Measurements and Instrumentation

Chapter

1
Measurements and
Instrumentation

MEASUREMENTS
Measurement is essentially the act, or the result, of a quantitative
comparison between a given quantity and a quantity of the same kind
chosen as a unit. The result of measurement is expressed by a number
representing the ratio of the unknown quantity to the adopted unit of
measurement. The physical embodiment of the unit of measurement as well
as that of its submultiples or multiple values is called a standard. The device
used for comparing the unknown quantity with the unit of measurement or a
standard quantity is called a measuring instrument.

The value of unknown quantity can be determined by direct or indirect

measurement. In direct measurement methods the unknown quantity is
measured directly such as measurement of current by an ammeter, voltage by
voltmeter, resistance by ohmmeter, power by wattmeter etc. In indirect
measurement methods the unknown quantity is determined by measuring
other functionally related quantities and calculating the desired quantity
rather than measuring it directly with an instrument such as resistance of a
conductor may be determined by measuring voltage across the conductor ,V
and current flowing through the conductor ,I and then calculating it by Ohm’s
V
law i.e. R=
I

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Measurements and Instrumentation

Direct methods of measurement are of two types namely deflection methods

and comparison methods.

In deflection methods the value of unknown quantity is determined by means

of measuring instrument having a scale graduated to the quantity under
measurement directly such as measurement of current with an ammeter.

In comparison methods the unknown quantity is determined by direct

comparison with a standard of the given quantity such as measurement of
emf by comparison with the emf of a standard cell. Comparison methods
include the null method, differential method and other methods. In null
method of measurement the action of the unknown quantity (or a functionally
related quantity) upon the instrument is reduced to zero by the counter- action
of a known quantity of the same kind, such as measurement of weight by a
balance, measurement of resistance, inductance, capacitance by bridge
circuits.

Deflection methods of direct measurement are most widely used in

electrical engineering practice, being the most simple and least time
consuming, though their accuracy is not more than 0.2 to 10%. Direct
measurements have the advantage of introducing a smaller error than that
achieved in indirect measurements. The maximum possible error of
measurement introduced indirect measurement depends upon the accuracy
class of the measuring instrument employed.

Depending upon the methods used for comparing the unknown quantity with
the unit of measurement, electrical measuring instruments may be classified
as direct measuring and comparison instruments.

Direct measuring instruments convert the energy of the unknown quantity

directly into energy that deflects the moving element of the instrument, the

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Measurements and Instrumentation

value of the unknown quantity being measured by reading the resulting

deflection. Ammeters, voltmeters wattmeters, fall in this category.
Comparison instruments measure the unknown quantity by comparing it
with a standard that is often contained in the instrument case such as
resistance measuring bridges. Direct measuring instruments are most widely
used in engineering practice since they are the most simple and inexpensive
ones and enable the measurements to be made in the shortest possible time.
Comparison instruments are used in cases when a higher accuracy of
measurement is needed.

Electrical measuring instruments may also be classified according to the kind

of quantity being measured, kind of current for which they are designed, the
principle of operation of the moving system their accuracy class, protection
against the influence of external fields, service conditions, stability against
mechanical effects, field of application, method of installation and mounting,
or shape and size of the instrument cases and the degree of enclosure they
provide.

As regards the kind of quantity that is measured, the electrical measuring

instruments may be classified as below:

Quantity Instrument Quantity Instrument

Current Ammeter Frequency Frequency meter

Voltage Voltmeter Resistance Ohm-meter

Power Wattmeter Inductance Inductance-meter

Energy Kilowatt-hour Capacitance Capacitance meter

meter
Quantity of Ampere-hour meter Phase difference Phase meter or
electricity Power factor meter

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Measurements and Instrumentation

According to the type of current that can be measured electrical measuring

instruments may be classified as instruments for dc, ac or dc and ac
measurements.

MEASUREMENT TERMS
In electrical measurements and instrumentation the knowledge of the terms
and quantities usually used for such purposes is essential. Hence the terms
commonly used in electrical measurements and instrumentation are defined
and explained in a simple form to facilitate easy identification and reference.

1- Signal Terms: In indicating, recording or transmitting devices it is

important to know about the quantity under measurement. The following
terms will help in clarifying this area of measurement.

