Fundamentals of COLLEGE | GEOMETRY SECOND EDITION Edwin M. Hemmerling JOHN WILEY & SONS, New York # Chichester © Brisbane © TorontoCopyright © 1970, by Jo AIL rights reserved. Reproduction o tansaton af sy’ part of his work beyond tt permited by Sevens 107 or 108 ofthe 1976 United States Copy Tan Ae tout perm of he cpanel fat Requests for permission of further jnfoxmation shoud De Shona othe Feemssors Deparment, John Wiley & Sons. Ins 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 Librany of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 15-8296 sang sv036 Printed in the United Statevat America Preface Before revising Fundamentals of College Geometry, extensive questionnaires were sent to users of the earlier edition. A conscious effort has been made in this edition to incorporate the many fine suggestions given the respondents to the questionnaire, At the same time, I have attempted to preserve the features that made the earlier edition so popular The postulational structure of the text has been strengthened, defini Some have been improved, making possible greater rigor in the develop nient of the theorems. Particular stress has been continued in observing the distinction between equality and congruence. Symbols used for segments, intervals, rays, and haif-lines have been changed in order that the symbols for the more common segment and ray will be easier to write. However, a symbol for the interval and half-line is introduced, which «will still logic show their relations to the segment and ray Fundamental space concepts are introduced throughout the text in order ty preserve continuity, However, the postulates and theorems on space geometry are kept to a minimum until Chapter M4. In this chapter, partie ular attention is given to mensuration problems dealing with geometric solids, Gicater emphasis has been placed on wilizing the principles of deductive logic covered in Chapter 2 in deriving gcomeric truths in subsequ chapters, Venn diagrams and truth tables have been expanded at a number Of points throughout the text there isa wie variance throughout the United States in the time spent in {geometry classes. Approximately two fifths of the classes meet three days a week, Another two fifths meet five days each week. The student who studics the first nine chapters of this text will have completed a well-rounded niinimum course, including all of the fundamental concepts of plane and space geometry Fach subsequent chapter in the book is written as a complete package, hone of which is essential to the study of any of the other last ive chapters, Sct each will broaden the total background of the student. ‘This will per the instructor considerable latitude in adjusting his course to the time avail ahle and to the needs of his students. Each chapter contains several sets of summary tests. ‘These vary in type to include true-false tests, completion tests, problems tests, and proofs tests. A ey for these rests and the problem sets throughout the text is available. Somers 1969 Edwin M. HemmertingPreface to First Edition During the past decade the entire approach to the teaching of geometry has been undergoing serious study by various nationally recognized professional groups. This book reflects many of their recommendations. The style and objectives of this book are the same as those of my College Plane Geometry, out of which it has grown, Because | have added a signifi cant amount of new matetial, however, and have increased the rigor em ployed, it has seemed desirable to give the book a new title, In Funda. rentals of College Geometry, the prescniation of the subject has been strength. ened by the carly introduction and continued use of the language and symbolism of sets as a unifying concept. This book is designed for a semester's work. The student is introduced to the basic structure of geometry and is prepared to relate it wo everyday experience as well as wo subsequent study of mathematics The value of the precise use of language in stating definitions and hypo- theses and in developing proofs is demonstrated. The student is helped ire an understanding of deductive thinking and a skill in applying it tw mathematical situations. "He is also given experience in the use of indue- tion, analogy, and indirect methods of reasoning, Abstract materials of geometry are related to experiences of daily life of the stident, He learns to search for undefined terms and axioms in such areas of thinking as polities, sodology. and advertising. Examples of circular reasoning are studied. In addition to providing for the promotion of proper attitudes, under- standings, and appreciations, the book aids the student in learning to be Critical in his listening, reading, and thinking. He is caught not to accept statements blindly but to think clearly before forming conclusions The chapter on coordinate geometry relates geometry and algebra Propentics of geometric figures are then determined analytically with the aid bf algebra and the concept of one-to-one correspondence. A short chapter on cigonometty is given to relate ratio, similar polygons, and coordinate geometry, Illustrative examples which aid in solving subsequent exercises are used |iuerally throughout the book, The student is able to learn a great deal of the material without the assistance of an instructor. Throughout the book he 's afforded frequent opportunities for original and creative thinking, Many 0 the gencrous supply of exercises include developments which prepare for theorems that appear later in the text. The student is led to discover for himsetf proofs that followJok include completion, true- The summary tests placed at the end of the book inch P false, multiple-choice items, and problems. ‘They alford the student and the instructor 2 ready meany of measuring progres in the course, asersold California, 1964 Edwin M. Hommertings Contents 1. Basic Elements of Geometry 2. Elen uary Logic 3. Deductive Reasoning 4. Congrucnce ~Congruent Triangles 5. Parallel and Perpendicular Lines 6, Polygons Parallelograms 7. Circles 8, Proportion Similar Polygons 9. Inequalities 10, Geometric Gonstruetions LL, Geometric Loc 12. Areas of Polygons 13. Coordinate Geometry IM. Areas and Volumes of Solids Appendix Greek Alphabet Symbols and Abbreviations Table. Square Roots Properties of Real Number System List of Postulates Lists of ‘Theorems and Coroliaries Answers to Exercises IndexBasic Elements of Geometry 11, Historical background of geometry. Geometry is a study of the pro- petties and measurements of figures composed of points and fines. It is a very old science and grew out of the needs of the people. The word geo- metry is derived from the Greek words geo, meaning “earth, meaning “to measure.” ‘The early Egyptians and Babyloni 3.¢.) were able to develop a collection of practical rules for meast geometric figures and for determining their properties, These rules were obtained inductively over a period of centuries of trial and error, They were not supported by any evidence of logical proof Applications of these principles were found in the building of the Pyramids and the great Sphiny. he irrigation systems devised by the early Egyptians indicate that they had an adequate knowledge of geometry as it may be applied in land surveying, The Babylonians were using geometric figures in tiles, walls, and decorations of their temples, From Egypt and Babylonia the knowledge of geometry was taken to Greece. From the Greek people we have gained some of the greatest con- ibutions (0 the advancement of mathematics, The Greck philosophers Studied geometry not only for wtlitarian benefits derived but for the esthetic ‘and cultural advantages gained. ‘The early Greeks thrived on a prosperous sea trade, ‘This sea trade brought them not only wealth but also knowledge from other lands. ‘These wealthy citizens of Greece had considerable for fashionable debates and study on various topics of cultural interest be- cause they had slaves to do most of their routine work. Usually theories and concepts brought back by returning seafarers from foreign lands made topics for lengthy and spirited debate by the Greeks.oF COLLEGE GEOMETRY 2 FUNDAMENTAL Thus the Greeks became skilled in the art of logic and critical thinking: Among the more prominent Greeks contibuting to this advancement were Tales of Miletus (540-546 8.c.), Pythagoras, a pupil of Thales (5807500 8.¢.), Plato 1429-348 n.¢.), Archimedes (287-212 v.c.), and Euclid (about 300 8.6.) ‘Luclid, who was a teacher of mathematics at the University of Alexandria wrote the first comprehensive treatise on geometry. He entitled his text “Elements.” Most of the principles now appearing in a modern text were present in Euclid’s “Elements.” His work has served as a model for most of the subsequent books written on geometry. 1.2. Why study geometry? ‘The student beginning the study of this text fray well ask, “What is geometry? What can I expect to grin from this study?” vy leading institutions of higher learning have recognized that positive benefits can be gained by all who study this branch of mathematics. This is veident from the fact that they require study of geometry as a prevequisite to matriculation in those schools, vA stady-of geometry is an essential part of the training of the successful engincer, scientist, architect, and draftsman. The carpenter, machinist, tinamith, stonecutter, attst, and designer all apply the facts of geometry their rades. In this course the student will learn a great deal about geomettic figures such as lines, angie, triangles, circles, and designs and patterns of many kinds, ‘One af the most important objectives derived from a study of geometry is making the student be more eritical in his listening, reading, and thinking, In studying geometry he is led away from the practice of blind acceptance of statements and ideas and is taught to think clearly and critically before form- ing conclusions Miiiere are many other less direct benefits the student of geometry may gain. Among these one must include training in the exact use of the English Tanyguage and in the ability (o analyze a new situation or problem into its basic parts, and utilizing perseverence, originality, and logical reasoning ia solving the problem. An appreciation for the orderliness and beauty of geometric forms that abound in man’s works and of the creations of nature will be a by-product of the study of geometry. The student should also develop an awareness of the contributions of mathematics and mathematicians to our culture and civilization. 