PLATO: THE REPUBLIC

BOOK 1

Socrates points out that the shepherd’s concern for his sheep is different from his concern to make money,
which is extraneous to the art (345c) and that no power or art provides what is beneficial to itself (346e).
Socrates claims that the best rulers are reluctant to rule but do so out of necessity: they do not wish to be
ruled by someone inferior (347a-c).

Socrates offers three argument in favor of the just life over the unjust life: (i) the just man is wise and good,
and the unjust man is ignorant and bad (349b); (ii) injustice produces internal disharmony which prevents
effective actions (351b); (iii) virtue is excellence at a thing’s function and the just person lives a happier life
than the unjust person, since he performs the various functions of the human soul well (352d).

BOOK II

Socrates is asked to defend justice for itself, not for the reputation it allows for (367b). He proposes to look
for justice in the city first and then to proceed by analogy to find justice in the individual (368c-369a). This
approach will allow for a clearer judgment on the question of whether the just person is happier than the
unjust person. Socrates begins by discussing the origins of political life and constructs a just city in speech
that satisfies only basic human necessities (369b-372c). Socrates argues that humans enter political life since
each is not self-sufficient by nature. Each human has certain natural abilities (370a) and doing only the single
job one is naturally suited for, is the most efficient way to satisfy the needs of all the citizens (370c). Glaucon
objects that Socrates’ city is too simple and calls it “a city of pigs” (372d). Socrates describes a city that
allows for luxuries (“a feverish city,” 372e-373e). Socrates points out that the luxurious city will require an
army to guard the city (373e). The army will be composed of professional soldiers, the guardians, who, like
dogs, must be gentle to fellow citizens and harsh to enemies (375c). The guardians need to be educated very
carefully to be able to do their job of protecting the city’s citizens, laws, and customs well (376d). Poetry and
stories need to be censored to guarantee such an education (377b). Poetry should: (i) present the gods as
good and only as causes of good (379a); (ii) as unchanging in form (380d); (iii) as beings who refrain from
lies and deception (381e).

BOOK III

Socrates begins to describe how the rulers of the just city are to be selected from the class of the guardians:
they need to be older, strong, wise, and wholly unwilling to do anything other than what is advantageous to
the city (412b-414b). Socrates suggests that they need to tell the citizens a myth that should be believed by
subsequent generations in order for everyone to accept his position in the city (414b-415d). The myth of
metals portrays each human as having a precious metal in them: those naturally suited to be rulers have gold,
those suited to be guardians have silver, and those suited for farming and the other crafts have bronze.

BOOK IV

Justice will be what remains once they find the other three virtues in it, namely wisdom, courage, and
moderation (428a). The wisdom of the just city is found in its rulers and it is the type of knowledge that
allows them to rule the city well (428b-d). The courage of the just city is found in its military and it is correct
and lawful belief about what to fear and what not to fear (429a-430b). The city’s moderation or self-discipline
is its unanimity in following the just city’s structure in terms of who should rule and who should be ruled
(430d-432a). The city’s justice consists in each class performing its proper function

Socrates then proceeds to find the corresponding four virtues in the individual (434d). Socrates defends the
analogy of the city and the individual (435a-b) and proceeds to distinguish three analogous parts in the soul
with their natural functions (436b). By using instances of psychological conflict, he distinguishes the function
of the rational part from that of the appetitive part of the soul (439a). Then he distinguishes the function of
the spirited part from the functions of the two other parts (439e-440e). The function of the rational part is
thinking, that of the spirited part the experience of emotions, and that of the appetitive part the pursuit of
bodily desires. Socrates explains the virtues of the individual’s soul and how they correspond to the virtues of
the city (441c-442d). Socrates points out that one is just when each of the three parts of the soul performs its
function (442d). Justice is a natural balance of the soul’s parts and injustice is an imbalance of the parts of
the soul (444e).

Book V

Socrates begins with the suggestion that the guardian women should perform the same job as the male
guardians (451c-d). Some may follow convention and object that women should be given different jobs
because they differ from men by nature (453a-c). Socrates responds by indicating that the natural differences
between men and women are not relevant when it comes to the jobs of protecting and ruling the city.
Socrates also proposes that there should be no separate families among the members of the guardian class:
the guardians will possess all the women and children in common

In order to guarantee that the best guardian men have sex with the best guardian women, the city will have
marriage festivals supported by a rigged lottery system (459e-460a). The best guardian men will also be
allowed to have sex with as many women as they desire in order to increase the likelihood of giving birth to
children with similar natures (460a-b). Once born, the children will be taken away to a rearing pen to be
taken care of by nurses and the parents will not be allowed to know who their own children are (460c-d). This
is so that the parents think of all the children as their own. Socrates recognizes that this system will result in
members of the same family having intercourse with each other (461c-e).

Socrates proceeds to argue that these arrangements will ensure that unity spreads throughout the city (462a-
465d).

