International Journal of Advance Study and Research Work (2581-5997)/ Volume 1/Issue 5/August 2018

Social and Psychological factors for Superstition: A

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1405381

Abstract:

The present literature review focused on social and psychological factors associated with superstition. The literature included
conceptual definition of superstition, prevalence and its probable underlying factors. It also sheds light upon the pros and cons
for adherence with superstitious beliefs. Number of online articles published in peer reviewed journals, book reviews, abstracts,
conference proceedings and dissertations were reviewed with a specific focus for psychosocial effects of superstition. The
findings revealed that superstitious beliefs are widely spread and there are socio- learning predispositions which lie at backdrop
of superstition. Superstition casts negative and positive influences on psychological health of individuals. Overall the paper is a
worthy contribution for articulated understanding of phenomenon of superstition and its associated factors which opens
horizons for further related and in depth inquiries.

Keywords: Superstition concept, Prevalence, Underlying factors, Pros, Cons.

Introduction:

Traces of superstitions can be detected in the fibers of every society. The prevalence of superstitious beliefs can be
stretched from old primitive cultures in the form of paranormal, magical and superstitious activities (Jahoda, 1969) to present
modern days (Newport &Strausberg, 2001). Superstitions present in different forms which subject to unique set of cultural beliefs
and ideals (Ouédraogo& Mullet, 2001). Superstition is an extensively explored topic in psychological research (Malinowski, 1954;
Jahoda, 1969; Johnston, de Groot, &Spanos, 1995; Vyse, 1997; Rudski, 2003). The significance of superstition beliefs and its impact
on behaviors are wide spread, researches indicated that consumers exhibited superstitious beliefs as metal short cuts which impact
upon their purchase behaviors (Carlson, Mowen, & Fang, 2009).
The effects of superstitious believes can be witnessed in debit in business in United States which shows loss of $800 and
$900 millions on 13th Friday every year 13th (Ng, Chong, & Du, 2010). Also numerous studies have found that road accidents raised
extensively on Friday the 13th (Hughes, 2002; Lewis & Gallagher, 2001; Nayha, 2002). In Taiwan people pay 15 percent more than
actual rate for product when it shows number 8 which perceived as lucky digit (Kramer & Block, 2008). Surprisingly in China the
association of good luck with number eight can be witnessed; Beijing Olympic Games were held on 8/8/08 (Carlson et al., 2009).

Statement of the Problem:

Objectives:
The aims of study were to explore the sociological and psychological factors for prevalence of superstition. To furnish the goals of
study several online empirical articles , qualitative surveys published in peer reviewed journals, book reviews, abstracts, conference
proceedings, dissertations were reviewed with a specific focus for psychosocial effects of superstition.

1
© 2018, IJASRW, All right reserved
http://www.ijasrw.com
 International Journal of Advance Study and Research Work (2581-5997)/ Volume 1/Issue 5/August 2018

Literature Review:

Superstition: A Conceptual Framework

Superstitious believes noticed in behaviors exhibited by individuals in different life situations hence an articulated concept of
superstition is a necessary aspect. Superstition conceptualized as “Any thought or irrational act and illogical fear or dread of
something mysterious and fantasy and a doubt or habit that its basis is ignorance or fear, is called superstition." (Jahuda, 1371, p. 5).
Other explanations included superstition as behaviors which are perceived to have controlling power for luck and other external
forces but they lack operational clarity to perform certain acts (Foster, Weigand, & Baines (2006).Superstition referred as groundless
beliefs with lack of justified rationale (Amid ,1365). In American Heritage Dictionary, concept of superstition cited by Kramer and
Block (2008) as Incongruence beliefs with are against natural phenomenon but overall considered as logical by the members of
particular society. Giner- Sorolla in 1999, defined superstitious acts as superstitions are appraisals for behaviors which involve lack
of careful cognitive functions.).

superstition as an attitude which can be understood from affective, cognitive and behavioral aspects. The emotional aspects includes
arrays of feelings that ranged from fear, apprehension, to joy and delight towards superstitious laden objects. The cognitive aspect
encompasses conceptualization, assimilation and strategic planning of behavior and predicting future outcomes where as the
behavioral component comprised of different rituals people engaged to avoid accidents or facilitate their desired outcomes for their
own selves or their loved ones (Saenko, 2005).
. Levitt (1952) diagnosed some fundamental components of superstition as irrationality, widely acclaimed, exhibited in the
acts of person holds superstitious beliefs, faith in extraordinary phenomenon; lack of validity to justify particular superstitious
activities and possess a thriving popularity among individuals without control and order. This was affirmed by the study carried out
by Foster and Kokkoin 2009, which denoted superstition as errors in cognitive functions.