1.3. Sets and symbols. The idea of “set” is of great importance in mathe- matics. All of mathematics can be developed by starting with sets, The word “set” is used to convey the idea of a collection of objects, usually with some common characteristic. ‘These objects may be pieces of furniture BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY. 3 in a room, pupils enrolled in a geometry ci ds in ry cass, words in the English rains of sand on a beach, et ai a sgn of anon a beat eThene oct may a be distinguishable Pes The sora fen ofthe se one tl ects is to be regarded as a single entity. It is to be treatec wet ‘aggregnic,” “covey, nd “flock,” sree nen ss neve are three ways of spec of specifying a set. One isto give a rae by whi can be determined wheter or nova ge jet ember ofthe set Bat isthe sets described. This method of specifying a sets called the rule it The second method stove atmpete Is ofthe mbes the SES cll he reer mt” me ru ed fr setae called its elements “Thun "members" and “elewients cee be eed iat "and “elements” can be used example, {15.5.7 sean the set whose members reine old oui Ik Sand ftom, Dick, Harry, Bill] might represent the members of a vocal aut capil leer often used to ame a rele tora se Thy ee = {1,3, eels Dick, Harry, Bill}. Nene clements, A finite set which contains no mem} aie oeay eau ia ‘he symbol fora nl eis gor.” Th (cenit fe Wi. ASet wih dette nber® of meres ia fate se Th [9 ie scl of which 5 is the only clement. When the set contains mi ny X ‘ments, itis customary to place inside the braces a description of the meraber of the set, e.g. {eitizens of the United States} sei aural of elements is termed an infite wt tninfinite seu (0,2-4.6,, In mathematics we use three dots elements ofaset. For example ‘ A sec with an infinite num The natural numbers 1,9. 3.0+. form ¥ means the set ofall nonnegative even numbers. )) in two different ways in listing the ‘i Rule tegers greater than 10 and less than Nerethe dot tneun “and soon upto and including. i 2. fimegers greater than 10} Here the dots... mean “and so on indefinitely.” Roster {11, 12,13,... , 99) 411, 12,18,...} *Leroisadefinive number.4 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY eet Lasevi.o,n} 2. {arbewe. . (red, orange, yellow. green, blue, violet} (2.4.6.8, 10) Exercises renee oes 14. Relationships between sets. Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements, The equality between sets A and B is written 4 = B. The inequality of two sets is written 4 # B. For example, let set 4 be {whole numbers between HJ and 68} and let se.B be {whole numbers between If and 68}. ‘Then 4=B because the elements of both sets are the same: 2,3.4,5,and 6. Here, then, is an example of two equal sets being described in two different ways. We could write {days of the week} or {Sunday, Mon- To symbolize the notion that 5 is an element of set, we shall write 5 & ‘not a member of set A, we write 6 € A, read “6 is not an clement of set {1,2.3,4,5} 12, G= (B21) 1. How many clementsare in C?in E? day, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday} a5 two ways of 2. Give arule describing H describing equal ses Eade tad Fomndn ie ene tea Often several sets ate parts of a larger set. The set from which all other Spo ante aad eine sees sets are drawn in a given discussion isalled the universal set. “The universal See ees ard sades Ce sct, which may change from discussion to discussion, is often denoted by the Renton common to set B and set D? letler U.” In talking about the set of girls in a given yeometry class, the 7, Which of the sets are finite? universal set U might be all the students in the class, or it could be all the Rr arises aise? members of the student body of the given school, orall students in all schools, 9, What elements are common to A and B? ndaoon te Weak ce tenibare euler indore arian? Schematic representations to help illustrate properties of and operations Hae eae ono ag obisL eases ie eactedt rio ear with ets can be formed by drawing Venn diagrans (see Figs. 1-laand 1-10). eer sete ioe Here, points within a rectangle represent the elements of the universal set. Golme @illA Y) lme__p Seis in the universal setae represented ly points se circles ented 12, Givea rule describing F aa Ieee tee ace aeslcal leserive enchat che Fallowisy sas We shall frequently be interested in relationships between two or more sels, Consider the sets 4 and B where Example. {whole numbers greater than 3 and less than 9} Solution. {4,5,6, 7.8) 1, [days of the week whose names begin with the letter 7] 14. {even numbers between 29 and 39} 15 el cs eee positive} z 7 16. {positive whole numbers} Hee V7. {imegers greater than 9} peo T8, {integers less than 1} a 19, {months of the year beginning with the letter J} womtry 20, {positive integers divisible by 3} ‘oe 2U-28. Use the rule method to describe each of the following sets Example. (California, Golorado, Connecticut) Solution. {member states of the United States whose names begin @ 7 with the letter C} $= (24,6) and B= (1,2,3.4,5,6}. Pig bd6 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY Definition: ‘The set 4 is a subset of set B if, and only if, every element of set 4 isan element of set B. Thus, it the above illustration A isa subset of B. We wtite this relationshipa © BorB 3 A. Inthe illustration there are more eletnents in B than in A. This can be shown by the Venn diagram of Fig: 1.2 Notice, however, that our definition of subset does nor stipulate it must con: tain lewer elements than does the given set. The subset can have exactly the same clements as the given set. In such a case, the two sets are equal and cach is a subset of the other. ‘Thus, any sets a subser of itself AMustrati (a) Given A ) Given R = {integers} and S (o) Given C= {positive integers} and D and DC Cand C =D. 3} and B 1,2}. ThenB C4 odd integers}. ‘ThenS CR. 12,34..J. Then CCD | ane © FigL2 ACB Fig 13. When 4 isa subset of a universal set U, itis natural to think of the set com- posed of all elements of U that are not in A. ‘This set is called the comple ment of 4 and is denoted by 4’. Thus, if U represents the set of integers and A the set of negative integers, then 4’ is the set of nonnegative integers, .1,2.3,...}. The shaded area of Fig, 1.3 illustrates’ ied? 15. Operations on sets. We shall next diseuss two methods for generating new sets from given sets, Definition: ‘The intersertion of two sets P and Q is the set of all elements that belong to both P and Q. "The intersection of sets P and Q is symbolized by P 0 Qand is read “P intersection Q” or “P cap Q” Illustrations: (@) 1A =(1,2,3,4,5} and B = (2, 4,6,8, 10}, then 4 B ) WD ={1,3,5,...}and E 6,.-}.then DA When two sets have no elements in common they are said 1 be disjoint sets or mutually exclusive sets ania fo Fm {0.1 } and G = {0,~2,—4,-6.., J, then Fn ¢ \d) Given 4 is the set of all bachelors and B is the set of all in Here isa subset of 8. Care should be taken to distinguish between the set whose sole member is, the number zero and the null set (sce band eabove). They have quite distinct and different meanings. ‘Thus {0} # 8, The null set is empty of any ele- ments. Zero is a number and can be a member of a set. ‘The null set is a subset of all sets. The intersection of two sets can be illustrated by a Venn diagram. ‘The shaded area of Fig. I represents.4 0B, : Geeetneeneeaaae| a en E | oD () a Fels. 408 Py t5. AUB Definition: “The union of two sets P and Q is the set of all elements t belong to either P or Q or that belong to both P and Q. The union of sets P and Qis symbolized by PU Qand is read “P union Q” or“P cup Q.” The shaded area of Fig. 1.5 represents the Venn diagram of AUB. eee : et Mustration: (@) A= {0,2.3) and B {1,3,5, 7}, then 4 U B= {1,2,3,5, 7}, Note. Individual elements of the union are listed only once (b) If 4 = {whole even numbers between 24 and 5} and B = {whole numbers between 34 and 64}, then 4 U B = {4,5.6} and A 9 B= {4). ©) IEP {allbachelors} and Q= {all men}, then PU Q=Q. Fxample. Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate (R’ 01S") nthe figure, Solution (a) Shade R' (0) Add a shade for 8’, R’1S'is represented by the region common to the area slashed up to the8 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GROMETRY 7 g s Re C] is] “OED consy right and the area slashed down to the right. Uthatisnot in R’ 0S" (©) The solution is shaded in the last figure. We note that (R’-9S’)"= RU S. Exercises 1. Lett = (2.3.5.6, 7.9} and B= (3,4,6,8,9, 10} (@) Whatisd A.B? (b) Whacisd U BP Let R = (1,3,5,7,-. and S= {0,246.4 {a} Whavis RAS? (6) Whatis RU S? 8. Let P= {1,2.3,4,...) and Q= (3,6,9,12, .- (a) WhatisP 1. Q? (0) WhatisP U 4. ({1,3,5,7, 9) 01 (2,3,4,5)) U (24.6.8) = 5. Simplify: {4,7,8.9) U ((12.3..7 9 24,6...) 6. Consider the following sets. A= {students in your geometry class} B= {male students in your geometry cass} C= {female students in your geometry class} 1D = {members of student body of your school}. (aur AR! 0 S'Y isall the ares What are (@ 4. NB; (6) AUB, BAC WBUG MAND: BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY 9 7. In the following statements P and Q represent sets. Indicate which of the following statements are true and which ones are false. (a) PA Qisalways contained in P. (b) PU Qisalways contained in Q. (0) Pivabwa ned in PU Q. (d) Qisalwayscomained in PU Q, (0) PU Qisalways contained in P. CP) PD Qisalways contained in Q. (4) Pisalwayscontained in PM Q. (J) Qisalways contained in P-7 Q. (HPD QthenP A Q=P. U) WPS OthenP A Q=Q (E) IEP C Q,thenP U O=P. iD IEP CQ, thenP U O=@. 8. What is the solution set for the state solutions, of starement «+2 = 2? 9. What is the solution set for the statement a+ 2 = a+ 4 10, Let D be the set of ordered pairs (x, 9) for which x+y = 5, and let be the set of ordered pairs (x.y) for whichx—y= 1, What is DO £? nt @+2= 2 ie. the set of all 11-30. Copy figures and use shading to illustrate the following sets WLRUS, RAS. 18. (RNS) (RUS) a 15 RY 16. 8’ IT (R'y Is, RUS" we Ras 20. (RO SY. B YLRUS, 2 RAS. BROS mM RUS RUS. 2. RAS: : YO ©10. FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY 16. Need for definitions. In studying geometry we learn to prove state- ments by a process o| We learn to analyze a problem in terms of what data are g ples may be accepted as true and, by careful, logical, and accurate thinking, we learn to select a solu- tion to the problem. But before a statement in geometry can be proved, we must agree on certain definitions and properties of geometric figures, It je necessary that the terms we use in geometric prools have exactly the sume Moat af und not reflect onthe meanings of words we heat oF real during the course of a day. Yet, often, a more critical reflection might cause us to stoner what really we have heard oF read but inal was of ie nthe fat thatthe same word may have different meanings to diferent people Whattharacteristies dees a good definition have? When can we be certain the datnison isa good one? "Nevone petsou can establnt dat his delinition toe a given word's a correct one. What is important is that the people ret and, once they have reached an unulerstanding, no one ofthe group shay change the defniuon of the word without notifying the other. Thus wl expecaly be tue in dhs course. Once we agree on a detition those in wathing sacred about the definitions that wil follow. They might i ‘good definition in geometry has to enportant properties 1. The words in the definition must be simpler than the word being de- fined and must be clearly understood, 2. ‘The definition must be a reversible statement. Je" is defined as “an angle whose measure of each term in the definition is clear and ‘Thus, for ex: is 90." that 1. Tfwe havea right angle, we have an angle whose measure is 90. 