Wind Turbine Classification

Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the former
being both older and more common.[11]

The 3 primary types of HAWT and VAWT as they appear in operation.

[edit] Horizontal axis

Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake
assembly) being lifted into position

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical
generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines
are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind
sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow
rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an
electrical generator.[12]

Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed upwind
of the tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed
into the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable
distance in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted forward into the wind a
small amount.

Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast
wake), because they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line
with the wind, and because in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which
reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since cyclic (that is
repetitive) turbulence may lead to fatigue failures most HAWTs are upwind
machines.

[edit] Subtypes

Doesburger windmill, Ede, The Netherlands.

12th-century windmills

These squat structures, typically (at least) four bladed, usually with wooden
shutters or fabric sails, were developed in Europe. These windmills were pointed
into the wind manually or via a tail-fan and were typically used for grinding grain.
In the Netherlands they were also used for pumping water from low-lying land,
and were instrumental in keeping its polders dry.

In Schiedam, the Netherlands, a traditional style windmill (the Noletmolen) was

built in 2005 to generate electricity.[13] The mill is one of the tallest Tower mills in
the world, being some 42.5 metres (139 ft) tall.

19th-century windmills
The Eclipse windmill factory was set up around 1866 in Beloit, Wisconsin and
soon became successful building mills for pumping water on farms and for filling
railroad tanks. Other firms like Star, Dempster, and Aeromotor also entered the
market. Hundreds of thousands of these mills were produced before rural
electrification and small numbers continue to be made.[8] They typically had many
blades, operated at tip speed ratios not better than one, and had good starting
torque. Some had small direct-current generators used for charging storage
batteries, to provide power to lights, or to operate a radio receiver. The American
rural electrification connected many farms to centrally generated power and
replaced individual windmills as a primary source of farm power by the 1950s.
They were also produced in other countries like South Africa and Australia (where
an American design was copied in 1876[14]). Such devices are still used in locations
where it is too costly to bring in commercial power.

Modern wind turbines

Three bladed wind turbine

Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are
usually three-bladed and pointed into the wind by computer-controlled motors.
These have high tip speeds of over 320 kilometres per hour (200 mph), high
efficiency, and low torque ripple, which contribute to good reliability. The blades
are usually colored light gray to blend in with the clouds and range in length from
20 to 40 metres (66 to 130 ft) or more. The tubular steel towers range from 60 to
90 metres (200 to 300 ft) tall. The blades rotate at 10-22 revolutions per minute. At
22 rotations per minute the tip speed exceeds 300 feet per second (91 m/s).[15][16] A
gear box is commonly used for stepping up the speed of the generator, although
designs may also use direct drive of an annular generator. Some models operate at
constant speed, but more energy can be collected by variable-speed turbines which
use a solid-state power converter to interface to the transmission system. All
turbines are equipped with shut-down features to avoid damage at high wind
speeds.
Advantages

 Variable blade pitch, which gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of
attack. Allowing the angle of attack to be remotely adjusted gives greater
control, so the turbine collects the maximum amount of wind energy for the
time of day and season.
 The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear.
In some wind shear sites, the wind speed can increase by 20% and the power
output by 34% for every 10 meters in elevation.
 High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicular to the wind,
receiving power through the whole rotation. In contrast, all vertical axis
wind turbines, and most proposed airborne wind turbine designs, involve
various types of reciprocating actions, requiring airfoil surfaces to backtrack
against the wind for part of the cycle. Backtracking against the wind leads to
inherently lower efficiency.
 The face of a horizontal axis blade is struck by the wind at a consistent angle
regardless of the position in its rotation. This results in a consistent lateral
wind loading over the course of a rotation, reducing vibration and audible
noise coupled to the tower or mount.

Disadvantages

Turbine blade convoy passing through Edenfield in the UK

 The tall towers and blades up to 45 meters long are difficult to transport.
Transportation can now amount to 20% of equipment costs.
  Tall HAWTs are difficult to install, needing very tall and expensive cranes
and skilled operators.
 Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox,
and generator.
 Reflections from tall HAWTs may affect side lobes of radar installations
creating signal clutter, although filtering can suppress it.
 Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting
the appearance of the landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.
 Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by
turbulence when a blade passes through the tower's wind shadow (for this
reason, the majority of HAWTs use an upwind design, with the rotor facing
the wind in front of the tower).
 HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades and
nacelle toward the wind.
 In order to minimize fatigue loads due to wake turbulence, wind turbines are
usually sited a distance of 5 rotor diameters away from each other, but the
spacing depends on the manufacturer and the turbine model.

