Structure of Nucleus

Gokaran Shukla
School of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
(Dated: August 5, 2018)

Atom have stationary orbits. Our present understanding regarding the structure of atom is mostly
dependent upon the Rutherford’ gold foil alpha particle scattering experiment. presently we know
that nucleus made of proton and neutron and it occupies only very few fraction of volume of whole
atom, while electron revolves around the nucleus. However, this is the not the whole story about the
nucleus. Our present understanding about nucleons is that proton and neutrons are bind together
and stay like lump ball in very small volume at the center of the atom. In this paper we will show
that our understanding about nucleons are incomplete. We will show that nucleons are not only
revolves around the singular -point in their well define stationary orbit but also rotates anti-clockwise
(proton) and clockwise (neutron). Also, nucleons make transition as electron do after absorbing the
energy. We will also show that filling of stationary orbit in nucleus follows Hund’s rule.

PACS numbers:

I. INTRODUCTION square lattice crystal structures. Do not put anything

(do not put any mass) on the lattice points. Construct
1
Atom has stationary orbit. Neil Bohr in 1913 uses sta- the full Brillouin zones using the Brillouin zones construc-
tionary orbit concept and explain the various quantum tion rules. One such Brillouin zone has shown in figure
mechanical phenomenon that arises in hydrogen atom. 1. If one look closely the 2d-square lattice (see in Figure
In this paper we will discuss about the origin of station- 1), then one realize that mass can only appear at those
ary orbit using Max Planck black-body idea. Max Planck points where more than one Bragg’s planes intersect. In
uses black body vibrations along the three principal di- 2d- square lattice case, at lattice point more than Bragg’s
rections (X, Y, Z) and explained the experimental data plane intersects. In-fact the number of Bragg’s planes
of solar spectrum. His idea revolves around the different which intersect at the lattice point form a sequence. Since
mode of vibrations of a black body along the three prin- square has four corner therefore sequence can be gener-
cipal directions (X, Y, Z) in real space or kx , κy , kz ated as; 1, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48
direction in inverse k-space. We will use his idea in our .... Now subtract 1 from each elements. Then the se-
stationary orbit discussion. We will use one statement quence forms as; 0, 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, 31, 35, 39, 43,
that emptiness (space) is everywhere. It is connected (in 47.... These sequence elements are the number of Bragg’s
mathematical sense) and infinitely elastic. plane intersection at the lattice points. So in square lat-
tice mass only appear at those points where these num-
ber of Bragg’s plane intersect. If one see figure 1 closely
II. ORIGIN OF MASS
, then one notice that there are the some points (just

To understand the origin of mass, we will use crys- after the first Brillouin zones) where 3 Bragg’s planes in-

tal structures, full Brillouin zones constructions and tersects but mass does not appear. These points in-fact

Bragg’s diffraction conditions. For simplicity we will use fall on the mid point of face diagonal in 2d-square lat-

2d-square-lattice, and 2d-hexagonal-lattice. Take a 2d tice. It seems to the author that these are the exceptional
 2

point(this will become clear in 2d-hexagonal lattice).

Now let see the 2d-hexagonal lattice (see in Figure 2). If
one see closely the 2d-hexagonal lattice then one notice
that at lattice points more than Bragg’s plane intersect
and it form a sequence. The sequence can be generated
as follows;
Since hexagonal has 6 corner therefore sequence goes like
1, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, 66, 72,... Now
subtract 1 from each elements, then sequence goes; 0, 5,
11, 17, 23, 29, 35, 41, 47, 53, 59, 67, 71...... These are the
number of Bragg’s planes which intersect at the lattice
points where mass appear. We do not have the full visu-
alization of 3d lattice in k-space with number of Bragg’s
planes intersections, but we are very confident that sim-
FIG. 1: 2-d Brillouin zones of a square lattice2 .
ilar sequence can be generated for 3d lattice using some
software-package. What we can conclude with our discus-
sion is that mass only appear at the nodal-point in space
vibrations. The vibration of k-space along the lattice
points (or along the principal directions) form the band
structure in solids. This vibration is exactly the same
as the Max Planck black body cube vibration along the
three principal directions. What we can further conclude
with our discussion is that mass only exist at the nodal
point of space vibration and locus of nodal points form
the stationary orbit (we will discuss it in next section).
Since crystal lattices are translational invariant due to
the infinite extension of identical lattice points in space,
we are concluding that the space is infinite.