2 Conversely, ifwe have an angle whose measure is 90, then we have a right angle, ‘Thns, the conyerseof a good definition is always true, although the converse of other statements are not necessarily true, The above statement and its converse can be written, “An angle isa right angle if, and only if, its measure! BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY. 11 is 90. ‘The expression “if and only if will be used so frequently in this text that we will use the abbreviation “iff” te stand for the entire phrase. 1.7, Need for undefined terms. ‘There are many words in use today that are difficult to define. They can only be defined in terms of other equally un- definable concepts. For example, a “straight line” is often defined as a line no part of which is curved." ‘This definition will become clear if we can define the word curved. However, if the word curved is then defined as a line “no part of which is straight,” we have no true understanding of the definition of the word “straight.” Such definitions are called “eivcular definitions.” Ut we define a straight line as one extending without change in direction, the word “direction” must be understood. In defining mathe: ical terms, we start with undefined terms and employ as few as possible of those terms that are in daily use and have a conimon meaning to the reader In using an undefined term, it is assumed that the word is so elementary that its meaning is known to all, Since there are no easier words to define the term, no effort is made to define it, ‘The dictionary must often resort to “ehining” a word by either listing other words, called synonyms, which have she same (or almost the same) meaning as the word being defined or by describing the word. We will use three undefined geometric terms in this book. point, straight line, and plane, We will resort to synonyms and descriptions of these words in helping the student to understand them, 18, Poi They are: sand lines. Before we can discuss the various geometric figures of points, we will need to consider the nature of a point. What is a point? Everyone has some understanding of the term. Although we can represent a point by marking 4 small dot on a sheet of paper or on a black- Lard, i certainly is not a point. If it were possible 10 subdivide the marker, {then subdivide again the smaller dots, and so on indelintely, we still would ot have a point. We would, however, approach a condition which most of us assign to that of a point, Euclid attempted to do this by defining a point 38 that whieh has position but no dimension. However. the words “position and “dimension” are also basic eonvepts and can only be described by using Cirewlar definitions, We namea point by a capital letter printed beside it, as point "A "in Fig. 1.6. Other geometric figures can he defined in terms of sets of points which satis'y ‘ertain restricting conditions We are all familiar with lines, but no one has seen one. Just as we can Fepresent a point by a marker or dot, we can represent a line by moving, the ‘ip of a sharpened pencil across a piece of paper. This will produce an pproximation for the meaning given to the word "line." Euclid attempted tw define a line as that which hus only one dimension, Here, again, he usedFUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY Fig 17 the undefined word “dimension” in his definition, Although we cannot Uofine the word “line,” we recognize it asa set of points. (On page 11, we discussed a “straight line” as one no part of which is “curved,” ort dng aihich extends without change in divections. The failures of these Strempts should be evident. Hovsever, the word “straight” is an abstraction dea generally used and commonly understood as a result of many obser ums of physical objects. ‘The line is named by labeling two points on it with ipitl fetes or by one lower case letter near it, ‘The straight line in Fig. 17 send “line AB" or “line L” Line 4B is often written WB." In this book, vale otherwike stated, when we use the terin “line,” we will haven mind the eptol astraight ine Per ge hand A 7 B,we say that Lis the lige whieh contains A and B. Two points deterinine line (ee Fig. 7). Thus 4B = BA Too straight lines ean intersect in only one point. In Fig, 16,48 9 AC = (4). Whatis 487 Be IF ge mark three points RS, and T (Fig 8) all on the same fine, we see that RS Thice or more points are collinear iff they belong to the Fig t8. 19, Solids and planes, Common examples of solids are shown in Fig. 1.9. The geometric solid shown in Fig. 1,10 has six faces whieh are smooth and. flat. These faces are subsets of plane surfaces or simply planes, The surface of a blackboard or of a table top is an example of a plane surface, A plane ‘can be thought of as a set of points. Definition. A set of points, all of which He in the same plane, are said to be coplanar. Points D, C, and E of Fig. 1.10 are coplanar. A plane can be named by using two points or a single point in the piane. Thus, Fig. 1.11 BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY 13 JV linger cone fener Sohare Fig. represents plane MN or plane M. We can think of the pine as being made tof an infinite number of points to Form a surface possessing no Thickness hihaving infinite length and with, Two lines lying in the same tersecton i J intersection isthe nul et are said wo be parallel fines, IE line fis parallel ote mthen m=. Ty Fig 110 Ris parallel DC and ADs parallel to BC cf The dravsings of Fig, 112 and Fig. 1.13 illustrate various combinations of points, ines, an planes- Fig LLM_ FUNDAMENTALS oF colLEGE GEOMETRY Fig. 142, Lines intersets plane R Plane I contain tine and m Plane R pases through lines and Plane R doesnot passthrough line Plane SN and plane RS intereetin AB. Plone MN and plane RS both pas thovugh Af isin both planes GB is conned in planes MN and RS. Exercises J. How many points does a line contain? 2. How many lines ean pass through a given point? | {How many lines can be passed! throught two distinct points? {How inany planes can be passed through two distinet points? 4 Can a line always be passed through any three distinet points? Caen tna) Be eed ath any tne de ge 9-17, Refer tothe figure and indicate which Grane following statements are toueand which are false 8. Plane Ad intersets plane CD in ine 10, Plane Ai passes threugth Ine 1. Plane 4B passes through FE 12, Plane CD passes through Et 18 CD. 14. (plane AB) A (plane CD) 5. In EP=6, "6. (plane CD) A = 17. (plane 4B) 9 EF EF Ie oe Draw pictures possible) that itustrave the situations described 18, Land mare wo lines and 61m = (P} dr Land mite two lines, PE AE 1.8 mand HS Fak 20. C€ Thandt 2p Rest16 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY 2. rand sate twoines, andy 0 s=i rand sare two ines, and: 328 PERLP Elan’ k=O. R,S.and Tare three points and T € (RF 0 87. 36. rand sare twolines, 4 # Band {A,B} © (7.08) 27. P,Q, Rand S are four points, @ € PR,and R € OS. 28. PLQ_R. and Sare four noncollnear points, Q € PR, and Q © PS 29, 4. Band Care three noncollinear points, 4, B, and D are three collinear points. and 4, Cand D are three collinear points 30, Fnvand ware diree fines, and PE (we Mn) OL 31 Lmcand ware three lines, A * B,and {4,B} © (10 m) 0 32, Nmcand nare three lines, # Byand {4,B} = (70 m) U 0m) $3. 4. and Care three collinear points, C, D, and & are three noncollinesr points,and & © 3. : 34. (plane RS) (plane MN) = 2B 35. (plane AB) 9 (plane CD) = ## 36. fine © plane AB. line m C plane CD. £0 m= {P} 37, {plane AB) 7 (plane CD) = 7. line m € plane CD. 10 m= 10 38. (plane AB) A (plane CD) =I. fine m & planeCD. 10 m4 1.10, Real numbers and the number Tine. ‘The first numbers a child Iearns are the counting or natural numbers, eg. (1,2,3,-..}- The mataral numbers are infinite: thats, given any number, however large, there is always Junother number larger Gadd | to dhe given number). These numbers cin be represented by points on a fine, Place a point O ou the line X°X (Fig. Il. ‘The point O will divide the line into two parts. Next, Jet d be a pointon X'X to the right of ©. ‘Then, to the right of 4, mark off equally spaced points B, C.D... For every positive whole number there will be exactly one point tw the right of point ©. Conversely, each of these points will represent only one positive whole number. To ike manner, points RS, 7, ..-«2 represent negative whole numbers. The distance between points representing consecutive integers can be divided into halves, thirds, fourths, and so on, indefinitely. Repeated division would make it possible 10 repres with points on the line, Note Fig. 1.15 for a few of the numbers that might be assigned to points on the Fine, be marked off to the left of point O to tall positive and negative fractions, BASIC ELEMENTS OF GkOMETRY 17 Fig 15 We have now © numbers, inded the points on the line to represent all real rational Definition: A rational number is one that ean be expressed as a quotient of tegers seeng inal or dca ht ents aden sch dtl an be Thar Oabl48 sand LSTHAAGTHIDN Tae atonal pars “The rational numbers Torn 4 Nery lage set, for between any to rational rumors there is thd one, “The of the raional numbers il dev conmpetely il esate Une Definition: An irrational number is one quotient of two integers (or asa repeating or t rimot be expressed as the rninating decimal) Examples of irrational numbers are V3, —V3, V5, and m. Approximate Fig. 1.16. The union of the sets of rational and rational numbers form the set of ral mimbers. ‘The line that represents all the real numbers is called the real snunter lie, ‘The number that is pated with a point on the number Line is Called the coordinate of that point We summarize by stating that the real number line s made up of an infinite set of points that have the following characteristics. 