Review

Reviewed Work(s): An Information Processing Theory of Consumer Choice by James R.

Bettman
Review by: Ivan Ross
Source: Journal of Marketing, Vol. 43, No. 3 (Summer, 1979), pp. 124-126
Published by: American Marketing Association
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 JAi

ROBERT A. PETERSON, Editor

University of Texas, Austin

ROGER KERIN, Associate Editor

Southern Methodist University Book Reviews

AN INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY OF to further difficulties. Whether verbal protocols or "information

CONSUMER CHOICE display boards" (e.g., Arch, Bettman, and Kakkar 1976; Bettman
by James R. Bettman and Jacoby 1976) are employed, the obtrusive measurement proce-
(Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1979.
dure must influence and therefore contaminate the process itself.
402 pp. $14.95). Notwithstanding these problems, Bettman offers the reader an
intellectually stimulating, but demanding mongraph which attempts
and mostly succeeds in the integration of an enormous accumulation
Each of us has our own criteria for what a good book, or of
in research
this case,(over 500 citations) on human information processing in
a good consumer behavior theory book, should achieve. Mine
general and are
consumer choice processes in particular. The work is
less ambitious than the 15 criteria proposed by Zaltman,not
Pinson, and
easily consumed by the novice and is clearly intended for the
Angelmar (1973), but at the very least the book should succeed
advanced student of or practitioner in consumer behavior.
when measured against most or all of the following standards:
Following (1)an introduction and overview chapter are seven sub-
parsimonious yet comprehensive in structure and functional rela- each addressing a different process or structure
stantive chapters,
tionship specification, (2) accurate and well founded on prior
central to there-
theory. Each of these seven chapters contains a section
search, (3) empirically testable, (4) strong heuristic value
which in to link the topic discussed to other components of
attempts
the theory,and
generating new research, (5) precise and elegant in construction and concludes with a restatement of the theoretical
exposition, (6) does more than simply invent new words/constructs
"propositions" discussed and a "needed research" comment. The
to describe what is already known (i.e., strikes new ground), and (7)
book concludes with chapters on public policy and marketing man-
has potential application to marketing management or public
agementpolicy
implications.
issues.
Although entitled a "theory," the book is more an exposition of
Bettman has succeeded admirably on some of these criteria, but a framework or schema for understanding the choice process. Yet,
has done less well on others. Before specifically evaluating his work many consumer behavior researchers have long been accustomed to
on these standards, some comment about what the book is and how calling nontheory books, "theory" (e.g., Engel, Blackwell, and
it relates to other consumer behavior theories is in order. Kollat 1978), and so Bettman is certainly not to be faulted in
Most consumer researchers are undoubtedly familiar with following that tradition. Specifically, Bettman contrasts his
Bettman's pioneering research which applied information process- "theory" with those of Nicosia (1966), Howard and Sheth (1969),
ing theory, mostly parented by Newell and Simon (1958, 1972), Hansen (1972), Howard (1977), and Engel, Blackwell, and Kollat
Miller, Galanter, and Pribham (1960) and Simon (1967), to con- (1978). In the main, his "information processing" approach is
sumer decision making. The appearance of Bettman's "decision theoretically closest to Hansen's (both embrace a strong cognitive
nets" and verbal protocols in articles published in the Journal of approach), but is operationally most akin to both Howard (1977)
Marketing Research (Bettman 1970, 1971b) proposed a dramat- and Engel, Blackwell, and Kollat (1978). All of these theories
ically new method of conceptualizing and measuring the way in specify the process by which decisions/choices are made employing
which consumers acquired and processed information. This per- a closed system with a memory unit (or information and experi-
spective has been continued over the decade by his many students ence), a processing unit, and one or more input-output mechanisms.
and colleagues. All assume that consumer behavior is purposive and goal directed,
As Hughes (1974) noted, the major strength of Bettman's per- and in this regard all stand in contrast to stochastic models (e.g.,
spective is the extreme richness of detail and general depth provided Bass 1974).
in describing the way individual consumers develop and implement Bettman's theory is different principally in its focus upon the
decision rules in attaining goals and in that process, acquire and information processing component per se. Thus, he provides an
evaluate information. But the weakness is the difficulty in generaliz- extensive treatment of choice or decision rule heuristics missing
ing results of such studies across individuals and situations. Further, from or only lightly treated in the other theories. The concept of the
the methodology employed to generate data on what goals, plans "decision net" and the utilization of graph theory, developed by
(sets of subgoals), and decision heuristics are being employed leads Bettman in his earlier work (1971 a, 1971 b), occupy a central role in