(i) Measured Variable. A variable is that quantity of characteristic

which is the object of measurement in an instrumentation/control
system. Variable may be measurement variable, instrumentation
variable or process variable.

The physical quantity, property or condition which is to be measured is

referred as the measurand and common measured variable are displacement,
force, speed, pressure, temperature, rate of flow, thickness etc.

The electrical, mechanical, pneumatic, or other variable applied to the input

of a device is the analog of the measured variable produced by a transducer,
when used. For example in a thermo-couple thermo-meter, the measured
signal is an emf which is the electrical analog of the temperature applied to
the thermo-couple.

A measured signal is normally considered the signal produced by the primary

element and applied to the input of the secondary element. However, it is also
possible to consider that the output of the secondary element (usually a

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Measurements and Instrumentation

standard signal such as 20— 100 kpa; 10—50 mA etc.) is another form of
measured signal — sometimes called the transmitted signal

(ii) Input Signal. It is a signal applied to a device, element or

system such as pressure applied to the input connection of a pressure
transmitter.

(iii) Output Signal. It is a signal delivered by a device element or

system.

2- Range-Related Terms. Terms such as range and span are widely used
to describe the region over which a quantity is to be measured. The
following definitions will clarify the relationship between these terms.

(i) Range. The region between the limits within which a quantity
is measured, received or transmitted, expressed by stating the lower
and upper limits, is called the range such as 0 – 50 A, 50 – 500 V, –
20°C – 80°C

(ii) Span. The algebraic difference between the upper and lower
range values is called the span

For example for range 0 to 50 A span is 50 A

for range of –20 °C to 80 °C span is 100 °C

for range of 50V to 500V span is 450 V

(iii) Over Range. Any excess value of the input signal above its
upper range value or below its lower range value is called the over
range of a system or element.

On multi-range instruments it is often necessary to distinguish between the

limits to which the device can be adjusted versus the limits to which the
device is adjusted. The following terms describe the limits in detail.

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Measurements and Instrumentation

(iv) Low Range Limit, The lowest value of quantity that a device
can be adjusted to measure is known as low range limit.

(v) Upper Range Limit. The highest value of the measured variable
that a device can be adjusted to measure is known as upper range limit.

(vi) Lower Range Value. The lowest value of the measured variable
a device is adjusted to measure is called the lower range value.

(vii) Upper Range Value. The highest value of the measured variable
a device is adjusted to measure is called the upper range value.

3- Readability Terms. The fineness by which the measured variable can be

observed depends on a number of factors. The length of the scale and the
number of scale graduations largely influence observer readability.
Obviously a longer scale and a larger number of scale graduations will result
in a more accurate observation. The performance of the measuring
mechanism will also influence observation vacancy. A high degree of
resolution and a small dead band and hysteresis error will improve the
observed indication. The following terms relate the various factors involved
in observation.

(i) Indication Travel. The length of the path covered by the

indicating means or the tip of the pointer in moving from one end of
the scale to the other is called the indication travel. The path may be
an arc or a straight line

(ii) Pen Travel. The length of the path covered by the pen in moving
from one end of the chart scale to the other is called the pen travel.
The path may be an arc or a straight line.

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Measurements and Instrumentation

(iii) Resolution. The least interval between two adjacent discrete

details, which can be distinguished one from the other, is called the
resolution.

(iv) Sensitivity. The ratio of a change in output magnitude to the

change in input which causes it after the steady state has been
reached is called the sensitivity.

4- Accuracy Related Terms-Static. These terms relate to the question

"how good are measurements under steady-state conditions"?

(i) Calibration. It is to ascertain output of a device corresponding to

a series of values of the quantity the device is to measure, receive or
transmit. Dates so obtained are used for (a) determination of location
at which scale graduations are to be placed (b) adjustment of output,
to bring it to the desired value, within a specified tolerance and (c)
ascertaining the error by comparing the device output reading against
a standard

(ii) Accuracy. It is a degree of conformity of an indicated value to a

recognized accepted standard value or ideal value. Conformity may
be conceived as the maximum difference, over the range of the
instrument, between indicated value and the true value under
measurement.