1. Every point onthe line is paired with exactly ame real number 2. Every real number can be paired with exacily one point on the line When, given two sets, it is possible to pair each element of each set with exactly one element of the other, the two sets are said to have a one-to-one correspondence, We have just shown that there is @ one-to-one correspan= dence between the set of real numbers and the set of points on a line, vour Roo A BODE Fy sow fees ba 4 pee researc a L L L 5 = 1 203s 4 8 6 “32 a eS Fig 1s Pig 116,18. FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMEFRY Pig. 47 LIL. Order and the number line. All of us.at one time or another engage in comparing sizes of real numbers. Symbols are often used to indicate the clative sizes of real numbers. Consider the following, Symbol Meaning a=b equals b a#b —— aisnorequaltob a>b —— aisgreaterth a & and a, the point representing the number 6 will be located to the right of the point on the number line representing the number a (sec Fig. 117), Conversely, if point Sisto the right of point R, then the number which is assigned to § must be larger than that assigned to R. In the figure, b < ¢ and e > a. When we write or names for the same number, ‘ona number line must be ides ne a= Thus, points which represent the same number al we mean simply that a and b are different 1.32, Distance between points. Often in the study of geometry, we will be concerned with the “distance between two points.” Consider the number line of Fig. 1.18 where points 4, P, B. C, respectively represent the integers =3,0,3,6. We note that 4 and B are the same distance from P, namely $. Next consider the distance between B and C. While the coordinates differ in these and the previous two cases, itis evident that the distance between the points is represented by the number 3 How can we arrive at a rule for deter We could find the distance between two points on a scaled nining distance between to points? by subtracting Fig 18 BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY 19 < Pig 129. ¢ smaller number represented by these 1wo points from the larger. Thus, in Fig. 1.19: The distance from TV = 5—(—1 The distance from $ to T = (—1) — The distance fram Qto R= 6. 3} Cask Another way we could state the above rule could be: “Subtract the eo ‘ordinate of the left poi from that of the point to the right.” However. this rule would be difficult to apply if the coordinates were expressed by place holders aand &. We will need to find some way of always arriving ata num- ber that is positive and is associated with the difference of the coordinates of the point. “To do this we use the symbol | |. The symbol [xis called the absolute value of x. In the study of algebra the absolute value of any number wis defined as Follows, xifx > 0 =xifs <0 Consider the following illus ons of the previous examples. Column 1 Column 2 Is) H3|=3 =n] [D= G5 = W-)-C3)i I-3)- CD) = [8 (3) I(-5)—(43)1 = 8} ‘Thus, we note that to find the distance between two points we need only to subtract the coordinates in either order and then take the absolute value of the difference. [fa and bare the coordinates of two points, the disiance betaven the prints can be expressed either by a~ ] ot dal Exercises 1. Whatis the coordinate of B? of D? 2. What point lies halfway between B anid D? 3. What is the coordinate of the point 7 units to the left of D?20. FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY 4, What is the coordinate of the point 3 5. What is the coordinate of the point m 6. What is the coordinate of the point midway between D and FF 7. What is the coordinate of the point midway between Cand £? 8. What is the coordinate of the point midway between A and C? 916, Leta, 6,6 dee fe p repre P. respectively. Det isto the right of C? Iway between Cand Fe sat the coordinates of points 4, B, C.D. F ‘mine the values of the following. =P 10. b=p i. be 12, |d=9 13, je=d| 4. Wd=s1 15, Je=dl 18, lane V7. fa= 18-26. Evaluate the following. Ig, 1] +21 21. -4|-6| 24. |-aF 11S. Segments. Half-lines. Rays, Let us next consider that part of the Line between two points om a Tine. Definitions: ‘The part of line AB between 4 and B, together with points A and Bm called segment AB (Fig. 1.190). Symbolically it is written: AB The points A and B are called the endpoints of AB. The number that tells how far itis from A (o B is called the measure (or lengli) of AB, In this text ‘we will use the symbol maB to mean the length of 4B. Pig, 9a, Semen “The student should be careful to recognize the differences between the rings of the symbols AB and m4B. The first refers to 2 geometric figure; the second o a number Definition: iB is benceen A and C (sce Fig. 1.20) if, and only if, 4, B, and C are distinct points on the same line and maB + mBC = maC._Using the equal Sign implies simply that the name used on the left (nAB-+ BC) and the name rnsed on the right of the equality sign (maC) are but ewo different names for the samme number, ae Fig. 120, iT + mB = AC. A point B is the midpoint of ACitf B is between A and C “The midpoint is said to hiset the segment (see Fig. 121) BASIC ELEMENTS OF GHOMETRY 21 a Leese B Big 121 IB = wT A tine orasegment which passes through the mpoin of second segment bine he ae Fg 18 Mn te mont of A, then Di Fig. 1.2. Definition: ‘The set consisting of the points between A and Bis called an ope segment othe interval joing and 8. 1 designate by the symbol p y Definition: For any two distinct points 4 and &, the figure (4) U (JB) is called a half-open segment, It is designated by the symbol 4B. Open seg- nents and hal-open segments are illustrated in Fig. 1.28 Every. point on a line divides that line into two parts, Consider the line / ‘trough points 4 and B (Fig. 1.244). a) ” © Fig. 123. 58" ya (TB Definition: 14 and B are points of line J then the set of points of which acon the same eof as iv dhe halftine from A through B Fig. 1248, the symbol for the halFline from 4 through B is AE and iy read “half line AB.” "The arrowhead indicates that the half-ne includes af points of the line on the same side of das i6 B. The symbol for the hall ine trom B through 4 (Fig. 1.240) is BA Note that 4 is not an element of AB. Similarly, B does not belong to BA.92 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE Grose ERY B 4 [laiaastead Fig. 1.24. (a) Line AB, Haltine AB. Hallie BA, Defi of A and all through B. ‘The point is called thi IA and Bat points whieh points of line f, then the set of points consisting re on the same side of 4 as is B is the ray from 4 endpoint of ray AB ‘The symbol for the ray from 4 through B is 4B (Fig. 1 ray AB” ‘Thesymbol forthe ray from B through A (Fig. 1.250) i BA and is read Fig. 125. (a) Ray AB. (6) RayBA, Definition: HA and BG are called opposite rays iff A, B, and C are collinear pints and Bisbevween d and C (Fig. 12) TW willbe scen that pointe A and Prof Fig, 1.26 determine nine geometsic figures: 40 JB, 5B 1B, AB 84, £1, the ray oppose AB, and the ray opposite BA. The union of BA and BC is BE (or JC). The intersection of BA and AB is AB. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEoMEYRY 23 Exercises 1-12, Given: A. fi, C.D are collinear and Cis the midpoint of AD: 1, Does biseet ADE 2, Ave B,C, and D collinear? 3. Does BC pass through 4? Does AB + mBC = mA? 4 5. IsC between 4 and 8? Be. 12, 6. AreZA and CB opposite rays? 1 isc © BD: 8 Whatis 9 9 BD? ©. Whavis Aa 0 BB 10, Whatis 4B U BG? Mi. Whats BU Hee 1 Whats CB 1 4B 18-82, Draw pictures if possible) that illustrate the situations described in the following exercises Bigbetween dl and C, and Cis between d and D. A,B, C, and D are four collinear points dis bet between 4 and & ts. 16 SLand RE ST 16 PG CRS. 7 OF CRG 18. B € Hand Cis beeween # and D. W. PQ= PRU Po Te Wands © RF. s PRU Po. Cand D, and Dis BEB ie i PQ, PR. aod PS ave three halt-ines. and UH 0 FS 4B 70, PR and PS ave three halfdines, ges Bap PO PRU Pr 6. PO= Pau P= Pu OR P.Q.and Rare three collinear points, € Git, ma R ¢ PG, fr and mare three distinct ines. m= Som fn =@ Uoncand nave three distinettines,¢ 0 m=Hin n= 000 nei Re Kland!. © fit De JRand FE BK.24 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLECE GEOMETRY LM. Angles. The figure drawn in Fig, 27s representation oF ansungle Definit ‘An angle is the union of two rays which haye the same endpoint. The rays are called the sides of the angle, and their common point is called the vertex of the angle. ae 9 ig. 027 ofthis book The sudent should note dhat the sides of an angle are infinitely long in two. directions. This is because the sides of an angle are rays, not segments In Fig. 128, 20D, ZBOE, and COP all refer to the same angle, £0. separates a line into wo half-ines. separation of a plane. A point h asst e a line separating a plane U into two Ina sitilar manner, we can think of BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY 25 ie Fig 130 half-planes Hy and Hy (Fig. 1.29). ‘The ewo sets of points Hy and Hs are called. sides (or kalfplenes) of line ‘The line 1 is called the edge of each half-plane. Notice that a half-plane does not contain points of its edge; that is, I does not lie in either of the two half-plines. We can write this faet as HH) 01= 9 and H, 2 1=$. A half-plane together with its edge is called aadlased half-plane. ‘Vhe plane U= Hy U1 U He If wo points P and Q of pline U'lie in the same half-plane, they are said to lie on the same side of the line I which divides the plane into the half-planes. In this case POA. L= $8. Af Plies in one half-plane of U and R in the other (Fig. 1.30), they lic on oppasitesidesot Here PRO 1 fh 1.16. Interior and exterior of an angle. Consider 248C (Fig. 1.31) lying in plane U. Line AB separates the plane into two half-planes, one of whiels contains C. Line BC also separates the plane into two half-planes, ane of which contains 4. The intersection of these two half-planes is the interior of the £ABC, Definitions: Consider an £48C lying in plane U. ‘The inti of the angle i the set ofall points of the plane on the same side of 4B as Cand on the same side of BC as 4. ‘The eeriar of LABC is the set of all points of U that do not lie on the imterior of the angle or on the angle itself. ‘A check of the definitions will show that in Fig. 131, poi imerior of ZABC: points Q, Rand Sarein the exterior of the angle Pisin the 1.17, Measures of angles. We will now noed to express the “size” of an angle in some way, Angles are usually measured in terms of the degree unit.GEOMETRY 26 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEG Fig. 13 Definition: To cach angle there corresponds exactly one real number 1 between 0 and 180. The number ris called the measure or degree meastire of the angle While we will discuss circles, radii, and ares at length in Chapter 7, itis assumed that the student has at least an intuitive understanding of the terms Thus, to help the student better to comprehend the