124 / Journal of Marketing, Summer 1979

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his elaboration of alternative decision heuristics. Because of this for highlighting major assumptions or simple assertions of fact. For
more restricted focus, we are not surprised to find that the constructs example, "Proposition 3.4.i: Hierarchies allow effective informa-
of memory, motivation, conflict, and choice heuristics are treated in tion processing" (p. 58) . . . "Proposition 4.1.iii: Attention has
much more detail than in the other theories mentioned previously. been measured in many ways, using mainly verbal awareness and
For the same reason, personality/life-style, culture, advertising, and recall responses or physiological measures. Pupil dilation measures
other individual differences and external stimuli are not made ex- seem particularly useful for tapping the amount of processing effort
plicit components of Bettman's theory, although some of the impli- (attention) being allocated" (p. 93).
cations of these factors are discussed. Such "propositions" do not a theory make. Moreover, the
Another major departure of Bettman's conceptualization from accuracy of some (e.g., pupil dilation as a desirable measure of
all other current consumer behavior theories is the essential exclu- attention, above) is arguable. It is likely that the imprecision of the
sion of the construct, attitude, as a necessary or even particularly linkage statements derives from the fact that so much of the theory's
useful notion. ". .. attitude need not be directly related to choice crucial content is not based upon prior research. Some readers will
processes. Rather, formation of attitudes and choice may be sepa- despair at the all too frequent number of"''. . . little is known about
rate phenomena, which may go on in parallel with each other" (p. ..." statements Bettman makes. Many seem to come just at those
210). So, those of us who have begun to view Fishbein versus points where our appetite has been whetted for an answer. For
Rosenberg as teapot tempests need not fear more of the same in this example, after developing the goal hierarchy notion we are told that,
book. It isn't here.
"The entire notion of how a goal hierarchy is carried out is one
In developing his conceptualization of motivational mecha- which has seen virtually no research" (p. 53). One wonders how
nisms moving the consumer from some initial state through the two decades of consumer behavior research could have shed so little
attainment of some desired state, Bettman adopts a cognitive ap- light on these pivotal issues and is left speculating (with Bettman) as
proach as opposed to a drive or expectancy-value orientation. It is in to what the answers might be.
this conceptualization of motivation, and its role in guiding choice, It is probably unreasonable to regard such "looseness" as a
that Bettman's theory makes a substantial contribution to our think-weakness of Bettman's work per se. The fact is, we don't know
ing about the decision process. Central to this articulation is the much about the process. And Bettman's ruminations may well be
notion of a hierarchy of goals (and subgoals or plans) through which the spark for research which addresses and resolves much of what is
the consumer progresses. The number and complexity of goals unknown. Thus, although not doing well on the "precise and
directly relate to the kind and amount of information processing elegant' criterion, this reviewer would assign high marks on heuris-
which needs to be accomplished. Some goals are necessarily at- tic value.
tained before others can be accomplished while others may be The concluding chapters dealing with public policy and market-
simultaneously operated on by the consumer, and for some, the ing management implications are less satisfactory than the substan-
goals hierarchy may be well articulated at the outset while for others tive chapters. Some of the difficulty in directly relating the theory to
it may be "constructed" as the choice process proceeds. "applications" undoubtedly is inherent in the focus on process
Bettman's s"scanner" (a mechanism for continually monitoring factors and choice rather than on a more comprehensive consumer
environmental events) and "interrupt mechanism" (disruptions of behavior theory which would deal more explicitly with behavioral
ongoing goal-directed behavior) are constructs necessary to under- outcomes and with external, environmental factors.
stand how the motivational flow can be sidetracked, interrupted, or The policy chapter focuses on applications of the theory to how
otherwise modified to reflect the everchanging environment. In information is most effectively put before consumers rather than
terms of consumer decision making, these "interrupts" typically with a consideration of what information would be most useful to
are the result of unanticipated environmental conditions which may them. Given that we don't know much about consumer "goals" in
require departure from goals or plans which had been guiding the the context of policy issues (e.g., providing nutritional informa-
decision process. Thus, attention (voluntary and involuntary) and tion), it follows that we don't learn much about how information
perceptual encoding are frequently interrupted by conflict and "en- should best be provided. And the marketing management chapter
vironmental learning." seems equally tangential. Here, the focus is on applying consumer
Information acquired from memory or external sources is pro- information processing to determining what to ask consumers and to
cessed via one or another decision heuristic in the evaluation of and
how this information should be elicited. This perspective takes us
selection among alternatives. The choice of heuristic is dependent
into a discussion of verbal protocols and "decision nets" and
upon both individual differences and choice task properties. question format. Implications for the "4 Ps" are, by definition,
Further, his theory describes alternative procedures for how the tentative, since unless we know what goals and heuristics consum-
choice heuristic is executed. There are "stored rules" already ers use in a particular choice situation, we can't say much about
existant in stored memory and there are "constructive methods" what information is optimal or how it is most effectively provided.
(Neisser 1967) which build on rule fragments existing in memory, However, the chapter is rich in research hypotheses.
but dynamically combined and implemented during the processing In sum, Bettman's work is not a precisely-stated theory, nor are
itself. After purchase and consumption, perceived outcomes be- functional relationships stated to permit definitive testing, but there
come new information in the system. are sufficient linkage statements to provide a basis for further
The entire process is in a continually dynamic state with branch-
research and theory enhancement. It is neither parsimonious, pre-
ing, looping, interrupts, and cycling. Initial goals may be, and cise, nor elegant, but as a "first cut" does as well as we should
frequently are, modified as a result of this interplay. It is this expect. He does strike new ground, particularly in his treatment of
dynamic, interactive, recursive, hierarchical, and cyclical character the interrupt mechanism, the role of learning and memory, and
of Bettman's theory which makes both understanding and predic- alternative choice heuristics. And although his "application" chap-
tion of choices a very complex task, which he recognizes. However, ters are not particularly satisfying, he certainly provides a strong
these factors also contribute to rather vague functional linkages basis for future research.
among parameters in his theory. This lack of precision is evident in Bettman's book was well worth his time in the writing and ours
reviewing the many "propositions" contained in each of the book's in the reading.
substantive chapters. It would appear that these propositions are less
IVAN ROSS
intended as testable hypotheses (although a few are) than as a device
University of Minnesota