FIG. 2: 2-d Brillouin zones of a hexagonal lattice2 .

III. ORIGIN OF STATIONARY ORBIT IN
ATOM
tion (middle-one) always overlap with the 2 × n mode of
Take a space of length L. Vibrates it with different vibrations. Where n is a positive integer greater than or
modes of vibrations as shown in figure 4. If one see 2nd equal to one. Since space is isotropic and homogeneous,
mode, 4th mode, and 6th mode of vibrations then one will therefore, one can rotates this linear vibration (assume
notice that node point of second mode of vibration over- this vibration in z − x-plane) around the z-axis. Now
th
lap with one node point of 4 mode and one node point the middle node-point (N ) of the 2nd mode of vibration
of 6th mode vibrations (except the end point). One will form the locus around the z-axis. The locus of N (N
nd
further notice that the node point of 2 mode of vibra- from the 2nd mode of vibration, see in figure 4) form
 3

the stationary orbit. Similarly, the right end point (de- z-axis. Now lets take the helium atom. Helium has two
noted by “Nodes”) will also form the stationary orbit. electron, two neutron and two proton. Put one proton in
The left end “Nodes” point fall on the z-axis itself. Thus a first stationary orbit generated in the left space denoted
the two stationary orbit generated. Stationary orbit has by “N”. Revolves this particle around the extreme z-axis
the property that “node” should always remain station- as anticlockwise. Put one neutron in a stationary orbit
ary even in the higher mode of vibration. This put fur- generated by the another nodal point “N” . Revolves this
ther restriction on mode of space vibrations. Space can neutron clockwise around the extreme left z-axis. Now
only vibrates with 2n loop, where n is a positive integer put second proton in a third stationary orbit generated in
greater than or equal to one. And thus stationary orbit the left space by “N” in figure 4. Revolves this proton in
originate in nature. In our previous section “origin of anticlockwise around the extreme left z-axis. Put second
mass”, we have discussed that the mass only appear at neutron in the stationary orbit generated between the
the nodal point (lattice-point) in space-vibration (more left and right space. Revolves this neutron in clockwise
than one Bragg’s plane will intersect at this point), there- around the extreme left z-axis. Now put first electron
fore mass can also appear in these stationary orbit. Now into the 5th stationary orbit generated in right space by
lets take the hydrogen atom example. Hydrogen have nodal point “N”. Revolves this electron in anti-clockwise
one proton and one electron. Now put one proton in a around the extreme left z-axis. Put second electron in the
stationary orbit generated by the nodal point “N” (see 6th stationary orbit generated in right space by the nodal
in Figure 4 2nd mode of vibration). Put electron in an- point “N”. Revolves this electron in clockwise around the
other stationary orbit which generated by extreme right extreme left z-axis. Thus helium nucleons and electrons
point denoted by “Nodes” in figure 4. Proton and elec- configuration completed. What we see that both pro-
tron revolves around the left z-axis in their respective tons and electrons revolves in their respective stationary
stationary orbits and generates net angular momentum. orbits around the extreme left z-axis. Always, proton
Since hydrogen system has net angular momentum and revolves anticlockwise whereas neutron revolves clockwise
it point along the z-axis, therefore, hydrogen shall be re- in their stationary orbit. If both proton and neutron
active. The net angular momentum in any system is the revolves anti-clockwise around the extreme left z-axis,
cause of reactivity. then neutron must rotate clock-wise around it axis to ac-
Now take space of total length 3L. Take extra length commodate the orbital clockwise effects (for more elab-
2L is in the left side of figure 4. Vibrates left space in oration, see next section). This helium system is very
a same fashion as the right space (as shown in figure 4). stable with minimum angular momentum along the left
Now focus on the second mode of vibration in individual extreme z-axis. This is the precise reason that why he-
left and right space. There will be seven nodal points lium is non-reactive in normal conditions while hydrogen
in space. One nodal point will fall on the extreme left is very reactive. This also suggest that proton and neu-
space, three in the left space, one is common between left trons are also revolving around the extreme left z-axis.
and right space and two in the right space. Now take the Filling of the stationary orbit in left panel by the protons
extreme left z-axis as a rotation axis and rotate the com- and neutrons follow the Aufbau principle. Similarly, the
plete space-vibration (left and right both space) around right panel stationary orbit which fills by the electrons
this z-axis. There will be six stationary orbit appears also follow Auf bau principle. This also give the reason
(one “nodal” point will fall on the extreme left z-axi it- that why the atomic size of an atom increases as the
self) in which the six particle can revolves around this atomic number increases. This also give the reason that
 4