m will sate that if a circle is divided! into 360 equal ares and radii ave drawn to ny two consecutive points of division, the angle formed at the center by these tadii has a measure of one degree. It is a one-degree angle. The symbol for degree is ©. The degree is quite small. We gain a rough idea of the ‘size of a unedegree angle when we realize that, if in Fig. 132 (not drawn ), fd and BC are each 57 inches long and AC is one inch long, chert ZABC hits a measure of approximately one We can describe the measure of angle ABC \g of the term We Ihre ways: The measure of ZABCis | ABC = 1 ZABCisa one-degree angle. Just as a ruler is used to estimate the measures of av amgle can be found roughly with the aid of # prowacor eof «Fig, 1.33), Fig. 133, prtroctr, Thus, in Fig. 1.54, we indicate the angle measures as: mZAOB= 20 meCOD=|86 mZAOD = 86 mZAOF = 15 50 or mZDOF = |150—86) or |86— 150] = 64 ‘m£BOE = |0—20) oF [20-110] = 90 jer should note that the me: i z ‘at the measure of an angle is merely the absolute of the difference between numbers corresponding to the sides of the angle, Hence, as such, it is merely @ number and no more. We should not8 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY Spite: However we wil lv indie ee Sisgeam the mcose of angle by ete nur ih a degre sgh wee cio ofthe angle ee Fg 138) J yc camber 48 is ue number of deqrees mike ange The wumber sel ited the measure ofthe age sat the measure of the ange ssa numb Teer tine the symbol for dee in ccireangthemesnea ean : Shan 180. This will exclude the measures of & figure auch as ete Fg, 135" While ne how hat angles can oxen Whose cease State da I che wilnot are hstext Meme 248 eee eeu eter othe angle with the saler measure. The sx Perea a a9 il elle to the mre a Fig. 153, mzABC no greater tl fof angles whose measures vanced courses in mathematics, Fig 1.3. ingle whose measure is ne student may wonder about the existence of an a "We wa idles of the angle 0. We will assume that such an angle exists when the two ‘You will note that the interior of such an angle is the empty set, coincide Exercises (A) 1. Name thesangle formed by STBand a@ in shree clilferent ways 2 Name Za in four additional ways 5. Give nec additional ways to name DML 4 see 2 7 Ey. 10, 4, Name the wo sides of 2FRC. 3. Whatis 2ABD 1) ZDBC: 6. Whacis 2AMD 1 ZBMCE 7. Name three angles whose sides are pairs of opposite rays, 8 Whatissit m9 BD? ae 9. Whatis MA U iD 10. What is M4 U Sib? 1-20, Draw (if possible) pictures that illustrate the situations described cach of the following, 11 Hisaline, FOO 7= 9 1% Fisaline. POO TAO 13. fisaline. PO N14 B. PEAT p V4. livatine “PQ 01, PRM = 13. fisaline. PON I=. PRAT & 16. lisaline PON I=. QRAI=0. PROTED. 13. lisaline. PONI=9. ORAZ. PROI=6 18. Tis a line which separates plane U into hall-phanes M, and He, PGA 1= 0, PEH.QE Hy 19. Idetermines the wo half-planes 4, and hy. RE 1.9 E LES C hy 20, Idetermines the two half planes handy. RE LSE LAS Ch Exercises (B) 21. Draw two angles whose interiors : z have no points in common. 2. Indicate the measure of the angle in three different ways. > 23. By using a protractor, draw an Es» angle whose measure is 55. ee Label the angle 2RTR Be,30. FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GromeTRy 24. Find the value of each of the following: (a) mZajc. (a) meDIB. ig) MLN mZEIE () mZGIE.—(e) me BIE th) mLHIB~ mz FD. (0) mEHJC. YP) mECJD+ mLGID.— () MLDIG= MERIC. 2 25, Draw AB Cf such that mB) =tinches. At A draw AG such that meBAC= 63. ACB draw AD such that mZABD = 48. Lubel the point tehere the rays intersect ay K.Thatis, AC 0 BD {K). With theaid of a protractor find mZAKB, 26, Complete BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY 31 gles. In Fig. 1.37 2408 and £BOC are adjacent angles. of ZAC, the wo adjacent a OB lies in the inter Fig. 137, Adjacent 5 The pairs of nonadjacent angles formed when two lines interseet are termed terial ands Tn Fig. 138 Ca ae are see gles aa soe 2Band 2p i (8) mZMPN + mZLPM (o) mZKPM — m2 LPM = m2. (a) w2KPN~ me MP3 27. With the aid of & protractor draw an angle whose measure is 70. it ZRST. Locate a point P iu the interior of 2ST such that m(SP UST) = 25. a What is m2 PSR? 28. With the aid of protractor draw 2 ABC such that 4 point P in the exterior of ZABC such chat BE Pr (BP U BA). 1.18. Kinds of angles. Two angles are said to be adjacent angles iff they have the same vertex, a common side, and the other two sides are contained in opposite closed half-planes determined by the line which © mon side, The rays nor common to both angles are called exterior sides of 1BC = 120, Locate Find the value of ins the com- Tig. 38 Zev and Ca arvertal 2S Ay the measure of an angle increases from (to 180 the followi angles are formed: acute angle, right angle, obtuse angle, and st (see Fig. 1,39) kinds of ight angle Denim 0 anaes nae uf ha 9 mene ke ha angles a ight angle fft has a measure oF. An angle anodes onl iff its measure is more than 90 and leys than 180. ‘ a its measure equal wo 80 Actually, our definition for the straight angle lacks rigor, Since we defined an angle as the “union of two rays whieh haves comision enpaine ‘se hi that the definition should be a reversible statement ould have 10 conclude thar every union of two rays which have the same endpoint would produce an angle Yet we know that BC U Ba ise. We ste, in elfect then saying that a straight angle isa straight line. This we know An angle is a straight angle Therefore, we52 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEG! However, since the term represent such a figu in this book, Fig 140. Dikedra ange lestthan 8." We ill have tw cca 1 Use sch GeomErRY io } < B a & 8 a conse d sem a ‘a re 9 straight angle is quite commonly: used to tolustrated in Fig. 1.994, we wil follow that practice ‘Some weasel the figuve a linear pai.® Definition: If 4, 8, and © are collmear al A aud Care ou! opposite sides of B, then UAC is dha sraigh engl with B its vertex and Bd and BC the sides. Definition: A dikedral angly is forme by the union of two halfsplanes with the same edge Each balt-plane is cilled a face of the angle (ee Fig. 140). Dihedal angles will be studied in Chapter 14. 1.19. Congruent angles. Congruent segments. A common concept in daily life is that of size and comparative sizes. We frequently speak of two things having the same The word ‘congruent” is used in geometry to define what we intuitively speak of as “having the same size howks, al, will define an angle a reflex ange iff ts measure is more thao 180 but len Unstone BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY 33 and the same shape Congruent figures can be thought of as bein duplicates of each other Definitions: Plane angles are congruent iff they have the same measure Segments are congruent iff they have the same measure. Thus, if we know (hat n4B = mCD, we say that 4B and CD ave congruent, that 4B is congruent co Dor that GD is congruent to dB. Again, if we know that mab nARST, we can say that ZABG and LRST are congruent angles, ABC is congruent to RST; or that ZRSTis congruent to LABC. The symbols we have used thus far in expressing the equality of measures beween line segments or between angles is rather cumbersome, To over- come this, mathematicians have invented a new symbol for congruence. The symbol for “is congruent to” iy =. Thus, the following are equivalent slatements.* mD AB = CD meRST — ZABC = CRST Definition: ‘The bisector of an angle is the ray whose endpoint is the ex of the angle and which divides the angle into two congrnent angles. The ray BD of Fig. 141 bisects, or is the angle bisector of, ZABC iff D is in the imerior of 2ABC and ZARD = ZDBC 1.20. Perpendicular lines and right angles. Consider the four figures shown in Fig, 1.42. They are examples. of representations of right angles and perpendicular lines. Definition: ‘Two lines are perpendicular if they intersect to form a right angle. Rays and segments are said to be perpendicular to each other iff te lines of which they are subsets are perpendicular to each other Fig. tt. Inge et, ‘Many vexs will abo use the symbol AB CD to mean that the measutes of the seuments are ial, Your incur may permit this symbolism. However, in this text, we wil not use ths Sstubolivin for congruence af segments nti Chapser BY that ttme. surely, the student >ullwoconfasea geomete gure mith that fis measure31 YUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY at DS “4 e symbol may also be read “per The symbol for perpendicular is L. ‘The symbol may sendicular to.” A right angle of a figure is usually designated by placing & Mhuare corner mark & where the two sides of the angle mmc The oe othe indicular meets the line. Fig. 12, Perpendicdar ives Lee Perpendicular to-a Hine fs the point Wiig bis the foot f the perpendicularsim ig. 12 tae, rayon segment i perpendicular 10 plane itis p every line in the plane that passes theough its foot. 10 Fi P61 40.0 1 Ob i ¢ from a point to a line 1.2L Distance from a point to a line, The distance from a point Sa neers cor the perpendicular segment from the point tothe bine. pendicular to . PO + 40, BASIG ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY 35 Fig. 144, Distance fiom point tone Thus, in Fig. 144, the measure of PAZ is the distance from point P to AE. tn Chapter 9, we will prove that the perpendicular distance isthe shortest distance from a point toa tine 1.22. Complementary and supplementary angles. ‘Two angles are called complementary angles iff the sum of their measures is 90, Complem angles could also be defined as two angles the sum of whose measures equals the measure of a right angle. In Fig. 145 Za and 2 are comph y ingles. Fach is the complement of the other. Angle ais the complement of 2B; and ZBis the complement of Za. Fig 145. Complementary 25. Angles are supplementary angles iff the sum of their measures is 180, We could also say supplementary angles are two angles the sum of whose measures is equal to the measure of a straight angle. In Fig. 146 Ze and 28 are supplementary angles. Angle a is the supplement of 2B; and 2B is the supplement of Za. SNe le Pig. 146. Supplementary 2S96. FUNPAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY 148. Trigangles, Kinds of triangles. ‘The union of the three segments und AC is called a triangleifl A,B, and C are three noncollinear points leis A (plural A), ‘Thus, in Fig. 147, OABC™ 4B U Fig 147 Bach of the noncollinear points is called a vertex of the triangle, and each of the line segments is 2 side of the triangle. Angle ABC, 2ACB, and £CAB src called the interior angles or simply the angles of the triangle. In Fig Tif, B, and C are vertices of BARC; AB, BC. aud CA ave sides of AAR Angle € b apposite side AB, AB is opposite ZC. The sides AC