(iii) Error. The algebraic difference between the indicated value and

the true value of the measured signal is called the error.

i.e. error = Indicated value – true value

+ ve error denotes that the indicated value is higher than true value.

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Measurements and Instrumentation

It is helpful to use the word error in this concept only and to describe it as an
instrumental error meaning the difference between the average of a series of
up and down readings, as indicated by the instrument output, and the
corresponding true values of input.

(iv) Zero Error. It is an error of a device operating under the

specified conditions of use when the input is at the lower range-

value. The term zero-shift is often used to represent a change or drift
in zero error with time.

(v) Span Error. The difference between the actual span and the
ideal span is called the span error and it is usually expressed as a
percent of ideal span.

(vi) Correction. The algebraic difference between the true value and

the indicated value of the measured signal is called the correction.

i.e. correction = true value – indicated value

Correction is a quantity which is added algebraically to the indicated value so

as to have true value.

(vii) Hysteresis. It is that property of an element evidenced by the

dependence of the value of the output, for a given excursion of the

input, on the history of prior excursions and the direction of the
current traversed.

It is usually determined by subtracting the value of the dead band from the
maximum measured separation between up-scale going and down-scale
going indications of the measured variable (during a full range traverse,
unless otherwise specified) after transients have decayed. This measurement
is some times called hysteresis error.

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Measurements and Instrumentation

(viii) Dead Band. It is the range through which an input can be varied

without initiating observable response and is usually expressed in

percentage of span.

(ix) Repeatability. The closeness of agreement among a number of

consecutive measurements of the output for the same value of the

input under the same operating conditions, approaching from the
same direction for full range traverses is called the repeatability.

(x) Deviation. It is a departure from a desired or expected value or

pattern and may also be described as the difference between
measured value and true value for a particular input value. The
deviation is given a plus or minus sign, depending on whether the
measured values are above or below the true value.

(xi) Linearity. It is the closeness to which a curve approximates a

straight line. It is usually measured as a non- linearity and expressed

as a linearity. e.g., a maximum deviation between an average curve
and a straight line. The average curve is determined after making two
or more full range traverses in each direction. The value of linearity
is referred to the output unless otherwise specified

The great majority of maximum instruments have a linear scale.

(xii) Independent Linearity. It is the maximum deviation of the

calibration curve (average of up-scale and down-scale readings) from

a straight line so positioned as to minimize the maximum deviation,
as illustrated in fig. 1.1

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Measurements and Instrumentation

Fig. 1.1 Independent Linearity

(xiii) Drift. It is an undesired change in the output-input relationship

over a period of time.

(xiv) Point Drift. It is the change in output over a specified period of

time for a constant input under specified reference operating

conditions.

5- Dynamic Terms. These terms relate to the question, “how good are
measurements under dynamic conditions"?

(i) Damping. The progressive reduction or suppression of oscillation in

a device or system is called the damping.

(ii) Damping Factor. For the free oscillation of a second-order linear

system, a measure of damping expressed (without sign) as the quotient of
the greater by the lesser of a pair of consecutive swings of the output (in
opposite directions) about an ultimate steady state value is called the
F A B
damping factor. In fig. 1.2 damping factor = , , ,
A B C
etc.

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Measurements and Instrumentation

Fig. 1.2

(iii) Noise. It is an unwanted component of a signal or variable which

obscures the information content.

(iv) Signal to Noise Ratio. Ratio of signal amplitude may be peak or rms.
For non-sinusoidal signals, peak values should be used.

(v) Dynamic Response. The behavior of the output of a device as a

function of the input, both with respect to time is called the dynamic
response.

(vi) Ramp Response. The total (transient plus steady-state) time response
resulting from a sudden increase in the rate of change from zero to some
finite value of the input stimulus is called the ramp response.

(vii) Step Response. The total (transient plus steady-state) time response

resulting from a sudden change from one constant level of input to another
is called the step response.

(viii) Step Response Time of a system or an element is the time required

for an output to change from an initial value to a large specified percentage

of the final steady-state value either before or in the absence of overshoot,
as a result of a step change to the input (fig.1.3).

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Measurements and Instrumentation

(ix) Response Time is an output as a function of time, resulting from the

application of a specified input under specified operating conditions (fig.
1.3).