Superstition: Prevalence

Superstition prevails in different culture (Carlson et al., 2009) however there is disparity exists for different beliefs in
different culture according to its morals, values and religious backgrounds. Lesser (1931)proposed that there exists individual
differences for superstitious beliefs and practicesalso it is subjected to different circumstances.

Pertaining to this notion the prevalence of superstitious beliefs demands careful investigations. Substantial number of
scientific inquiries supported the view that females tend to be higher superstitious as compared to males (Blum & Blum, 1974;
Buhrmann &Zaugg, 1981; Conklin, 1919). Contrastingly another study proved that male hockey players tend to be more
superstitious and be highly engaged in superstitious activities as compare to female hockey players (Neil, Anderson, & Sheppard,
1981). Prior findings showed positive linkage with age and superstitious beliefs (Epstein, 1993) here also disparity exists for age and
superstitious beliefs which showed younger individuals tend to be greater superstitious than older adults (Corrigan, Pattison, &
Lester, 1980; Gallup & Newport, 1990). Research showed an inverse relationship between education qualification and superstitious
beliefs (Blum & Blum, 1974; Otis &Alcock, 1982) where as some inquiries proved no relationship between paranormal beliefs and
education (Jahoda, 1968; Salter&Routledge, 1971).

Religiosity is another variable of interest has been investigated with superstitious beliefs. Different findings affirmed
relationship among superstitious, paranormal beliefs and religiosity (Beck & Miller, 2001; MacDonald, 1995; Orenstein, 2002;
Tobacyk& Milford, 1983).In investigation carried out by Beck and Miller (2001) revealed positive relationship between religiosity
and supernatural beliefs however highly religious individuals with emotionally traumatic encounters in their previous years showed
a decline in superstitious beliefs. However findings of study carried out by Orenstein (2002) showed no linkages for religious
involvements and paranormal beliefs.

Numerous studies resonate that religiosity has been correlated with the occurrence of superstitious and paranormal beliefs
(Beck & Miller, 2001; MacDonald, 1995; Orenstein, 2002; Tobacyk& Milford, 1983).Various superstitious beliefs are strongly
associated with religious rituals. Castro (1995) found that during a solar eclipse, pregnant women were believed to be in danger of
having a baby with a craniofacial cleft. It is stated that during an eclipse, all temples should be closed, and once the eclipse has
passed, purification prayers should be administered.

2
© 2018, IJASRW, All right reserved
http://www.ijasrw.com
 International Journal of Advance Study and Research Work (2581-5997)/ Volume 1/Issue 5/August 2018

Besides demographic factors of age, gender, educational levels and religiosity, findings proved that superstitious beliefs showed
higher linkages with emotional problems Orenstein (2002) ;diminished cognitive abilities (Musch& Ehrenberg, 2002)and irrational
beliefs of individuals (Tobacyk& Milford, 1983). Study showed greater level of superstition among individuals with low I.Q levels ,
lower rate of incomes and higher suggestibility(Zapf, 1945).

Superstition: Underlying Factors

In order to inquire the major cause for involvement in superstition, a careful attention is needed to unleash the psychosocial
factors involved in sustaining and maintaining the superstitious beliefs among the members of society. Humans are active
participants of society and the they learn the beliefs and attitudes from society (Bord and Faulkner, 1975). Electronic, print and
social media lie at heart of molding superstitious beliefs in any society. An earlier research showed that beliefs systems involved
subjective culture in which human awareness influenced by mass media, cultural scripts and educational institutes (Kelly and Ronan,
1987).