Socrates claims that the model of the just city cannot come into being until philosophers rule as kings or kings
become philosophers (473c-d). He also points out that this is the only possible route by which to reach
complete happiness in both public and private life (473e). Socrates indicates that they to, discuss philosophy
and philosophers to justify these claims (474b-c). Philosophers love and pursue all of wisdom (475b-c) and
they especially love the sight of truth (475e). Philosophers are the only ones who recognize and find pleasure
in what is behind the multiplicity of appearances, namely the single Form (476a-b). Socrates distinguishes
between those who know the single Forms that are and those who have opinions (476d). Those who have
opinions do not know, since opinions have becoming and changing appearances as their object, whereas
knowledge implies that the objects thereof are stable (476e-477e).

BOOK VI

Socrates goes on to explain why philosophers should rule the city. They should do so since they are better
able to know the truth and since they have the relevant practical knowledge by which to rule. The
philosopher’s natural abilities and virtues prove that they have what is necessary to rule well: they love
what is rather than what becomes (485a-b), they hate falsehood (485c), they are moderate (485d-e), they are
courageous (486a-b), they are quick learners (486c), they have a good memory (486c-d), they like proportion
since the truth is like it, and they have a pleasant nature (486d-487a).

Socrates then addresses the question of how philosophy can come to play an important role in existing cities
(497e). Those with philosophical natures need to practice philosophy all their lives, especially when they are
older (498a-c). The only way to make sure that philosophy is properly appreciated and does not meet hostility
is to wipe an existing city clean and begin it anew (501a). Socrates concludes that the just city and the
measures proposed are both for the best and not impossible to bring about (502c).

Socrates proceeds to discuss the education of philosopher kings (502c-d).

The most important thing philosophers should study is the Form of the Good (505a). Socrates considers
several candidates for what the Good is, such as pleasure and knowledge and he rejects them (505b-d). He
points out that we choose everything with a view to the good (505e). Socrates attempts to explain what the
Form of the Good is through the analogy of the sun (507c-509d). As the sun illuminates objects so the eye
can see them, the Form of the Good renders the objects of knowledge knowable to the human soul. As the
sun provides things with their ability to be, to grow, and with nourishment, the Form of the Good provides the
objects of knowledge with their being even though it itself is higher than being (509b).

Socrates offers the analogy of the divided line to explain the Form of the Good even further (509d-511d). He
divides a line into two unequal sections once and then into two unequal sections again. The lowest two parts
represent the visible realm and the top two parts the intelligible realm. In the first of the four sections of the
line, Socrates places images/shadows, in the second section visible objects, in the third section truths arrived
at via hypotheses as mathematicians do, and in the last section the Forms themselves. Corresponding to each
of these, there is a capacity of the human soul: imagination, belief, thought, and understanding.

BOOK VII
Socrates continues his discussion of the philosopher and the Forms with a third analogy, the analogy of the
cave (514a-517c). This represents the philosopher’s education from ignorance to knowledge of the Forms.
True education is the turning around of the soul from shadows and visible objects to true understanding of the
Forms (518c-d). Philosophers who accomplish this understanding will be reluctant to do anything other than
contemplate the Forms but they must be forced to return to the cave (the city) and rule it.
BOOK VIII

The cause of change in regime is lack of unity in the rulers (545d). Assuming that the just city could come
into being, Socrates indicates that it would eventually change since everything which comes into being must
decay (546a-b). The rulers are bound to make mistakes in assigning people jobs suited to their natural
capacities and each of the classes will begin to be mixed with people who are not naturally suited for the tasks
relevant to each class (546e). This will lead to class conflicts (547a).

The first deviant regime from just kingship or aristocracy will be timocracy, that emphasizes the pursuit of
honor rather than wisdom and justice (547d ff.). The timocratic individual will have a strong spirited part in
his soul and will pursue honor, power, and success (549a). This city will be militaristic.

Oligarchy arises out of timocracy and it emphasizes wealth rather than honor (550c-e). Socrates discusses
how it arises out of timocracy and its characteristics (551c-552e): people will pursue wealth; it will essentially
be two cities, a city of wealthy citizens and a city of poor people; the few wealthy will fear the many poor;
people will do various jobs simultaneously; the city will allow for poor people without means; it will have a
high crime rate. The oligarchic individual comes by seeing his father lose his possessions and feeling insecure
he begins to greedily pursue wealth (553a-c). Thus he allows his appetitive part to become a more dominant
part of his soul (553c). The oligarchic individual’s soul is at middle point between the spirited and the
appetitive part.

Socrates proceeds penultimately, to discuss democracy. It comes about when the rich become too rich and
the poor too poor (555c-d). Too much luxury makes the oligarchs soft and the poor revolt against them
(556c-e). In democracy most of the political offices are distributed by lot (557a). The primary goal of the
democratic regime is freedom or license (557b-c).

The democratic individual comes to pursue all sorts of bodily desires excessively (558d-559d) and allows his
appetitive part to rule his soul. He comes about when his bad education allows him to transition from desiring
money to desiring bodily and material goods (559d-e). The democratic individual has no shame and no self-
discipline (560d).