(x) Rise Time. The time required for the output of a system (other than
first order) to make the change from a small specified percentage (say 5 or
10%) of the steady-state increment to a large specified percentage (usually
90 to 95 percent), either before or in the absence of overshoot, is called the
rise time (fig. 1.3).

(xi) Settling Time. The time required, following the initiation of a

specified stimulus to a system, for the output to enter and remain within a
specified narrow band centered on its steady- state value is called the
settling time (fig. 1.3).

(xii) Limit. Velocity is a limit which the rate of change of a specified

variable can not exceed.

Fig. 1.3

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Measurements and Instrumentation

INSTRUMENTATION IN AUTOMATION
after The instrumentation system plays an important role in automation. An
automatic control error system (or automation) requires a comparator (or an
error detector), which measures the difference between the actual and desired
performance and actuates the control elements.

General block diagram of an automatic control system is shown in fig. 1.4.

An error detector (or a comparator) compares a signal obtained through feed
back elements, which is a function of the output response, with the reference
input.

Fig. 1.4 General Block Diagram of An Automatic Control System

Any difference between these two signals constitutes an error or actuating

signal, which actuates the control elements. The control elements in turn alter
the conditions in the plant (controlled member) in such a manner that the
original difference or error is reduced

There are numerous examples of this type of application. A common one is

the typical simple tank level control system shown in fig. 1.5. With this
control system liquid level (controlled output) in the tank can be maintained

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Measurements and Instrumentation

with in accurate tolerance of the desired level of liquid even though the
output flow rate through the value Vi is varied. The float (feed back path
element) senses the liquid level and positions the slider arm B on a
potentiometer. The slider arm A of another potentiometer is positioned
corresponding to the desired liquid level h (the reference input). When the
liquid level rises or falls, the potentiometers (error detector) give an error
voltage (error or actuating signal) proportional to the change in liquid level.
The error voltage actuates the motor through a power amplifier (control
elements) which in turn conditions the plant (i.e. decreases or increases the
opening of the valve V2) in order to restore the desired liquid level Thus the
control system automatically attempts to correct any deviation between the
actual and desired liquid levels in the tank.

Fig. 1.5 Automatic Tank-Level Control System

ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

It is very important to have a systematic organization and analysis of
instrumentation. An instrument may be defined as a machine or system which

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Measurements and Instrumentation

is designed to maintain functional relationships between prescribed properties

of physical variables and should include means of communication to a human
observer. The functional relationship maintenance is mainly associated with
constancy of static calibration, although the performance of a measurement
system can be defined in terms of static and dynamic characteristics.

It is possible and desirable to describe the operation of a measuring

instrument or a system in a generalized way without involving intricate
details of the physical aspects of a specific instrument or a system.

The operation of a measurement system can be explained in terms of the

functional elements of the system. One can generalize a measurement system
into such elements and an example of it is shown in fig. 1.6. Every
instrument and measurement system is composed of one or more of these
functional elements and each functional element is made of a distinct
components or groups of components which perform required and definite
steps in measurement.

1. Primary Sensing Element. The physical quantity under measurement,

called the measurand, makes its first contact with the primary sensing
element of a measuring system. The measurand is always disturbed by the act
of measurement, but good instruments are designed to minimize this effect.
Primary sensing elements may have a non-electrical input and output such as
a spring, manometer or may have an electrical input and output such as a
rectifier. In case the primary sensing element has a non-electrical input and
output, then it is converted into an electrical signal by means of a transducer.
The transducer is defined as a device, which when actuated by one form of
energy, is capable of converting it into another form of energy.

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Measurements and Instrumentation

Many a times certain operations are to be performed on the signal before its
further transmission so that interfering sources are removed so that the signal
may not get distorted. The process may be linear such as amplification,
attenuation, integration, differentiation, addition and subtraction or non-linear
such as modulation , detection, sampling filtering, chopping and clipping etc.
The process is called the signal conditioning. So signal conditioner follows
the primary sensing element or transducer, as the case may be.

Fig. 1.6 Functional Elements of An Instrumentation System

2. Variable Conversion Element Now the output, which is in the form of

electrical signal (voltage or current, frequency or some other electrical
parameter), may or may not suit to the system. For the instrument to perform
the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this output to some other
suitable form while retaining the information content of the original signal.
For example if output is in analog form and the next stage of the system
accepts the input only in digital form, then analog digital converter will be
required. Many instruments do not require any variable conversion element,
white others require more than one element.