why the first ionization energy of helium is smaller than 2s, and 2p orbitals together then fourth orbit fill-up by
the second ionization energy, because both the electrons the Mars and it revolves anti-clockwise around the Sun.
revolves in different stationary orbits and not in same Fifth stationary orbit fill-up by Jupiter and it revolves
orbit as presently used model suggests. This also sug- anti-clockwise around the Sun. Sixth stationary orbit
gest that the reactivity and non-reactivity of any atom fill-up by Saturn and it revolves anti-clockwise around
is purely depends on the net angular momentum that the Sun. Seventh stationary orbit fill-up by Uranus and
it preserve in ground state about any axis (lets say z- it should revolves clockwise around the Sun ( because
axis). If system has net angular momentum then it will 2s, and 2p orbital has been half-filled in each orbital
be reactive. The similar procedure can be used for other (revolving anti-clockwise) and now pairing of 2s and 2p
atom as well. The bottom line is that the nucleons and orbitals starts. It start first from 2s orbital). Eight sta-
electrons are revolving around the common z-axis. They tionary orbit fill-up by Neptune and it should revolves
revolves anti-clockwise in their respective stationary or- clockwise around the Sun, but it revolves anti-clockwise.
bits. They (nucleons and electrons) also rotate about Ninth stationary orbit fill-up by Pluto and it should re-
their axis either anti-clockwise or clockwise depends that volves clockwise around the Sun but it also rotates anti-
whether they revolves anticlockwise or clockwise around clockwise.
the extreme left-z axis during the ideal fromation as dis- If one see closely the solar system3 then one notice that
cussed above. If they revolves anticlockwise around the Venus, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are rotating clock-
extreme-left z-axis, then they also rotate anti-clockwise. wise about their axis but revolving anticlockwise around
If they revolves clockwise then they rotate clockwise (for the Sun. It seems to author that planets rotation about
more detail see next section). their axis and revolution around the Sun are entangled
Lets use the same procedure in our solar system. Put to each other (author have no doubt because sapce is
Sun at extreme left z-axis, because mass only appear at every where, it is perfectly connected and infinitely elas-
the nodal point (as we have discussed in our previous tic and mass come after close mode vibration of space
section) and extreme left nodal point fall on the extreme where more than one Bragg’s planes intersect (station-
left z-axis. Now generates sufficient stationary orbit af- ary point)). Venus, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto should
ter taking sufficient space length. In this case 5L space have revolved around the Sun in clockwise manner with-
length, where L is a fundamental length constant for this out rotation about their axis. What we see that they
system (see in Figure 4). Now start filling the stationary all rotate clockwise about their axis but revolves anti-
orbits one by one using Auf bau principle. First station- clockwise around the Sun. In fact all planets revolve
ary orbit fills by Mercury and it revolves anticlockwise anti-clockwise around the sun. Venus, Uranus, Neptune
around the Sun. Mercury behaves like a proton in atomic and Pluto clockwise rotation about their axis and anti-
system. Second stationary orbit fill-up by Venus and it clockwise revolution around the Sun are purely arises due
revolves clockwise around the Sun. Venus behaves like to the quantum mechanical effect by which the net angu-
a neutron in atomic system. Third stationary orbit fill- lar momentum of the system can be minimized around
up by the Earth and it revolves anticlockwise around the the z-axis (assume z-axis is passing through the Sun and
Sun . Fourth stationary orbits fill-up by Mars. It should pointing it in vertical direction). To clarify this point
revolves clockwise around the Sun according to Aufbau further lets take the Sun, Mercury and Venus only. Sun
principle. It seems nature fills 2s, and 2p orbitals si- stay at the nodal point and nodal point falls on the z-
multaneously, at-least in this solar system case. If we fill axis which pass through the Sun. Put Mercury in first
 5