In society superstitions flowed via social contacts (Swanson, 1971). Learning plays an important role for superstition.
Research suggests that intermittent rewards plays an important role to stabilize superstitious activities among individuals (Sjoberg&
Wahlberg ,2002). The operant condition holds a view that causal linkages of behaviors with rewarding or punishing factors
responsible for display of superstitious behaviors (Skinner, 1948; Wagner & Morris, 1987); The cognitive learning model proposed
that superstitious behaviors resulting from desire to understand the world around us. We tend to engage in superstitious acts and
adopt such beliefs in order to understand the complex and unfamiliar events around us (Keinan, 2002; Carlson et al., 2009). Another
underlying facets for superstition explained by Jahoda (1969) which asserted that individuals adopt superstition in order to mitigate
the anxiety levels which sprout from uncertain situations. Superstitious acts provide a sense of mastery and serve as a defense
strategy to control uncertainty of situations.

Superstition: Pros and Cons

The positive and negative aspects of superstition have been documented in literature. Findings suggested that it is hard to
determine superstitious behaviors because people feel embarrassment to endorse such behaviors (Van Raalte, Brewer, Nemeroff, &
Linder, 1991; Vyse, 1997). It was also found that people don’t admit the superstitions and engage in private because of apprehension
for negative social evaluations (Vyse, 1997). Study conducted by James & Wells ( 2002) concluded that Superstitious beliefs can
produce detrimental effects on immune system and level of stress and a greater level of heath anxiety.
Research showed that we tend to engage in superstition under circumstances which are represented by stress, uncertainty
and lack of control (Case, Fitness, Cairns, & Stevenson, 2004;Malinowski, 1954; Keinan, 1994; Rudski& Edwards, 2007; Vyse,
1997). It was investigated that people are aware that superstitious thoughts lack rationality (Pronin, Wegner, McCarthy, &
Rodriguez, 2006; Risen &Gilovich, 2007). They tend to engage in such behaviors out of the perception that it might be beneficial
(Jahoda, 2007; Killeen, 1977).
In games, athletes players showed a greater adherence to superstitious beliefs prior to the game when they perceive play is
important but lack certainty. Schippers& Van Lange, 2006). An earlier finding by Padgett and Jorgenson (1982) showed that
positive linkages between magical thinking and economic threats among individuals of Germany between two world wars. On the
other side of coin Keinan (1994/ 2002) noted positive effects of superstition as engagement in superstition and magical thinking
assist individuals in stress reduction, an inflated optimism and self-fulfilling prophecy this likely to contribute in task performance.
Like wise (Matute,1994) concluded the superstition prevent people to engage in learned helplessness in situations that signal lack
of control and aids in control for decline in level of performances. Other positive effects of Superstition noted by researchers
included as superstition serve as anti anxiety and mitigate stress in situations that involve lack of clarity (Irwin, 2000 ;Jahoda, 1969).
Numerous researchers affirmed that superstition act as a coping strategy for the Victims with childhood traumatic
encounters (French & Kerman, 1996; Irwin, 1992; Lawrence, Edwards, Barraclough, Church, & Hetherington, 1995; Ross & Joshi,
1992). Similarly engagement in superstition results into boost in confidence levels, overcome anxiety and ambiguity among athlete
players (Dunleavy & Miracle, 1979; Neil, 1980; Neil et al., 1981; Womack, 1979). Also (Day &Maltby, 2003) declared that the
superstition is linked with lowered depression and anxiety levels and an affirmative linkage was achieved for belief in good luck and
hope (Scheier& Carver, 1985; Taylor & Brown, 1988). Similarly another earlier finding prescribed the notion that superstition
provides a way for illusions that one possesses mastery to control situation and this illusionary control is linked with psychological
benefits (Langer, 1975).

3
© 2018, IJASRW, All right reserved
http://www.ijasrw.com
 International Journal of Advance Study and Research Work (2581-5997)/ Volume 1/Issue 5/August 2018

Theoretical underpinning of Stanovich and West (2002) suggested two decision-making systems provide gravity to aforementioned
findings for psychological effects of superstition among individuals. The cognitive decision making system comprised of rational
system and experiential system. Rational system based upon logical and systematic processing of information whereas experiential
system based upon intuition and emotional processing of information. Superstition believed to be influenced by intuitive thought
processes and individuals involved in actions without endorsement of rational justifications, As indicated by the findings which
showed that people engage in superstitious acts to minimize anxiety, boost self-esteem and to gain other positive psychological gains
(Neil 1980; Womack 1979) .