Cyclic stresses and vibration

Cyclic stresses fatigue the blade, axle and bearing resulting in material failures that
were a major cause of turbine failure for many years.[citation needed] Because wind
velocity often increases at higher altitudes, the backward force and torque on a
horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT) blade peaks as it turns through the highest
point in its circle. The tower hinders the airflow at the lowest point in the circle,
which produces a local dip in force and torque. These effects produce a cyclic twist
on the main bearings of a HAWT. The combined twist is worst in machines with
an even number of blades, where one is straight up when another is straight down.
To improve reliability, teetering hubs have been used which allow the main shaft
to rock through a few degrees, so that the main bearings do not have to resist the
torque peaks.[citation needed]

The rotating blades of a wind turbine act like a gyroscope. As it pivots along its
vertical axis to face the wind, gyroscopic precession tries to twist the turbine disc
along its horizontal axis. For each blade on a wind generator's turbine, precessive
force is at a minimum when the blade is horizontal and at a maximum when the
blade is vertical.[citation needed] The cyclic loading affects the design of the mechanical
elements, structure, and foundation of the wind turbine.

Vertical axis design

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged
vertically. Key advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to
be pointed into the wind to be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the
wind direction is highly variable.

With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, so
the tower doesn't need to support it, and it is more accessible for maintenance.
Drawbacks are that some designs produce pulsating torque.

It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers[citation needed], meaning they are

often installed nearer to the base on which they rest, such as the ground or a
building rooftop. The wind speed is slower at a lower altitude, so less wind energy
is available for a given size turbine. Air flow near the ground and other objects can
create turbulent flow, which can introduce issues of vibration, including noise and
bearing wear which may increase the maintenance or shorten the service life.
However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects
wind over the roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height
of the rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building height,
this is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence.

Subtypes

30 m Darrieus wind turbine in the Magdalen Islands

Darrieus wind turbine 
"Eggbeater" turbines, or Darrieus turbines, were named after the French
inventor, Georges Darrieus.[17] They have good efficiency, but produce large
 torque ripple and cyclical stress on the tower, which contributes to poor
reliability. They also generally require some external power source, or an
additional Savonius rotor to start turning, because the starting torque is very
low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or more blades which
results in a higher solidity for the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area
divided by the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not held up by
guy-wires but have an external superstructure connected to the top bearing.

A helical twisted VAWT.

Giromill
A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades.
The cycloturbine variety has variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation
and is self-starting.[18] The advantages of variable pitch are: high starting
torque; a wide, relatively flat torque curve; a lower blade speed ratio; a
higher coefficient of performance; more efficient operation in turbulent
winds; and a lower blade speed ratio which lowers blade bending stresses.
Straight, V, or curved blades may be used.
Windmill with rotating sails
Savonius wind turbine 
These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in
anemometers, Flettner vents (commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in
some high-reliability low-efficiency power turbines. They are always self-
starting if there are at least three scoops. They sometimes have long helical
scoops to give a smooth torque.

Advantages

 A massive tower structure is less frequently used, as VAWTs are more

frequently mounted with the lower bearing mounted near the ground.
 Designs without yaw mechanisms are possible with fixed pitch rotor
designs.
 The generator of a VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier
to maintain the moving parts.
 VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than HAWTs. Typically, they start
creating electricity at 6 m.p.h. (10 km/h).
 VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
 VAWTs situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations where
mesas, hilltops, ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind and increase wind
velocity.
 VAWTs may have a lower noise signature.[citation needed]

Disadvantages

 A VAWT that uses guy-wires to hold it in place puts stress on the bottom
bearing as all the weight of the rotor is on the bearing. Guy wires attached to
the top bearing increase downward thrust in wind gusts. Solving this
problem requires a superstructure to hold a top bearing in place to eliminate
the downward thrusts of gust events in guy wired models.
 The stress in each blade due to wind loading changes sign twice during each
revolution as the apparent wind direction moves through 360 degrees. This
reversal of the stress increases the likelihood of blade failure by fatigue.
 While VAWTs' components are located on the ground, they are also located
under the weight of the structure above it, which can make changing out
parts very difficult if the structure is not designed properly.
 Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower due
to the ground's surface drag, VAWTs may not produce as much energy at a
given site as a HAWT with the same footprint or height.