Tyranny arises out of democracy when the desire for freedom to do what one wants becomes extreme (562b-
c). The freedom or license aimed at in the democracy becomes so extreme that any limitations on anyone’s
freedom seem unfair. Socrates points out that when freedom is taken to such an extreme it produces its
opposite, slavery (563e-564a). The tyrant comes about by presenting himself as a champion of the people
against the class of the few people who are wealthy (565d-566a). The tyrant is forced to commit a number of
acts to gain and retain power: accuse people falsely, attack his kinsmen, bring people to trial under false
pretenses, kill many people, exile many people, and purport to cancel the debts of the poor to gain their
support (565e-566a). The tyrant eliminates the rich, brave, and wise people in the city since he perceives
them as threats to his power (567c). Socrates indicates that the tyrant faces the dilemma to either live with
worthless people or with good people who may eventually depose him and chooses to live with worthless
people (567d). The tyrant ends up using mercenaries as his guards since he cannot trust any of the citizens
(567d-e). The tyrant also needs a very large army and will spend the city’s money (568d-e), and will not
hesitate to kill members of his own family if they resist his ways (569b-c).

BOOK IX
Socrates is now ready to discuss the tyrannical individual (571a). The tyrannical individual comes out of the
democratic individual when the latter’s unnecessary desires and pleasures become extreme; when he becomes
full of Eros or lust (572c-573b). The tyrannical person is mad with lust (573c) and this leads him to seek any
means by which to satisfy his desires and to resist anyone who gets in his way (573d-574d). Tyrants
associate themselves with flatterers and are incapable of friendship (575e-576a). Applying the analogy of the
city and the soul, Socrates proceeds to argue that the tyrannical individual is the most unhappy individual
(576c ff.). Like the tyrannical city, the tyrannical individual is enslaved (577c-d), least likely to do what he
wants (577d-e), poor and unsatisfiable (579e-578a), fearful and full of wailing and lamenting (578a). The
individual who becomes an actual tyrant of a city is the unhappiest of all (578b-580a). Socrates concludes this
first argument with a ranking of the individuals in terms of happiness: the more just one is the happier (580b-
c).

He proceeds to a second proof that the just are happier than the unjust (580d). Socrates distinguishes three
types of persons: one who pursues wisdom, another who pursues honor, and another who pursues profit
(579d-581c).

The only truly fulfilling pleasure is that which comes from understanding since the objects it pursues are
permanent (585b-c). Socrates adds that only if the rational part rules the soul, will each part of the soul find
its proper pleasure (586d-587a). He concludes the argument with a calculation of how many times the best
life is more pleasant than the worst: seven-hundred and twenty nine

BOOK X

Thereafter, Socrates returns to the subject of poetry and claims that the measures introduced to exclude
imitative poetry from the just city seem clearly justified now (595a). Poetry is to be censored since the poets
may not know which is; thus may lead the soul astray (595b). Socrates proceeds to discuss imitation. He
explains what it is by distinguishing several levels of imitation through the example of a couch: there is the
Form of the couch, the particular couch, and a painting of a couch (596a-598b). The products of imitation are
far removed from the truth (597e-598c). Poets, like painters are imitators who produce imitations without
knowledge of the truth (598e-599a). Socrates argues that if poets had knowledge of the truth they would
want to be people who do great things rather than remain poets (599b). Socrates doubts the poet’s capacity
to teach virtue since he only imitates images of it (599c-601a). The poet’s knowledge is inferior to that of the
maker of other products and the maker’s knowledge is inferior to that of the user’s (601c-602b).

Now Socrates considers how imitators affect their audiences (602c). He uses a comparison with optical
illusions (602c) to argue that imitative poetry causes the parts of the soul to be at war with each other and
this leads to injustice (603c-605b). The most serious charge against imitative poetry is that it even corrupts
decent people (605c). He concludes that the just city should not allow such poetry in it but only poetry that
praises the gods and good humans (606e-607a). Imitative poetry prevents the immortal soul from attaining
its greatest reward (608c-d).

Glaucon wonders if the soul is immortal and Socrates launches into an argument proving its immortality:
things that are destroyed, are destroyed by their own evil; the body’s evil is disease and this can destroy it;
the soul’s evils are ignorance, injustice and the other vices but these do not destroy the soul; thus, the soul is
immortal (608d-611a). Socrates points out that we cannot understand the nature of the soul if we only
consider its relation to the body as the present discussion has (611b-d).

Socrates finally describes the rewards of justice by first having Glaucon allow that he can discuss the rewards
of reputation for justice (612b-d). Glaucon allows this since Socrates has already defended justice by itself in
the soul. Socrates indicates justice and injustice do not escape the notice of the gods, that the gods love the
just and hate the unjust, and that good things come to those whom the gods love (612e-613a). Socrates lists
various rewards for the just and punishments for the unjust in this life (613a-e). He proceeds to tell the Myth
of Er that is supposed to illustrate reward and punishment in the afterlife (614b). The souls of the dead go up
through an opening on the right if they were just, or below through an opening on the left if they were unjust
(614d). The various souls discuss their rewards and punishments (614e-615a). Socrates explains the
multiples by which people are punished and rewarded (615a-b). The souls of the dead are able to choose
their next lives (617d) and then they are reincarnated (620e). Socrates ends the discussion by prompting
Glaucon and the others to do well both in this life and in the afterlife (621c-d).