stationary orbit and revolve it anti-clockwise around the momentum are points along the +z-axis. Take Sun mass
Sun. Put Venus into the second stationary orbit and re- MS , radius RS and rotational angular velocity about it
volve it clockwise around the Sun. Now, if Mercury and axis is WS . The Sun angular momentum then equal to
Venus are not rotating around their axis and only revolv- 2
5 MS × RS 2 × WS . We believe that Sun also revolves
ing around the Sun then their will be a net orbital angular around some singular point but we will ignore this infor-
momentum which points either along the +z direction or mation in our discussion (one should use this information
−z direction. Now the only way though which the net an- during complete solar-system angular momentum calcu-
gular momentum can be counter balanced is by rotation lation). Now the total angular momentum of the system
of both planets around their axis. If one see the solar sys- (Sun, Mercury and Venus) around the z-axis which pass
2 2
tem (see in Figure 3), then one notice that Venus rotates through the Sun is, 5 MS × RS × WS + IM × WM =
clockwise and absorb the clockwise orbital angular revo- ( 25 Mm × rm 2 + Mm × RM 2 ) × WM + 25 Mm × rm 2 × wm +
lution effects in their rotation but revolves anticlockwise IV ×WV = ( 25 Mv ×rv 2 +Mv ×RV 2 )×WV - 25 Mv ×rv 2 ×wv .
around the Sun. If one calculate the total angular mo- This total angular momentum should be zero for the so-
mentum of the system (Sun, Mercury and Venus) around lar system which only made of from Sun, Mercury and
the z-axis which pass through the Sun, then one notice Venus.
that net angular momentum should be zero if this sys- What we are concluding with our discussion on solar sys-
tem is stable. Lets calculate the total angular momen- tem is that it total angular momentum must be zero
tum of system (Sun, Mercury and Venus) around the axis so that solar system remain stable. If this is not zero
passing through the Sun using center of mass and paral- then solar system will be unstable. Solar system analysis
lel axis theorem for moment of inertial calculation. Let also suggest that in atom like helium both protons, neu-
Mercury mass Mm , and Venus mass is Mv . Let Mercury trons and electrons are revolving anti-clockwise in their
distance from Sun is RM and Venus distance is RV . Let stationary orbits. Also, both proton are rotating anti-
Mercury and Venus as a sphere having radii rm and rv clockwise around their axis but both neutrons are rotat-
respectively. Let Mercury and Venus have orbital angu- ing clockwise around their axis. Also, one electron rotat-
lar velocity around the Sun is WM and WV respectively. ing anti-clockwise while other rotates clockwise around it
Let Mercury and Venus have rotational angular velocity axis. Both electron revolving anti-clockwise in their sta-
about their axis wm and wv respectively. Now Mercury tionary orbit around the extreme left z-axis . Why nature
has intrinsic positive angular momentum (pointing along only chose anticlockwise revolution around the extreme
2 2
+z direction) around it axis 5 Mm × rm × wm . Similarly left z-axis should be investigated further. What we are
Venus has intrinsic negative angular momentum (point- concluding here is that our solar system also follows the
2 2
ing towards −z direction) around it axis 5 Mv × rv × wv . quantum mechanical rule.
Use parallel axis theorem and calculate net moment of
inertia around the Sun for Mercury and Venus. For
IV. ORIGIN OF FORCES
Mercury, IM = 2
5 Mm × rm
2
+ Mm × RM 2 , whereas
for Venus, IV = 2
5 Mv × rv
2
+ Mv × R V 2 . The or-
In our previous paper “Alternative explanation of mag-
bital angular momentum of Mercury around the Sun is
netism without spin” 5 , we have shown that the origin of
2
IM × WM = ( 25 Mm 2
× rm + Mm × RM ) × WM , whereas
magnetism arise when two connected Brillouin zones are
the orbital angular momentum of Venus is IV × WV =
coupled and vibrate with different magnitude of wave-
( 25 Mv ×rv 2 +Mv ×RV 2 )×WV . Both these orbital angular
vector k and have 180◦ phase difference. We have dis-
 6