and BC ate ‘aid to include ZC. Angle Cand £4 include side CA. "A point P lis in the iueror of a triangle iff it ies in the interior ofeach of the aales of the tangle. Every triangle separates the points ofa plane into Ge ise, the interioy of the triangle and the extetiot BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY 37 A triangle is equilateral iff it has three congruent sides. TI le ave labeled in Fig; 1.49. In the figta bene times te congruent sides ave calle lp of the triangle. “Angle, opposite C°and ingle Br opposite AGcnve caled dhe hae dangles ofthetsosceles uiangle. Side 4B isthe fase of the tangle. Angle C. opposite the bes isthe yeron angle “Tne set of triangles may also he elsiied into four subset, aecordng to the Kind of angles the A convin (Fig, 150) A trangle isn ace iiangle fi has dhree acute angles Siang an ote tangle if it has one parts of an e AC = BC. Some Fig. 1:99, Sasori. of the triangle. The exterior of a triangle is the set of points of the plane of the triangle thatare neither elements of the triangle nor of itsimerior. Thus, exterior of AABC = [Ginterior of ABC) U AABC] The set of triangles may be classified into three subsets by comparing the sides of the 4 (Fig. 1.48), A triangle is sealene iff it has no two sides that are congruent. A triangle is isosceles iff it has (wo sides that are congruent NAA Sealene a ameeies a ultra Fig. 188 ontee / fo \ ani aN ranta EquerguarA Fig. 1.50 obtuse angle. A triangle is a righ wang Sides that form the right angle of the. Uiangle are termed legs of the triangle; and the side opposite the right angie is called _the Aypotenuse. In fig. 1.31, HB sand BC are the legs and 4C.is the hypot- enuse of the right triangle. A triangle is equiangular iff it has three congruent angles : ee iff it has one right angle. The Fig, 151. Right ange38 Exercises L.Using & protractor and rub construct a m2d= 10, and mZB=95. Give two names for this kind ‘of triangle In the figure for Ex. 2, what side is common to & ADC and BDC? What vertices are com- 4. 2 non to the ovo 8? State the kind of triangle cach of the following seems to be (a) according to the sides and (b) accord ing (o the angles of the triangles, (If necessary, use a ruler to compare the length of the sides and the square corner of a sheet of paper to ‘compare the angles. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY 99 14-16, Name a pair of complementary angles in cach of the following diagrams. 17, Tell why Za and 2@are complementar angles Belt Bets, Jf, 3. ARST 4. AMNT r a B /~ 3 Hees Ext bs 18-20, Name a pair of supplementary angles in each of the following dia- Fa 34 : 2 ¥ ‘2=25- Name two pairsof adjacentangtes in each of the following figures 5. DABC 6. ADEF 4 pte B36 x 7. AGHK fc 8. AdnC 8, AADC Bes Wa aoe =~ 11, AEC. i o 12, AABE. 6 A 7 fire seo" Ex. Be. 813 / \ jw \ sheers 13. In the figure for Exs. 8 through 13, indicate wo pairs of perpendicular 4 5 lines,4). YUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GHOMETRY be. sigle whose measure is 24, Find the measure of the complement of each (a) 30, ()45, (80, Aa. ‘ eis 95, Find the measure of the supplement of each angle whose measure is (2)30, 45, (90, (Da. ii In exctcises 26-31, what conclusions about congruence can be drawn fro the data given? 26. Mis the midpoint of AC. Bs.26 27, BD visects LABC \ NN ¢ 98. OF bisects ACB. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEOMERRY 41 D and BD bisect each other. > : a 2 x20, 7 30. DE bisects ADB. A. Disthe midpoint of FC 1.24, Basing conclusions on observations or measurements. Ancient mathematicians often tested the truth or falsity of a statement by direct Although this is an important method of acquiring knowledge, it is not always a reliable one, Let us in the following examples attempt to form certain conclusions by the method of observation or measurement. observation oF measurement |. Draw several triangles. By using a protractor, determine the measure of cach angle of the triangles, Find the sum of the measures of the three angles of each triangle. What conclusion do you think you might draw about the sum of the measures of the three angles of any given triangle?42. YONDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY Me Pig. 152, Fig 133 a. tn Fig, 152, ZABD and ZCBD ave supplementary adjacent angles, Draw Te vitcling CAND and HE bisecting ZCBD. Determine the measure of Fe Wa conclusion might you dave fran this experiment? scering lines a in Fig. 153, Measure Za and ZB. ne posible conclusions about vertical anges Also. Draw Wo i measure 20nd Zdh If the angles of the triangles of Example 1 were measured carefully, the fer that the sum of the measures of the three angles of any student will discov ult of such measure le will always be near [80 Is the student, as a r ating unequivocally that the sum of the measures of the iments, justified in st three angles of any triangle is 1802 Let us consider the implications of making such a conclusion, First the triangles liad to be drawn in order to measure the angles, The width of the tines representing the sides of these triangles will vary depending upon the fineness of the drawing instrument. ‘The protractor with which the angles are measured is roughly divided into degrees only.—“Phus the protractor how edilfercace of ofa degree that might exist between the stn df the meastires of the angles of owo triangles. No matier how fine the sides Of the triangle may be drawn or how accurate the measuring instrument, there will always be a possibility chat, if the accuracy of the measurements were increased, a slight exvor in the angle sum might be detected. A sccond fallacy in stating as an absolute truth the sum of the measures of the angles of any triangle is [80 is the assumption that what may be muc for limited number of cases must be true for all cases, This is an unreliable practice. We would be safer in stating that the results of our experience lead ny triangle equals 180. us to believe that probably the angle sum of In like manner we would be justified in stating in Example 2 that it appears that the single bisectors of two adjacent supplementary angles are perpen- diclar to each other. In Example 3, we could state that it appears chat the pairs of the nonadjacent angles formed, when two Tines intersect, are cone gruent In subsequent stuly in this text we will prove that each of the above apparent conclusions are truths in fact, but, anil we do prove them, we can only state what seems 10 be true BASIC ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY 43, Umeliable conclusions based upon limited or inaccurate observations or measurements are common also in nonmathematieal situations. For example, consider the tendency to associate sadism with the people of a whole nation because their leaders are guilty of sadistic characteristics or, ‘on the other hand, to attribute glamour to the women of a given nation hecause of a limited number of celebrated beautiful women in the history of that nation, Frequently, the athletic prowess of a whole ge ct a whole nation is judged by the record. ofavery small group of atHletes belonging tothat nation, The student can add many more examples to this ist. 1.25, The inductive method of reasoning. In the past examples the reaso ing which was used in arriving at conclusions is known as inductive reasoning. A general conclusion is drawn by investigating a number of particular cases. Itis the method of research, Inductive reasoning has made a large contribu tion to civilization. In it one observes, measures, studies relations, computes, and draws conclusions, ‘These temative conch called ‘ anive conclusions are called ipotheses We will use many hypotheses in this text, The hypothesis indicates a state- ment that is possibly true based on obscrvation of a limited number of eases The finer the measuring instruments and the more careful the observations an measurements, the greater the possibility that the hypothesis is correct. Nitional pre-election polls are conducted by observing a good representative cross section of the various regions of the nation, Experts have been able to make very accurate predictions by observing less than sy percent of all the ‘igible voters im a national election, 1.26. "The deductive method of reasoning, Inductive reasoning proceeds by observing a specific common property in a limited nun i concluding that this property is gem Ie specific to the ge However tases and then fail on the very next one. We can never be absolutely certain, ‘hat conclusions based upon inductive reasoningare always tue, more convincing and powerful method of drawing conclusions is called deductive reasoning. When reasoning deductively, one proceeds from the senetal to the specific. “One starts with a Limited! umber of generally ac cepted basic assumptions and by a building process of logical steps proves other farts" ‘Ths, ve may build upon these accepted assumptions and derived lacs ina manner that will enable nseventually Wo prove the desired conclusio hese proved facts are termed theorems nll deductive reasoning involves acceptance of the truth of a certain state ‘men (or statements), called an assumption. This assumption need not be pviows to the reader nor need it be a generally accepted! fact, but it must accepted for the purpose of proving a particular argument. Changi ber of cases andl | for all eases. ‘Thus, it proceeds from a theory may hold for several thousand TTI eer iitAM cUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY assumptions will generally alter the resultant conclusions. In to pone 2 particular argosnent, the originally accepted ssp fon may fead fo a contradiction of other accepted assumptions oF of other proved facts. In this event, the truth of the original assumption must be Preatinedy or possibly, the tuth oF the aecepted assurptions may then be doubted, When a certain assumption is accepted, certain conclusions inevitably follow. These conchisions may be false ifthe assumptions on which they are based are false. It is imperative, then, that we distinguish between validity find truth. Consider the following statements: (1) All: men are brave. 2) Francis Jones is a man, (3) Francis Jones is brave. Statement 3 is a valie Conclusion of assumptions } and 2, but itneed not be true. If either state- rent 1 oF statement 2 is false, itis possible that statement 8 is also not true. Tes necessary in seeking the truth of conclusions that the truth of the basic premises upon which they are based be considered carefully Both induction and deduction are valuable methods of reasoning in the indy of yeometry. New geometric truths can be discovered by inductive scan then be sed in proving that such the bas attempting reasoning. Deductive_reasor discoveries are true After uying, in the next exercise, our skill at deductive reasoning, we will study at greater length in Chapter 2 what constitutes “logical” reasoning. We will then be better prepared to recognize when we have proved our theorems. The student should not be tov concerned at this stage if he fails to give correct answers to the following exercise. Exercises (A) Inthe following exercises supply a valid conclusion if one can be supplied. 