3. Variable Manipulation Element. The function of variable manipulation

element, as the name indicates, is to manipulate the signal presented to it

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Measurements and Instrumentation

while preserving the original nature of the signal. For example, an electronic
amplifier converts a small low voltage input signal into high voltage output
signal. Thus voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element. It is
not necessary that this element follows the variable conversion element, as
shown in fig. 1.6. In many cases it may precede the variable conversion
element.

When the elements of an instrument are to be physically separated out, it

becomes necessary to transmit data from one to another. The element
performing this function is called the data transmission element. For example
space crafts are physically separated from the earth where the control stations
guiding their movement are located.

4. Data Presentation Element information regarding measurand (quantity

to be measured) is to be conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or
the system for monitoring, controlling or analysis purpose. The information
conveyed must be in a form intelligible to the personnel. Such devices (read
out or display) may be in analog or digital format. The simplest form of a
display device is the common panel meter with some kind of calibrated scale
and pointer. In case, the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tape
may be used. For control and analysis purpose computers may be used.

The final stage in a measuring system is called the terminating stage. In case
a control device is to be employed for final measurement stage, then it
becomes necessary to apply some feed back to the input signal to accomplish
the control objectives.

TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM

A typical instrumentation system consists of the following operations:

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Measurements and Instrumentation

1. Monitoring Of Processes And Operations. One of the most important

function of an instrumentation system is monitoring of process or operation.
It simply indicates the value or condition of the parameter under study in the
process. For example, an ammeter or a frequency meter indicates the value of
current or frequency, under measurement or monitoring, at a particular
instant. Likewise the energy meter, installed in a house, keeps the track of
electrical energy used by the consumer for billing purposes.

2. Control Of Processes And Operations. in order to control the process

and operation variable like current, voltage, power, temperature, pressure,
humidity etc., these quantities are required to be measured at appropriate
points in the individual plant. These are compared with the reference or
desired signal and the error signal is amplified to operate the actuator in
controlling the process, as shown in fig. 1.7. The corrective action goes on till
the output under control is at the same level as that of desired output. At this
stage, there is no error signal and, therefore, there is no input to the actuator
and the actuator stops working. For example in a refrigeration system, the
temperature measuring device (usually a bimetallic strip) senses the room
temperature and thus provides the information necessary for proper
functioning of the control system. The process continues as long as the room
temperature remains more than desired one.

3. Engineering Analysis. Many engineering applications are required to be

analyzed theoretically as well as experimentally. Experimentally engineering
analysis have many uses and some of them are listed below:

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Measurements and Instrumentation

Fig. 1.7

1- Testing of validity of theoretical predictions

2- Determination of system parameters, variables and

performance indices.

3- Development of mathematical model.

4- Formulations of generalized empirical relationship in

cases where no proper theoretical backing exists

5- Doing research and development in the processes

Analog and Digital Sensors
Analog sensors provide a signal that is continuous in both its magnitude and
its temporal (time) or spatial (space) content. The defining word for analog is
continuous.” If a sensor provides a continuous output signal that is directly
proportional to the input signal, then it is analog. Most physical variables,
such as current, temperature, displacement, acceleration, speed, pressure,
light intensity, and strain, tend to be continuous in nature and are readily
measured by an analog sensor and represented by an analog signal. For
example, the temperature within a room can take on any value within its
range, will vary in a continuous manner in between any two points in the

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Measurements and Instrumentation

room, and may vary continuously with time at any position within the room.
An analog sensor, such as a bulb thermometer or a thermocouple, will
continuously respond to such temperature changes. Such a continuous signal
is shown in Fig. 1.8, where the signal magnitude is analogous to the
measured variable (temperature) and the signal is continuous in both
magnitude and time.
Digital sensors provide a signal that is a direct digital representation of the
measurand. Digital sensors are basically binary (“on” or “off ”) devices.
Essentially, a digital signal exists at only discrete values of time (or space).
And within that discrete period, the signal can represent only a discrete
number of magnitude values. A common variation is the discrete sampled
signal representation, which represents a sensor output in a form that is
discrete both in time or space and in magnitude.