Conclusion:

The present paper aspired a holistic understanding of the phenomenon of superstition. It explored different scientific and conceptual
definition of superstition. Superstitions are appraisals for behaviors which involve lack of careful cognitive functions (Giner- Sorolla, 1999). Game
theory supposed the idea that Superstition are not erroneous acts rather some superstitious behaviors influence by rational suppositions
(Fudenberg& Levine ,2006) significance of Friday 13 th for stock marketing (Kolb &Rodriguez 1987; Lucey 2001. Demographic correlates,
psychological and social factors linked with superstition behaviors explored in research articles were also analyzed. Findings suggested that
Superstition contributes to overall improved psychological heath of individuals (Scheier& Carver, 1985; Taylor & Brown, 1988).

References:
[1] Amid, H. (1985). Amid dictionary, contains Persian words and colloquial Arabic words in Farsi, Tehran: Amirkabir publication.
[2] Beck, R., & Miller, J. P. (2001). Erosion of belief and disbelief: Effects of religiosity and negative affect on beliefs in the paranormal
and supernatural. The Journal of Social Psychology, 141, 277-287.
[3] Blum, S. H. & Blum, L. H. (1974). Do's and don't's: An informal study of some prevailing superstitions. Psychological Reports, 35, 567-
571.
[4] Bord, R. J. and Faulkner, J. E. (1975). Religiosity and Secular Attitudes: The Case of Catholic Pentecostals. Journal for the Scientific
Study of Religion, 14 (3), 257-270
[5] Buhrmann, H. G. &Zaugg, M. K. (1981). Superstitions among basketball players: An investigation of various forms of superstitious
beliefs and behavior among competitive basketballers at the junior high school to university level. Journal of Sport Behavior,4, 163-174.
[6] Carlson, B. D., Mowen, J. C., & Fang, X. (2009). Trait superstition and consumer behavior: re-conceptualization, measurement, and
initial investigations. Psychology and Marketing, 26(8), 689-713
[7] Case, T. I., Fitness, J., Cairns, D. R., & Stevenson, R. J. (2004). Coping with uncertainty: Superstitious strategies and secondary control.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology,34, 848-871.
[8] Castro R.(1995). The logic of a traditional health belief: solar eclipse and pregnancy in Ocuituco, Mexico. Salud Publication Mexico.37,
329–338.
[9] Conklin, E. S. (1919). Superstitious belief and practice among college students. American Journal of Psychology, 30, 83-102.
[10] Corrigan, R. S., Pattison, L., & Lester, D. (1980). Superstition in police officers. Psychological Reports, 46, 830.
[11] Day, L., &Maltby, J. (2003). Belief in good luck and psychological well-being: The mediating role of optimism and irrational beliefs.
The Journal of Psychology, 137, 99-110.
[12] Dunleavy, A. O., & Miracle, A. W., Jr. (1979). Understanding ritual and its use in sport. In W. J. Morgan (Ed.), Sport and the
humanities: A collection of original essays. Knoxville, NT: The Bureau of Educational Research and Service, College ofEducation, The
University of Tennessee.
[13] Epstein, S. (1993). Implications of cognitive-experiential self-theory for personality and developmental psychology. In D. Funder, R.
Parke, C. Tomlinson-Keasey, & K. Widaman (Eds.), Studying lives through time: Personality and development (pp. 399-438).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Blum, S. H. & Blum, L. H. (1974). Do's and don't's: An informal study of some
prevailing superstitions. Psychological Reports, 35, 567-571.
[14] Foster, D. J., Weigand, D. A., & Baines, D. (2006). The effect of removing superstitious behavior and introducing a pre-performance
routine on basketball free-throw performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 18, 167-171.
[15] Foster, K. R., &Kokko, H. (2009). The evolution of superstitious and superstition-like behaviour. Proceedings of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences, 276(1654), 31.
[16] French, C. C., & Kerman, M. K. (1996). Childhood trauma, fantasy proneness and belief in the paranormal. Paper presented at the
Annual Conference of the British Psychological Society, London.
[17] Fudenberg, Drew and David K. Levine (2006), Superstition and Rational Learning, American Economic Review, 96(3): 630-651.
[18] Gallup, G. H., & Newport, F. (1990). Belief in the psychic and paranormal widespread among Americans. Gallup News Service, 55, 1-7.
[19] Giner-Sorolla, R. (1999). Affect in attitude: Immediate and deliberative perspectives. In: S. Chaiken& Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual process
theories in social psychology (pp. 441-461). New York: Guilford.
[20] Hughes, C. (2002). Medicine and magic [Electronic Version]. Student BMJ, 10, 132-133.
[21] Irwin, H. J. (1992). Origins and functions of paranormal belief: The role of childhood trauma and interpersonal control. Journal of the
American Society for Psychical Research, 86, 199–208.
[22] Irwin, H. J. (2000). Belief in the paranormal and a sense of control over life. European Journal of Parapsychology, 15,68–78.