1 no conclusion is eviclent, explain why 1. Al, Jones dg barks whenever stranger enters er yard. Mrs Jones dogs barking ; 2, Wak the Fah pond freezes whenever the temperature is below 3 Faiwcntit ‘The temperate bythe fh ponds 3 Fabrenlie. Molle fesimane stents must «ake-an orientation css, Maty 1. Ailtnensers of the basket eam ane snore than 6 fetal. Pa Blick isto than 6 fetal 5, College students wll be ace 40 the baseball game fee, Menty Brown wasadmited othe baseball game ree 6, Th dad aways haya candy when he goes co the ding sore. Coday Tim's daa bot 2. Any person ban nited States is a citizen of the United BASIC ELEMENTS OF GroMETRY 45 Mr. Smith was born in the city of Garpenteria, Carpenteria is in the United States. 8. All quadrilaterals have four sides, A vhombus has 9. Only students who study regularly will pass geome not study regularly 10, Many isin an English class. All freshmen in colle English lass. 11, Baseball players eat Zeppo cereal and Zeppo cereal 12. The frst- and third-period geometry classes were given the same test Students in the firstperiod class did better than those in the third period class. Dick was enrolled in the first-peviod class and Stan was in the third-period class sides. y. Bill Smith does ¢ are enrolled in some fe alert on the diamond. I eat 13-22, Answer the following questions to check your reading and reason- ing ability 13. Why can’t a man, living in Winston-Salem, be buried west of the Missis- sippi River? 14- Some months have 30 days, some have 31 days, How many have 28 days? 15. 1 have in my hand two US. coins which total 5 nickel. Place thatin mind. What are the two coins? 16. A farmer had I7sheep. All but {'died. How many did he have left? 17. Two men play checkers. They play five gazes and each man wins the same number of games, How do you figure that our? 18, If you had only one match and entered a room where there was an oil heater, and some Kindling wood, which would you Tight hist? 19. “Take two apples from three apples urdo you have? 20, Is it legal in North Carolina for aman to marry his widow's sister? 21, The archaeologist who said he found a gold coin marked 46 9,6. was cither lying or kidding. Why? 22, A woman gives a beggar 50 cents, ‘The woman is the beyg: but the beggar is not the woman's brother, How is this possible cents, One is not a lamp. lw) °s sister Exercises (B) Each of the following exercises include a false assumption, Disregard the falsity of the assumption and write the conclusion which you are then forced twaccept 1. Given two men, the taller man isthe heavier, Bob is taller than Jack, Barking dogs do not bite, My dog barks. When a person walks under a larder, misfortune will befall him. Mr jimes walked under a ludder yesterday4, All women are poor drivers, Jerry Wallace is a woman, 5, Anyone handling a toad sill get warts on his hand. I handled : toad today 6. Of ino packages, the more expensive is the smaller. Mary's Chi present was larger than Ruth's. mas In the following exercise, indicate which of the following conclusions logically follow from the given assumptions. 7. Assumption: All members of the Ooga tribe are dark-skinned. No dark-skinned person has blue eyes. Conclusion: {a) No Ooga tribesman has blue eyes. (b) Some dark-skinned tribesmen are members of the Ooga tribe, {c) Some people with blue eyes are not dark-skinned. (a) Some Ooga tribesmen have blue eves. 8 Assumption Only outstanding students get scholarships, All out standing students get publicity Conclusion: (a) All students who get publicity get scholarships. () Allstudents who get scholarships get publicity fc) Only students with publicity get scholarships, (d) Some students who do not get publicity get scholarships, 9. Assumption: Some cooked vegetables are tasty, All cooked vegetables are nourishing. Conclusion (a) Some vegetables are tasty (0) Ifa vegetable is not nourishing, itis not a cooked vegetable, (o) Some tasty vegetables are not cooked (d) Wavegerable is not a cooked vegetable, itis not nourishing 6 Summary Tests Test 1 Indicate the one word or nuniber that will avake the followin statements 1. ‘The sides of a right angle are to cach other 2. The pairs of nonadjacont angles formed when two lines intersect are called —_. }. An angle is larger than its supplement |. ‘The side opposite the right angle of a triangle is called the 5. Atriangle with no uso sides congruent is called triangle. 6. Ifthe sum of the measures of two angles is 18), the angles are —___ 7. A triangle with two congruent sides is called a triangle, 8. VBis a(n) real number 9, The —_. of an angle divides the angle into «wo angles with equal 10, Complementary angles are uso angles the sum of whose measures is equal to, 11, The difference between the measures of the complement and the supple- ment of an angle is always. is the non-negative integer that is not a counting number, The sum of the measures of the angles about a point is equal to — The angle whose measure equals that of its supplement isa angle. igle with a measure less than 90 is —___ Angles with the same measures are. The intersection of two distinct planes is Amangle ist of two rays which have a common end point her a aul set or a ——48. FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY 19, Theonly point of a line equally distant from two of its points is the of the segment with these points as its end points. 99, For each three noncollinear points 4, B, and G and for & me ADB+ m2BDC 2.3.4}, B= {3.4.5}, and 6 = 5,6,7,8.9) ach D € AC. 4U ANB AU am anc={ %. AUB)UC } 26. (ANB) C= 27 (AUB) AG WW. (AN BUC 4 UB UC) } 30.4 N (BNC) 31-36. If x is a place holder for a real number, replace the symbol >, < orto make the statement crue, 82. +2 83. Bix 2) MA 36. 1 38. 39, [6-1 = 49. ‘Test 2 In cach of the following indicate whether the statement is aluays true (ovark'T) oF not advays true (mark F) 1. IFRS = AB, then mIES = mB. 2. RS = AB, then RS = ah 3. An obtuse angle basa greater measure than a right angle, 4 5. A stvaight fine has a fixed length. Tan obtuse angle is bisected, two 6. The measure of an angle depends on the length of its sides, 7. Complementary angles are angles the sum of whose measures is equal to icute angles will be formed. aright angle A efintion shouldbe a reversible statement, 8. straight angle isa straight ne 10, eis ponble to deine any word in tevin of other definable erms 11 -thetearls Greeks studied the tently of geomeuy in order to obtain practical applications fom ther 12, Allisoseles A are equilateral 15, When the memmure of an-acute angle is doubled, an obtuse angle is formed 14. Inductive reasoning can be relied upon to give conchusive results 15. Valid conclusions can result from false (untrue) basic assumptions, 16. For any re: SoMMARY Tests 49 17. Wath < O,then Jato] < 0, 18. The union of two sets can never be an empty set 19. The supplement of an angle is ulways obtuse 2». ‘ent angles are always supplementary MAB 0 1= 6 and BC 9 I= 6, then 16.9 1=6 WAB A (= and BC 0 1 # g. then dC 01 6. 138, 0 = bsthen and B mast be on opponitesdes of 13 9 1=¢. then d and B must be on opposite sides ofl ICP & half-plane hand Q € half-plane hy then PO © hy HE land B © hethen tC te if ahen mi) sess than mB), ck DBs then me KUM = Ui miP~ MAT. then Sinbetvecs R snd T. WB then 4 = dB=D. ‘Atay has wo enpoins Uimedte™ meRST then 2ABC = 2 RST The union of twa hal-planer whole pave M. Fm JK and FG © JR ove equialensatements, 58. The imersetion of two sets the set of al clements that belong o one or Dorhof then {6 The sides of an angle are rays IT HFS enot between Rand Pthen Tis between Rand S 'A collinear se of points atin 1. 1FGisa poin inthe inter of ZDEF. hen m2 DEG-+ m2FEG = meDER 1, 1 i lines inersct yo form venta angles that are supe vericaangles are ight anges WA E {374 sary, the 2 7} A {1,2.3,4} = 3} 8. 5.7) U {1,2.3,4,7} = {1,2,3,4,5,7} 4, 6). (6,5,3) =f 45. 2.4.6) 0 (Sb 18, There isa number nsueh thatn € (1.2.3) 0 (4.5.6) 47. There isa number n such that x € {1.2.3} U (4.5.6) ® BPC U, wo. { 30, Test 3 PRONLEMS 1-8. Given the scaled line with points and th i Hi al and their corresponding coordinates as indicated. Complete the following,1 4 8 4 10, Me IL 13. 15. V7. Is. 19, b. aoc D een nn ane nese da “F nA 2. mB n= 5. meo= The coordinate of the midpoint of EA is. iApoint of DH is, ne ofthe complement of 2 The coordinate of the 1 Ui m2. i840, what is the meas 2 If m2 Bis 110, whats the measure of the supplement of 2B? 16. Given: mZAOC = 40; mZCOE = 70, OB bisects ZAC and OD bi- sects 2COE. Complete the following. 12, mZCOD = 14. mZ BOB = mZAOB = mZBOD = AOE = 16, mZBOE Prods 1-16. 0 at E. What must the measures UB and (Bare straight lines intersect of angles and ¢ b The measure of angle @ is three ¥ mecisute of 26? nes the measure of £6. What is the xe ONG tt Hi bisects LACB; me ACH 0. Then m2BCM = Angle ais the complement of an angle whose measure is 38, 26 i the supplement of Za Then mepee — Prob. 19. 2) Elementary Logic 2.1, Logical reasoning. We have all heard the words “logic” and “logica used, We speak of a person’s action as being “logical,” ot of a “logical” solution toa problem A “logical” behavior isa “reasonable” behavior. ‘The illogical” conclusion is an “unreasonable” conclusion. When a person engages in “clear thinking” or “rigorous thinking,” he is employing the Uliseipline of logical reasoning. In this chapter we will discuss the meanings of a few words and symbols used in present-day logic and mathematies. We will then introduce some of the ‘ethods and principles used in distinguishing correct from incorreetargument, We will systematize some of the simpler principles of valid reasoning. Although the method of deductive logic permeates all fields of human knowledge, it is probably found in its sharpest and clearest form in the study of mathematics, 22. Statements. A discourse is carried on by using sentences these sentences are in the form of statements Defi both It should be noted here that the words “true” and “false” are undefined clements. Every statement is a sentence; but not every sentence is a stat huient. A statement is said to have a truth value Tif itis true and Pif itis false. Such things as affimmations, denials, reports, opinions, remarks, comments, and judgments are statements, Every statement is an assertion, The sentence “San Francisco is in California” is a statement with a 0 value T. ‘The sentence “Every number is odd” is a statement with ae value F Some of ition: A statement is 2 sentence which is either true or false, but notEUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY inthe kd of toxic re ihe single wnt o conn Men TE does not contain connecting words sch as and ora bus A vmpoundd sentence is formed by two or more clauses that act as independent aoe pine by connectives such a and, 7, lf. thers fand vatler»on tid miter 1 AML state Exam cural number i odd or eve. Be a ischerk anda) myself ne si eT tloningand lam cold scot show if John ast nko dosnt work should notes ee i ee cate the natement, “The wind i blowing” and Se ee orecisdee apa indicate, “Tam cold,” we peers A) Consider the following sentences. Which are statements? How many are there? plus 2 equals 5 So<2 equals Give me the text Tom is older than Bill Allright angles have the same measure, She is hungry. Mrs, Jones ill 9. He is the most popular boy in school. 