Book Reviews / 125

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REFERENCES Howard, John A. (1977), Consumer Behavior.: Application of Theory, New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Howard, John A. and Jagdish N. Sheth (1969), The Theory of Buyer
Arch, David C., James R. Bettman, and Pradeep Kakkar (1976), Behavior,
"Subjects'New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Information Processing in Information Display Board Studies," in Ad-
Hughes, G. David (1974), "Buyer/Consumer Information Processing: An
vances in Consumer Research, H. Keith Hunt, ed., Chicago: Overview
Associa-of Where Researchers Have Been and Where They Should Be
tion for Consumer Research, 315-320. Going," in Buyer/Consumer Information Processing, G. David Hughes
Bass, Frank M. (1974), "The Theory of Stochastic Preference and Brand E. Ray, eds., Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
and Michael
Switching," Journal of Marketing Research, 11 (February), Press,
1-20.3-11.
Bettman, James R. (1970), "Information Processing Models of Consumer
Miller, George A., Eugene Galanter, and Karl H. Pribham (1960), Plans
Behavior," Journal of Marketing Research, 7 (August), 370-376.
and the Structure ofBehavior, New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
(1971a), "A Graph Theory Approach to Comparing Con-
Neisser, Ulric (1967), Cognitive Psychology, New York: Appleton-
sumer Information Processing Models," Management Science, 18 (Part
Century-Crofts.
II, December), 114-128. Newell, Allan and Herbert A. Simon (1958), "Elements of a Theory of
(1971b), "The Structure of Consumer Choice Processes,"
Human Problem Solving," Psychological Review, 65 (May), 151-166.
Journal of Marketing Research, 8 (November), 465-471. , and (1972), Human Problem Solving, En-
, and Jacob Jacoby (1976), "Patterns of Processing in Con- Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
glewood
sumer Information Acquisition," in Advances in Consumer Research,
Nicosia, Francesco M. (1966), Consumer Decision Processes: Market
Beverlee B. Anderson, ed., Cincinnati: Association for Consumer Re-
andAdvertising Implications, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, In
search, 315-320. Simon, Herbert A. (1967), "Motivational and Emotional Controls of Cogn
Engel, James F., Roger D. Blackwell, and David T. Kollat (1978),
tion,"Con-
Psychological Review, 74 (February), 29-39.
sumer Behavior, 3rd ed., Hinsdale, IL: Dryden. Zaltman, Gerald, Christian R. Pinson, and Reinhard Angelmar (1973
Hansen, Fleming (1972), Consumer Choice Strategy:. A Cognitive Metatheory
Theory, and Consumer Research, New York: Holt, Rinehart, an
New York: Free Press. Winston.