4
© 2018, IJASRW, All right reserved
http://www.ijasrw.com
 International Journal of Advance Study and Research Work (2581-5997)/ Volume 1/Issue 5/August 2018

[23] Jahoda, G. (1968). Scientific training and the persistence of traditional beliefs among West African university students. Nature, 220,
1356.
[24] Jahoda, G. (1969). The psychology of superstition. New York, NY, US: Penguin.
[25] Jahoda, G. (2007). Superstition and belief. The Psychologist, 20, 594-595.
[26] Jahoda, G.(1969). The psychology of superstition. London: The Penguin press.
[27] Jahuda, G. (1993). The Psychology of Superstition. Translated by Mohammad NaqiBaraheni, Tehran: Alborz.
[28] James, A., & Wells, A. (2002). Death beliefs, superstitious beliefs and health anxiety. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41, 43-53.
[29] Johnston, J. C., de Groot, H. P., &Spanos, N. P. (1995) The structure of paranormal belief: a factor-analytic investigation. Imagination,
Cognition and Personality, 14, 165-174.
[30] Keinan, G. (1994). Effects of stress and tolerance of ambiguity on magical thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67,
48-55.
[31] Keinan, G. (2002). The effects of stress and desire for control on superstitious behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,
28(1), 102-108.
[32] Kelly, R. M. & Ronan, B. (1987). Subjective Culture and Patriotism: Gender, Ethnic and Class Differences among High School
Students. Political Psychology, 8(4), 525-546.
[33] Killeen, P. R. (1977). Superstition: A matter of bias, not detectability. Science, 199, 88-90.
[34] Kolb, Robert W. and Ricardo J. Rodriguez (1987). Friday the Thirteenth: "Part VII": A note," Journal of Finance, 42 (5), 1385-1387.

[35] Kramer T. and Block L.(2008). Conscious and unconscious components of superstitious beliefs in judgment and decision making,
Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 783-793.
[36] Langer, E. J. (1975). The illusion control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 311-328.
[37] Langer, E. J. (1977). The psychology of chance. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 7,185-207.
[38] Lawrence, T., Edwards, C., Barraclough, N., Church, S., & Hetherington, F. (1995). Modelling childhood causes of paranormal beliefs
and experiences: Childhood trauma and childhood fantasy. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 209–215.
[39] Lesser, A. (1931). Superstition. The Journal of Philosophy, 28(23), 617-628.
[40] Levitt, E. E. (1952). Superstitions: twenty-five years ago and today. The American Journal of Psychology, 65(3), 443-449.
[41] Lewis, J. M., & Gallagher, T. J. (2001). The salience of Friday the 13th for college students [Electronic Version]. College Student
Journal, 35(2), 216.
[42] Lucey, B.M. (2001).Friday the 13th: international evidence‖, Applied Economics Letters, 8, 577–579.
[43] MacDonald, W. L. (1995). The effects of religiosity and structural strain on reported paranormal experiences [Electronic Version].
Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 34, 366.
[44] Malinowski, B. (1954). Magic, science and religion and other essays. Garden City, NY:Doubleday.
[45] Matute, H. (1994). Learned helplessness and superstitious behavior as opposite effects of uncontrollable reinforcement in humans.
Learning and Motivation, 25, 216-232.
[46] Musch, J., & Ehrenberg, K. (2002). Probability misjudgment, cognitive ability, and belief in the paranormal. British Journal of
Psychology, 93, 169-177.
[47] Nayha, S. (2002). Traffic deaths and superstition on Friday the 13th [Electronic Version]. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(12),
2110-2111.
[48] Neil, G. (1980). The place of superstition in sport: The self-fulfilling prophecy. Coaching Review, 3, 40-42.
[49] Neil, G., Anderson, B., & Sheppard, W. (1981). Superstitions among male and female athletes at various levels of involvement. Journal
of Sport Behavior, 4, 137-148.
[50] Newport, F., &Strausberg, M. (2001). Americans’ belief in psychic and paranormal phenomena is up over last decade. Princeton: Gallup
News Service.
[51] Ng, T., Chong, T., & Du, X. (2010). The value of superstitions. Journal of Economic Psychology, 31(3),293-309.
[52] Orenstein, A. (2002). Religion and paranormal belief. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41, 301-311.;
[53] Otis, L. P., &Alcock, J. E. (1982) Factors affecting extraordinary belief. The Journal of Social Psychology, 118, 77–85.
[54] Ouédraogo, A., & Mullet, E. (2001) Prediction of performance among West Africanmale farmers: natural and supernatural factors.
International Journal of Psychology, 36, 32-41.
[55] Padgett, V., & Jorgenson, D. O. (1982). Superstition and economic threat: Germany 1918-1940. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 8, 736-741.
[56] Pronin, E., Wegner, D. M., McCarthy, K., & Rodriguez, S. (2006). Everyday magical powers: The role of apparent mental causation in
the overestimation of personal influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 218-231.
[57] Risen, J. L., &Gilovich, T. (2007). Another look at why people are reluctant to exchange lottery tickets. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 93, 12-22.
[58] Ross, C. A., & Joshi, S. (1992). Paranormal experiences in the general population. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180, 357–
361.
[59] Rudski, J. (2003) What does a superstitious person believe? Impressions of participants. The Journal of General Psychology, 130, 431-
445
[60] Rudski, J. M., & Edwards, A. (2007). Malinowski goes to college: Factors influencing students' use of ritual and superstition. Journal of
General Psychology, 134, 389-403

