resistance determines how much current will flow through a component. Resistors are used to
control voltage and current levels. A very high resistance allows a small amount of current to flow.
A very low resistance allows a large amount of current to flow. Resistance is measured in ohms.

To make a current flow through a resistance there must be a voltage across that resistance. Ohm's
Law shows the relationship between the voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R). It can be
written in three ways
V=IR or I=V/R or R=V/I
Where: V = voltage in volts (V)
I = current in amps (A or mA)
R = resistance in ohms ( Ω or KΩ)

1.3 State and explain Kirchhoff’s laws.

1.3.1 Kirchhoff’s current law:

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The law can be stated as, The total current flowing towards a junction point is equal to the total
current flowing y from that junction point.

 The word algebraic means considering the signs of various currents.

at junction point = 0

 Sign convention : Currents flowing towards a junction point are assumed to be positive

while currents flowing away from a junction point assumed to be negative.

 e.g. Refer to Fig. 1, currents I1 and I2 are positive while I3 and I4 are negative.

 Applying KCL, at junction 0 = 0

I1 + I2 - I3 - I4 = 0 i.e. I1 + I2 = I3 + I4

 The law is very helpful in network simplification.

1.3.2 Kirchhoff’s voltage law :

“In any network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops across the circuit elements of any
closed path (or loop or mesh) is equal to the algebraic sum of the e.m.f s in the path”

In other words, “the algebraic sum of all the branch voltages, around any closed path or
closed loop is always zero.”

Around a closed path =0

 The law states that if one starts at a certain point of a closed path and goes on tracing and

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noting all the potential changes (either drops or rises), in any one particular direction, till
the starting point reached again, he must be at the same potential with which he started
tracing a closed path.
 Sum of all the potential rises must be equal to sum of all the potential drops while tracing
any closed path of the circuit. The total change in potential along a closed path is always
zero.
 This law is very useful in loop analysis of the network.

1.4 Resistance
Resistance is the property of a component which restricts the flow of electric current. Energy is
used up as the voltage across the component drives the current through it and this energy appears as
heat in the component.

1.4.1 Resistors connected in Series

When resistors are connected in series their combined resistance is equal to the individual
resistances added together. For example if resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series their
combined resistance, R, is given by: Combined resistance in series:

R = R1 + R2
This can be extended for more resistors: R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + ...

Note that the combined resistance in series will always be greater than any
of the individual resistances.

1.4.2 Resistors connected in Parallel

When resistors are connected in parallel their combined resistance is less than any of the
individual resistances. There is a special equation for the combined resistance of two resistors R1
and R2:
Combined resistance of two resistance in parallel
𝑅1 ∗ 𝑅2
𝑅=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

For more than two resistors connected in parallel a more difficult equation must be used. This adds up the
reciprocal ("one over") of each resistance to give the reciprocal of the combined resistance.

1 1 1
𝑅= + + ….
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

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The simpler equation for two resistors in parallel is much easier to use!
Note that the combined resistance in parallel will always be less than any of the individual
resistances.

1.5 ( P ) Power is the amount of current times the voltage level at a given point measured in wattage
or watts.
P=VI
electrical energy - energy made available by the flow of electric charge through a conductor;
"they built a car that runs on electricity" measured in k Watt Hour

Energy=VItKWhour

1.6 Illustrative Examples

P1: Find the equivalent resistance across the terminals PQ of the network shown below

Ans:

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P2: Find the equivalent resistance between the two points A and B shown in Figure.

Ans: The resistances 5 Ω and 6 Ω are in series, as going to carry same current.
5 + 6 = 11 Ω
the resistances 3 , 4 and 4 Ω are in parallel, as voltage across them same but current divides.