MARKETPLACE BEHAVIOR- ITS MEANING FOR probably no audience more imperious in its demand that theory
MANAGEMENT
translate into criteria for decision making than marketing managers.
by Sydney J. Levy The significance of the effort by a man who knows far more than he
(New York: AMACOM, 1978. 224 pp. $16.95.) can say in this context outweighs any text shortcomings, for Levy
has tried to integrate all of the usual marketing considerations with
their symbolic character.
To understand
The marketplace is an arena of symbolic interaction. Buyers and a culture means simply to know the sense of its
sellers have always known, often at a nonverbal level,symbols and signs and the behavior appropriate to them. In that lies
that three
yards of yellow silk are much more than merely a pieceLevy's central
of cloth orproblem, for contemporary America is not a coherent
culture
that a tennis racket is not merely a construct of metal and nylonbut a compound of overlapping and interlocking ones.
with
Further, have
calculable utility. On the other hand, marketplace analysts the relatively diverse audience differs widely in its sophis-
tication with a
traditionally dealt with what is more universal and measurable: symbols; and, as Levy says, the current meaning of
bushel of red durham, number one wheat is equal every symbol
in value tois in flux. Thus, it is easier for him to suggest the
one-third of a pair of ordinary bowling shoes. importance of symbolic considerations than to demonstrate their full
Still, the latter "tradition" is shorter than most of impact.
us realize.
And it is simply impossible for him to provide a satisfactory
From the mid-1700s until the end of the last century, guide
weforwere
the manager, who essentially wants to know, "What is the
dominated in our thinking by the "Age of Reason." symbolic
Buyers meaning
and of this retail outlet, this product or package
change,
sellers, of course, still knew that nutmeg and rifles and this proposed advertising campaign?"
silk spoke
differently on the wind; but the genius of Smith and Ricardo and
With graceful competence Levy treats communication theory,
Marshall taught intellectuals to ignore those differences and concen-
market segmentation, social stratification, and cultural change. All
trate instead on a special sort of analysis, one of high
areeconomic
integral to an adequate understanding of the symbolic processes
validity. In that moment, the study of marketing was involved
born. As a marketplace; and this understanding undoubtedly
in the
result, marketing bears both the scars and the decorations of marketing
provides the managers with a reasonable understanding of
economic tradition. their task. This treatment may also prove useful to those academi-
Sidney J. Levy attempts not so much to right the balance of the cians who have generally avoided the poetry of buying and selling.
Smith-Ricardo-Marshall inheritance as to affirm a major truth: what "Seen in its essence," Levy says in his last chapter, "a transaction
you do not see is there! He restates the importance of symbols in the anywhere in the marketing system is the interaction of the brand
marketplace. image and life-style." Not the product and its use, but the product
While Levy is a psychologist, co-opted into academic marketing meaning and an individual's self-concept are at work to maintain a
at about the time I was, the historic source of his message is desired meter and rhyme which will in turn result in poetic signifi-
generally of sociological and psychiatric origin with Durkheim, cance.
Cooley, Freud, Mead, and Goffman providing the major founda- Levy's position is not only supported by social an
tions. His message is directed to marketing managers rather than theory; it purports to explain at least a fair portion of
marketing theorists leaving him with a most difficult audience. marketing behavior that our work using personality
There is simply nothing much more unclear than the nature ofgraphics, attribution theory, or the like has not been
symbols if they are to be given technical consideration. There is And the implied directive to the marketing mana

126 / Journal of Marketing, Summer 1979

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