(as in iron case in which 5th and 11th Brillouin zones are
coupled and vibrates with different wave-vector k with
180◦ p phase difference).
In Vanderwall case, space between the two masses, or
in 2d-layered material like graphene or MoS2 , vibrates
linearly with very small magnitude of wave-vector k. One
layer of 2d-layered material communicate with the other
FIG. 3: Solar planets revolution and rotation around the layers using Vanderwall forces. Due to the small wave-
Sun3 .
vector k, Vanderwall forces are very very weak forces in
nature. In nature friction force appear due to the inter-
locking of two material media with the certain mode of
cussed in great details about the condition for param-
space vibrations which presents between them and it also
agnetism, diamagnetism, ferrimagnetism and ferromag-
connected to the outsides space . One material media
netism. We have concluded that magnetism purely arises
move over the other and changes the mode of space vi-
due to coupled mode of vibrations of two Brillouin zones
brations (this space penetrates both the materials media
(for example in case of iron, it is 5th and 11th Brillouin
and perfectly connected with outer space). Changing the
zone which are coupled and vibrates). Similarly we have
mode of space vibration cost energy which come from the
concluded that the electrical field or electric force arises
moving material media, and this is a precise quantum-
due to the linear mode of vibrations of space between
mechanical reason for the generation of heat-wave when
two points. One end point has the higher electrochemi-
one material media moves over other.
cal potential than the other. Electric filed only generates
due to space vibrations between these two points. The
gravitational force also arises due to the linear mode of V. CONCLUSION
vibrations of the space but in this case vibration wave
vector k has smaller magnitude than the electrical force In this paper we have tried to address the long lasting
case. We have already discussed in our previous section problem in physics that how and why mass has been cre-
that mass can only appear at the nodal point in space ated. We have shown that the mass only appear at the
vibration and locus of nodal points form the stationary nodal points in space vibration. At nodal points (sta-
orbit. The space is curved around the mass due to lin- tionary points) more than one Bragg’s plane intersects.
ear mode of space vibration. So, gravity is nothing but We have developed a sequence for 2d-square and 2d-
the consequence of the space vibrations. In our previous hexagonal lattice whose elements are the number of inter-
section we have discussed that how the nucleons are dis- sections of Bragg’s planes at the lattice points. We have
tributed in different stationary orbits and they revolves shown that the origin of mass is purely arises due to the
around the extreme left z-axis. Nuclear force is also arises quantum mechanical effect. We have explained that why
due to linear mode of space vibration but with very high atom must have stationary orbit and how it arises due
wave-vector k. Thus the origin of all four fundamental to the different length of space vibrations. We have ex-
forces in nature arises due to the vibrations of space. In plained that how the nucleons are distributed into the dif-
gravitational, electrical and nuclear case, space vibrates ferent stationary orbits and revolving around the extreme
in linear fashion between two stationary nodal points, z-axis which pass through the extreme-left “Nodes” point
whereas in magnetism case space vibrates in close modes (also called singular point). We have shown that the
 7

wise around their axis in their stationary orbit around

the Sun. We have shown that rotation is purely arises
due to quantum mechanical effects. We have explained
that why hydrogen is reactive while helium is not in nor-
mal situations. We have shown that the origin of every
forces in nature (including the four fundamental forces,
namely; gravitational, electrical, magnetic and nuclear)
have the quantum mechanical origin. Now we can con-
clude nature with this statement : space (emptiness) is
every where. It is perfectly connected (in mathematical
sense), infinitely elastic and expanded all over the place
(infinite). It is stationary! Mass come from the close
mode vibration of space. Everything that is happening in
nature have the quantum mechanical origin. Nature only
follows quantum mechanical rule both at microscopic as
well as macroscopic level.
We hope that this paper will put the scientific commu-
nity in right direction so that they will start looking the
FIG. 4: Different mode of vibrations of space of length L.
physical observations using the quantum mechanical ef-
The end point of length L always remains stationary and rep-
fects rather than the various models.
resented as a “Nodes”. N stands for node and A stands for
Acknowledgments. Author is very grateful to the
anti-node4 .
Ashcroft and Mermin for their book on solid state physics

generation of stationary orbit principle can be applied in which is written so beautifully that it inspire the author

our solar system as well and can be explained that why to rethink on long lasting problem in condense matter

Venus, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are rotating clock- physics.

wise, whereas the other planets are rotating anticlock-

1 4
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