5
© 2018, IJASRW, All right reserved
http://www.ijasrw.com
 International Journal of Advance Study and Research Work (2581-5997)/ Volume 1/Issue 5/August 2018

[61] Saenko,Iu.V. (2005): The superstition of today 's college students. Russian Education and Society, 47, 76-89.
[62] Salter, C. A., &Routledge, L. M. (1971). Supernatural beliefs among graduate students at the University of Pennsylvania. Nature, 232,
278-279.
[63] Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1985). Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome
expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219-247.
[64] Schippers, M. C. & Van Lange, P. A. M (2006). The psychological benefits of superstitious rituals in top sport: A study among top
sportspersons. Journal of Applied SocialPsychology, 36, 2532–2553.
[65] Sjoberg, L. & Wahlberg, A. af. (2002). Risk Perception and New Age Beliefs. Risk Analysis, 22 (4), 751-764.
[66] Skinner, B. F. (1948). “Superstition” in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38,168-172.
[67] Stanovich, K. E. and R. F. West (2000). Individual differences in reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate?.Behavioral and
Brain Sciences, 23, 645-726.
[68] Swanson, Guy E.(1971). The Birth of the Gods: The Origin of Primitive Beliefs. New Jersey: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1971.
[69] Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological
Bulletin, 103, 193-210.
[70] Tobacyk, J. & Milford, G. (1983). Belief in paranormal phenomena: Assessment instrumentdevelopment and implications for
personality functioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1029-1037)
[71] Van Raalte, J. L., Brewer, B. W., Nemeroff, C. J., & Linder, D. E. (1991). Chance orientation and superstitious behavior on the putting
green. Journal of Sport Behavior,14, 41-50.
[72] Vyse, S. (1997). Superstition in the age of science. World Revieiv, 2(4), 13-15.
[73] Vyse, S. A. (1997) Believing in magic: the psychology of superstition. New York: Oxford University . Press.
[74] Wagner, G. A., & Morris, E. K. (1987). “Superstitious”behavior in children. The Psychological Record, 37(4), 471-488.
[75] Womack, M. (1979). Why athletes need ritual: As study of magic among professional athletes. In W. J. Morgan (Ed.), Sport and the
humanities: A collection of originalessays. Knoxville, TN: The Bureau of Educational Research and Service, College of Education, The
University of Tennessee.
[76] Zapf, R .M. (1945). Relationship between belief in superstitions and other factors. Journal of Educational Research, 38(8), 561-579.

6
© 2018, IJASRW, All right reserved
http://www.ijasrw.com