Fig. 1.8: A thermocouple provides an analog signal for

processing.

Digital sensors use some variation of a binary numbering system to represent

and transmit the signal information in digital form. A binary numbering
system is a number system using the base 2. The simplest binary signal is a
single bit that has only one of two possible values, a 1 or a 0. Bits are like
electrical “on-off ” switches and are used to convey logical and numerical
information. With appropriate input, the value of the bit transmitted is reset
corresponding to the behavior of the measured variable. A digital sensor that
transmits information one bit at a time uses serial transmission. By
combining bits or transmitting bits in groups, it is also possible to define
logical commands or integer numbers beyond a 0 or 1. A digital sensor that
transmits bits in groups uses parallel transmission. With any digital device,
an M -bit signal can express 2M different numbers. This also provides the

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limit for the different values that a digital device can discern. For example, a
2-bit device can express 22 or 4 different numbers, 00, 01, 10, and 11,
corresponding to the values of 0, 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Thus, the
resolution in a magnitude discerned by a digital sensor is inherently limited to
1 part in 2M.

Fig. 1.9: A rotating shaft with a revolution counter

produces a digital signal.

The concept of a digital sensor is illustrated by the revolution counter in Fig.

1.9. Such devices are widely used to sense the revolutions per minute of a
rotating shaft. In this example, the sensor is a magnetic pick-up/voltage
converter that outputs a pulse with each pass of a magnetic stud mounted to a
hub on the rotating shaft. The output from the pick-up normally is “off ” but
is momentarily turned “on” by the passing stud. This pulse is a voltage spike
sent to a digital register whose value is increased by a single count with each
spike. The register can send the information to an output device, such as the
digital display shown. The output from the sensor can be viewed in terms of
voltage spikes with time.
The count rate is related to the rotational speed of the shaft. As seen, the
signal is discrete in time. A single stud with pick-up will increase the count
by one for each full rotation of the shaft. Fractions of a rotation can be
resolved by increasing the number of studs on the hub. In this example, the
continuous rotation of the shaft is analog but the revolution count is digital.
The amplitude of the voltage spike is set to activate the counter and is not
related to the shaft rotational speed.

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Measurements and Instrumentation

Sensor Performance Characteristics Definitions

The following are some of the more important sensor characteristics:
Transfer Function The transfer function shows the functional relationship
between physical input signal and electrical output signal. Usually, this
relationship is represented as a graph showing the relationship between the
input and output signal, and the details of this relationship may constitute a
complete description of the sensor characteristics. For expensive sensors that
are individually calibrated, this might take the form of the certified
calibration curve.
Sensitivity The sensitivity is defined in terms of the relationship between
input physical signal and output electrical signal. It is generally the ratio
between a small change in electrical signal to a small change in physical
signal. As such, it may be expressed as the derivative of the transfer function
with respect to physical signal. Typical units are volts/kelvin,
millivolts/kilopascal, etc.. A thermometer would have “high sensitivity” if a
small temperature change resulted in a large voltage change.
Span or Dynamic Range The range of input physical signals that may be
converted to electrical signals by the sensor is the dynamic range or span.
Signals outside of this range are expected to cause unacceptably large
inaccuracy. This span or dynamic range is usually specified by the sensor
supplier as the range over which other performance characteristics described
in the data sheets are expected to apply. Typical units are kelvin, pascal,
newtons, etc.
Accuracy or Uncertainty: Uncertainty is generally defined as the largest
expected error between actual and ideal output signals. Typical units are
kelvin. Sometimes this is quoted as a fraction of the full-scale output or a
fraction of the reading. For example, a thermometer might be guaranteed
accurate to within 5% of FSO (Full Scale Output). “Accuracy” is generally
considered by metrologists to be a qualitative term, while “uncertainty” is
quantitative. For example one sensor might have better accuracy than another
if its uncertainty is 1% compared to the other with an uncertainty of 3%.