Now again 1.2 Ω and 2Ω are in series so equivalent resistance is 2 + 1.2 = 3.2 Ω while 11 Ω and 7Ω
are in parallel.
11*7/(11+7) = 77/18 =4.227 Ω

3.2*4.277/(3.2+4.77) = 1.8304 Ω

Rab = 1.8304+1 = 2.8304 Ω

P3: Find the current in all the branches of the network shown

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Ans:

Branch Current Direction

AB 39 A from A to B
BC – 21 A from C to B
CD 39 A from C to D
DE – 81 A from E to D
EF – 11 A From F to E
BC – 41 A from A to F

1.7 Course Outcomes

 To predict the behavior of DC circuits

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 To analyze a behavior of electrical components

 To apply KVL, KCL, current and voltage divider concept
 To calculate power absorbed and deliver to the load.

1.8 Further Reading

https://www.electrical4u.com/electrical-dc-series-and-parallel-circuit/

“Basic Electrical Engineering”, D C Kulshreshtha, TMH, 2009 Edition.

1(b) ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Structure

1.1 Objective
1.2 Definition of Electromagnetic Induction
1.3 Faradays Laws
1.4 Lenz’s Law
1.5 Fleming’s right hand rule & Fleming’s left hand rule
1.6 Statically and dynamically induced emf.
1.7 Concept of self- inductance, mutual inductance and coefficient of coupling.
1.8 Energy stored in magnetic field.
1.9 Illustrative examples.
1.10 Outcome
1.11 Further reading

1.1 Objective
 To understand concept of electromagnetism
 Laws of electromagnetism
 Different ways of flux linkage and emf induction
 To understand the concept of energy stored in inductor

1.2 Definition of Electromagnetic Induction

When an induced current is produced because of voltage production (electromotive force) due to
a changing magnetic field, it is called Electromagnetic Induction. This either happens when a

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conductor is placed in a moving magnetic field (when using ac power source) or when a
conductor is constantly moving in a stationary magnetic field.
This phenomenon was discovered by Michael Faraday. He arranged a conducting wire as per the
setup given below, attached to a device to measure the voltage across the circuit. When a bar
magnet was moved through the coiling, the voltage detector measure a voltage in the circuit.
1.3 Faradays Laws
First law: Whenever magnetic flux linking with a coil changes with time an emf is induced in
that coil or whenever a moving conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an emf is induced in the
conductor.
Second Law: The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the product of the number of turns
of the coil and the rate of change of flux linkage.

1.4 Lenz’s Law

It states that the direction of an induced emf produced by the electromagnetic induction is such
that it sets up a current which always opposes the cause that is responsible for inducing the
emf.

In short the induced emf always opposes the cause producing it which is represented by
negative sign, mathematically in its expression

Consider a solenoid as shown in Fig.1. Let a bar magnet is moved towards coil such that N-
pole of magnet is facing a coil which will circulate the current through the coil.

According to Lenz’s law, the direction of current due to induced emf is so as to oppose the
cause. The cause is motion of bar magnet towards coil So emf will set up a current through coil
in such a way that the end of solenoid facing bar magnet will become N-pole. Hence two like
poles will face each other experiencing force of repulsion which is opposite to the motion of
bar magnet as shown in the above.

1.5 Fleming’s Rule :

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1.5.1 Fleming’s Right hand rule: This rule helps in deciding the direction of the induced emf.

Hold the right hand thumb, fore finger and the middle finger set at right angles to each other and
the thumb points the direction of the motion of the conductor and the fore finger points the
direction of the field and the middle finger points the direction of the induced emf.
According to this rule, outstretch the three fingers of right hand namely the thumb, fore finger and
the middle finger, perpendicular to each other. Arrange the right hand so that finger point in the
direction of flux lines ( from N to S ) and thumb in the direction of motion of conductor with
respect to the flux then the middle finger will point in the direction of the induced
( or current ).

1.5.2 Fleming’s Left hand rule: This rule helps in deciding the direction of force acting on a
conductor.

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Hold the left hand thumb, fore finger and the middle finger set at right angles to each other and the
thumb points the direction of the force acting on the conductor and the direction of the fore finger
points the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger points the direction of the current
in the conductor.