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Hysteresis Some sensors do not return to the same output value when the
input stimulus is cycled up or down. The width of the expected error in terms
of the measured quantity is defined as the hysteresis. Typical units are kelvin
or percent of FSO.
Nonlinearity (often called Linearity) The maximum deviation from a linear
transfer function over the specified dynamic range. There are several
measures of this error. The most common compares the actual transfer
function with the “best straight line,” which lies midway between the two
parallel lines that encompass the entire transfer function over the specified
dynamic range of the device. This choice of comparison method is popular
because it makes most sensors look the best. Other reference lines may be
used, so the user should be careful to compare using the same reference.
Noise All sensors produce some output noise in addition to the output signal.
In some cases, the noise of the sensor is less than the noise of the next
element in the electronics, or less than the fluctuations in the physical signal,
in which case it is not important. Many other cases exist in which the noise of
the sensor limits the performance of the system based on the sensor. Noise is
generally distributed across the frequency spectrum. Many common noise
sources produce a white noise distribution, which is to say that the spectral
noise density is the same at all frequencies. Johnson noise in a resistor is a
good example of such a noise distribution. For white noise, the spectral noise
density is characterized in units of volts/Root (Hz). A distribution of this
nature adds noise to a measurement with amplitude proportional to the square
root of the measurement bandwidth. Since there is an inverse relationship
between the bandwidth and measurement time, it can be said that the noise
decreases with the square root of the measurement time.
Resolution The resolution of a sensor is defined as the minimum detectable
signal fluctuation. Since fluctuations are temporal phenomena, there is some
relationship between the timescale for the fluctuation and the minimum
detectable amplitude. Therefore, the definition of resolution must include
some information about the nature of the measurement being carried out.
Many sensors are limited by noise with a white spectral distribution. In these

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cases, the resolution may be specified in units of physical signal/root (Hz).

Then, the actual resolution for a particular measurement may be obtained by
multiplying this quantity by the square root of the measurement bandwidth.
Sensor data sheets generally quote resolution in units of signal/root (Hz) or
they give a minimum detectable signal for a specific measurement. If the
shape of the noise distribution is also specified, it is possible to generalize
these results to any measurement.
Bandwidth All sensors have finite response times to an instantaneous change
in physical signal. In addition, many sensors have decay times, which would
represent the time after a step change in physical signal for the sensor output
to decay to its original value. The reciprocal of these times correspond to the
upper and lower cutoff frequencies, respectively. The bandwidth of a sensor
is the frequency range between these two frequencies.
Sensor Performance Characteristics of an Example Device
To add substance to these definitions, we will identify the numerical values
of these parameters for an off-the-shelf accelerometer, Analog Devices’s
ADXL150.
Transfer Function The functional relationship between voltage and
acceleration is stated as

This expression may be used to predict the behavior of the sensor, and
contains information about the sensitivity and the offset at the output of the
sensor.
Sensitivity The sensitivity of the sensor is given by the derivative of the
voltage with respect to acceleration at the initial operating point. For this
device, the sensitivity is 167 mV/g.
Dynamic Range The stated dynamic range for the ADXL322 is ±2g. For
signals outside this range, the signal will continue to rise or fall, but the

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sensitivity is not guaranteed to match 167 mV/g by the manufacturer. The

sensor can withstand up to 3500g.
Hysteresis There is no fundamental source of hysteresis in this device. There
is no mention of hysteresis in the data sheets.
Temperature Coefficient The sensitivity changes with temperature in this
sensor, and this change is guaranteed to be less than 0.025%/C. The offset
voltage for no acceleration (nominally 1.5 V) also changes by as much as 2
mg/C. Expressed in voltage, this offset change is no larger than 0.3 mV/C.
Linearity In this case, the linearity is the difference between the actual
transfer function and the best straight line over the specified operating range.
For this device, this is stated as less than 0.2% of the full-scale output. The
data sheets show the expected deviation from linearity.
Noise Noise is expressed as a noise density and is no more than 300
microg/root Hz. To express this in voltage, we multiply by the sensitivity
(167 mV/g) to get 0.5 microV/Rt Hz. Then, in a 10 Hz low-pass-filtered
application, we’d have noise of about 1.5 microV RMS, and an acceleration
error of about 1 milli g.
Resolution Resolution is 300 microG/RtHz as stated in the data sheet.
Bandwidth The bandwidth of this sensor depends on choices of external
capacitors and resistors.

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