1.6 EMF induction

EMF can be induced statically and dynamically.
Statically Induced EMF : The emf induced in a coil due to change of flux linked with it (change
of flux is by the increase or decrease in current) is called statically induced emf. Transformer is an
example of statically induced emf. Here the windings are stationary, magnetic field is moving
around the conductor and produces the emf.

Dynamically induced EMF: The emf induced in a coil due to relative motion of the conductor
and the magnetic field is called dynamically induced emf.

Example: dc generator works on the principle of dynamically induced emf in the conductors
which are housed in a revolving armature lying within magnetic field

1.6.1 Statically Induced EMF:

The change in flux lines with respect to coil can be achieved without physically moving the coil
or the magnet. Such induced e.m.f. in a coil which is without physical movement of coil or a
magnet is called statically induced e.m.f.

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To have an induced e.m.f there must be change in flux associated with a coil. Such a change in
flux can be achieved without any physical movement by increasing and decreasing the current
producing the flux rapidly, with time.

Consider an electromagnet which is producing the necessary flux for producing e.m.f. Now let
current through the coil of an electromagnet be an alternating one. Such alternating current
means it changes its magnitude periodically with time. This produces the flux which is also
alternating i.e. changing with time. Thus there exists associated with coil placed in the
viscinity of an electromagnet. This is responsible for producing an e.m.f in the coil. This is called
statically induced e.m.f.

There is no physical movement of magnet or conductor; it is the alternating supply which is

responsible for such an induced e.m.f. Such type of an induced e.m.f. is available in
transformers.

1.6.2 Dynamically induced EMF

The change in the flux linking with a coil, conductor or circuit can be brought about by its
motion relative to magnetic field. This is possible by moving flux with respect to coil conductor
or circuit or it is possible by moving conductor, coil, circuit with respect to stationary magnetic
flux.

Such an induced e.m.f. which is due to physical movement of coil, conductor with respect to flux
or movement of magnet with respect with to stationary coil, conductor is called dynamically
induced e.m.f. or motional induced e.m.f.

This type of induced e.m.f. is available in the rotating machines such as alternators, generator
etc.

1.7 Self inductance Mutual Inducatnce and its Co-efficient

1.7.1 Self inductance

According to Lenz’s law the direction of this induced e.m.f. will be so as to oppose the cause
producing it. The cause is the current I hence self-induced e.m.f will try to set up a current which
is in opposite direction to that of current I. When current is increased, self-induced e.m.f. reduces
the current tries to keep to its original value. If current is decreased, self-induced e.m.f. increases
the current and tries to maintain it back to its original value. So any change in current through
coil is opposed by the coil.

This property of the coil which opposes any change in the current passing through it is called
self-inductance or only inductance.

It is analogous to electrical inertia or electromagnetic inertia. The

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formula for self-inductance is given by,

L=

It can be defined as flux linkages per ampere current in it. Its unit is Henry (H)

1.7.2 Expressions for coefficient of self-inductance (L):

L=

But =

∴ L =

∴ L= henries

Now s=

L=

∴ L = = Henries

Where l = length of magnetic circuit

a = area of cross-section of magnetic circuit which flux is passing.

1.7.3 Mutual inductance

Magnitude of mutually induced e.m.f
Let N1 = Number of turns of coil
A N2 = Number of turns of
coil B
I1 = Current flowing through coil A

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∅1 = Flux produced due to current I1 in webers.

∅2 = Flux linking with coil
B According to Faraday’s
law, the induced e.m.f. in coil B is,
e2 =

Negative sign indicates that this e.m.f will set up a current which will oppose the change of flux
linking with it.
Now ∅2 =

If permeability of the surroundings is assumed constant then ∅2 ∝ I1 and hence ∅∕I1 is constant.
∴ Rate of change of ∅2 = Rate of change of current I1

Here is called co efficient of mutual inductance dented by M

Volts

Coefficient of mutual inductance is defined as the property by which e.m.f gets induced in the
second coil because of change in current through first coil. Coefficient of mutual inductance is
also called mutual inductance. It is measured in Henries.

Definitions of mutual inductance and its unit:

1) The coefficient of mutual inductance is defined as the flux linkages of the coil per ampere
current in other coil.
2) It can also be defined as equal to e.m.f induced in volts in one coil when current in other
coil changes uniformly are rate of one ampere per second.

Similarly its unit is defined as follows:

1) Two coils which are magnetically coupled are said to have mutual inductance of one
hence when a current of one ampere flowing through one coil produces a flux linkage of
one Weber turn in the other coil.

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2) Two coils which are magnetically coupled are said to have mutual inductance of one
Henry when a current changing uniformly at the rate of one ampere per second in one
coil, induces as e.m.f of one volts in the other coil.

1.7.4 Expressions of the mutual inductance (M) and co efficient of Mutual inductance:

∅2 is the part of the flux ∅1 produced due to I1. Let K1 be the fraction of ∅1 which is
linkage with coil B.

The flux ∅1 can be expressed as,

∅1 =

If all the flux produced by the coil A links with coil B K1= 1.

Now and K1 = 1

Then

If second coil carries current I2, producing flux ∅2, the part of which links with coil A
i.e.∅1 then,

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∅1 = K2 ∅2 and

=
Now

= therefore

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1.7.5 Coupling Coefficient: The coefficient of coupling is define as the ratio of the actual
mutual inductance present between the two coils as the maximum possible value of the mutual
inductance. It gives an idea about magnetic coupling between the two coils. This coefficient
indicates the amount of linking with other coil which is produced by one coil.
Let
N1 = Number of turns of first coil
N2 = number of turns of second coil
I1 = current through first coil
I2 = current through by first coil
Ø1 = flux produced by first coil
Ø2 = flux produced by second coil

M= and

M = Multiplying the two

expressions,

M×M= ×

M2 =

K1K2

But = L1 = self-inductance of first

coil And = L2 = self-inductance of

second coil
M2 = K1K2L1L2

M=

Let K= = coefficient of coupling

M=K

K=

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1.8 Energy Stored in inductor

Let the induced e.m.f. in a coil be,
e = -L
This opposes a supply voltage. So supply voltage ‘V’ supplies energy to overcome this,
which ultimately gets stored in the magnetic field.
∴ V = -e = - =L

Power supplied = V × I = L ×I

Energy supplied in time dt is,

E = power x time =L x I x dt

= L di x I joules.
This is energy supplied for a change in current of dI but actually current changes from zero to
I.
∴ Integrating above total energy stored is,
E=

1.9 Illustrative examples

P1: If a current of 5 A flowing in coil with 1000 turns wound on a ring of ferromagnetic material
produces a flux of 0.5 mWb in the ring. Calculate i) self inductance of coil ii) e.m.f. induced in
the coil when current is switched off and reaches zero value in 2 millisec. iii) mutual inductance
between the coils, if a second coil with 750 turns is wound uniformly over the first one

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P2: Two coils A and B, have self inductances of 120 H and 300 H respectively. A current of 1
A through coil 'A' produces flux linkage of 100 Wb turns in coil 'B'. Calculate
i) mutual inductance between the coil.
ii) average e.m.f. induced in coil 'B' if current of 1 A in coil 'A' is reversed at a uniform rate

P3: An iron ring of 10 cm in diameter and 8 cm2in cross-section is wound with 300 turns of wire.
For a flux density of 1.2 Wb/m2 and relative permeability of 500, find the exciting current, the
inductance and the energy stored.

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1.10 Outcome
 concept of electromagnetism
 Laws of electromagnetism
 Different ways of flux linkage and emf induction and its application
 concept of energy stored in inductor

1.11 Further Readings

“Basic Electrical Engineering”, D C Kulshreshtha, TMH, 2009 Edition.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KGTZPTnZBFE

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