10, IF Edo not study, I will fil this course 11. Lf Tive in Los Angeles, [live in California. 12. xplus3 equals 5. 13. Goaway! 14, ‘The window is not closed. 15, 3x 2does not equal 5. 15, How much do you weigh? Exercises (B) nent or one In each of the following exercises there is a compound states ; thatcan beinterpretedasone. State the simple components of each sentence FLEMENTARY tocic 53 1, Itis hotand Lam tired. 2 Baseball players cat Zeppo cereal and ate alert on the diamond 5. His action was either deliberate or careless. 4, The composer was either Chopin or Brahms. 5. The figure is neither a square nor a rectangle. 6, Either Jones is innocent or he is lying 7. He isclever and | am not. 8 Sue and Kay are pretty 9, Sue and Kay dislike each other. 10, That animal is either dead or alive. LL, Two lines either intersect or they are parallel 2. Lf this object iy neither a male nor a female, itis not an animal. 13. Every animal is either a male or a female 14. ‘The cost is neither cheap nor expensive 15, Lwould buy the car, but it costs too much 16. Asquareis a rectangle 2.3. Conjunction. We haye seen how two statements ean be connected to make another statement. Some of these forms oceur repeatedly in logical discourse and are indispensable for purposes of analysis. We will define and discuss some of the more common ones in this chapter Definition: If p and g are statements, the statement of the form p and gis called the conjunction of pand g. Whe symbol for pand gis “p A 9. There-are-mimy_other words in ordinary speech besides “and,” shat ave used as conjunetivess&.8 though,” “however “nevertheless.” Examples Iris daytime; however, Le 1am starved, but he is well fed. Mary is going with George and Ruth is going with Bill. Some roses are red and some roses are blue, Some roses are red and today is Tuesday Although the definition for conjunction seems simple enough, se should not accept it blindly. You will note that our definition takes for granted that ‘pand q” will always bea statement. Remember a sentence is not a statement unless itis either true or fale, but not both. It becomes necessary, then, to formulate some rule which we can use to determine when "pand q” is true and when itis false, Without such a rule, our definition will have no meaning. Each of the following statements is in the form of “p and 9.” Check Which ones are true and which ones are false, and then try to formulate a general rule for deciding upon the truths of a conjunction:FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY nd 2x3 = is am even number and $ is an odd number is an even number and 4 isan even number is an odd number and 4 is an odd number 5. A circle has ten sides and a triangle has three sides. 6. TB u ta} and TE U 14.) = AB. In studying the foregoing examples, you should have discovered that “p and q’ is considered true only when both p and gare true. If either pris false or q is false (or both are false), then “p and q” is false. ‘This is some- times shown most clearly by the truth table below. bog PAG “p and q” is trac (7) in only one case and false (F) in all others. It should be emphasized that truth tables cannot be proved. They represent agr ments in truth values of statements that have proved useful to mathematicians and logi 24. Disjunetion, Another way to combine statements is by usin between them, Consider the following sentences: 1. I plan to go to the game or tothe show. 2. Lexpect to see John or Tom atthe party 3. The music teacher told my son that he could do well as a student of the piano or the flute. In che first sentence itis eleav that the speaker will go either (o the game or to the show but that he will not do both, Tes not clear in the second sentence if the speaker will see only John or only Tom at the party. Tt might mean that he will sce both. Ln the third sentence, it should be clear that the son should do well with either or both instruments Thus we see that the common use of the word “or” often leads to ambiguity and not uniform meaning. Sometimes it indicates only one of the statements whic make up the disjunction is true. Sometimes itis used to mean at least cone of the statements and possibly both are true. In logic we cannot tolerate such varied meanings, We must agree on precisely what we mean when we say “por 4." Mathematicians have agreed that, unless itis explicitly stated to the contrary, the connective “or” should be used in the inclusive sense. TThus statements of the form “p or gare true in all cases except when p and ELEMENTARY Locic gare both false. It will be recalled that we interpreted “or” in sense in our definition of the union of sets Definition: The disjunction of two statements p and q is the compor semtence “por g." It is false when both p and q are false and true jn other cases. ‘The symbol for the inclusive por gis “p V 4." The truth table for the disjunction “por q” follows: ba pve nas Exercises In each of the following exercises there are two statements, Join th statements first to form a conjunction and then to form a disjunction, Det mine the truth or Falsity of each of the compound s. 1. ‘The diamond is hard. Putty is soft. 2. The statement is true, 3. The wwo li sect. The lines are par: 4. Avayisahalf-line. A ray contains a vertex. 5. There are 30 days in February. Five is less than 4 5. No triangle has four sides. A square has four sides. Uhre plus zero equals. ‘Three times zero equals 3. 8. Some animals are dogs. Some dogs bark. 9. disin the interior of ZABC. Cison side AB of ZABC. 10. All women are poor drivers. My name is Mudd, 1. Thesunishot. Dogs can fly 12, ~Sistessthan 2. 4 is more than 3. An angle is formed by two rays. An interval includes its endpoints VM. BABC A ZABC= ZABC, ABC U ZABC = AABC ‘The sides of an angle is not a subset of the interior of the angle. Chri ‘mas occurs in December. he supplement of an angle is larger than the complement ofthe a angle, re of an acute angle is greater than the meastire of an obte ZS Negation. Statements can be made about other statements, One| Pe simplest andl mnost useful statement of this type has the form “ps false Neryone has probably made a statement that he believed true only to hat someone else show his disagreement by saying, “That is not true56 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY Definition: The negation of a statement “p" is the statement “not-p.” It means “pis false"; or “it is not true that p." The symbol for not-p is “~ p. The negation of a statement, however, is not usually formed by placing a “not” in front of it. This usually would make the sentence sound awkward. Thus where p symbolizes the statement, “All misers are selfish,” the various statements, “It is false that all misers are selfish,” “Not all misers are selfish, “Some misers are not selfish,” “It is not (rue that all misers are selfish” are symbolized “not-p.” The negation of any true statement is false, and the negation of any false statement is truc. This fact can be expressed by the rath table, b~ T F F r In developing logical proofs, itis frequently necessary to state the negation, of statements like “All fat people are happy” and “Some fat people are happy." It should be clear that, if we can find one unhappy fat person, we will have proved the first statement to be false. Thus we could form the negation by stating "Some fat people are not happy" or “There is at least fone fat person who is not happy.” Bac we could not form the negation by the statement “No fat person is happy.” This is a common error made by the loose thinker. The negation of “all are” is “some are not” or “not all The word “some” in common usage means “more than one. in logic it will be more convenient if we agree it wo mean “one or more." This we will do in this text. Thus the negation of the second statement above would be “No fat person is happy" or “Every fat person is unhappy.” The negation of “some are” is “none are” or “itis not true that some are.” Exercises Ineach of the following form the negation of the statem L. Gold is not heavy. 2. Fido never barks 3. Anyone who wants x good grade in this course must study hare 4. Aspirin relieves pain. 5. Ahexagon has seven sides. 6. [kis false that a triangle has four sides. 7. Not every banker is rich, ELEMENTARY 106 8. Itis not true that 2 plus four equals 6, 9, Two plus 4 equals 1b. Perpendicular lines form right angles. 11. All cquilateral wriangles are equiangular 12, Allblind men cannot see. 13, Some blind men carey white canes, 14. Allsquares are rectangles. 15, All these cookies are deticious. 1, Some of the students are smarter than others. 17. Every European lives in Europe. 18. For every question there is an answer 19, ‘There is at least one girl in the class. 20. Every player is 6 feet tall 21, Some questions cannot be answered. 22. Some dogs are green Every ZEPisa ZOP. Some pillows are soft. A null et isa subset of itself Not every angle is acute. 2.6. Negations of conjunctions and disjunctions. In determining the of the negation of a conjunction or a disjunction we should first recall what conditions the compound sentences are truc. To form the negati ‘\ chicken is a fowl and a cat is a feline,” we must say the statement is We can do this by stating that at least one of the simple statements is We can do this by stating “A chicken is not a fowl or a eat is not a fel Phe negation of “I will study both Spanish and French” could be “I wi study Spanish or | will nor study French.” N should be clear that the negation of “p and q” is the statement “no noty.” In truth table form: po a ~py~ ror F F rT oF r r eT F t KOOP r rt Yo form the nega of the disjunction, “We are going 10 win o1 information is incorrect we write, “We are not going to win and my infor5H FUNDAMENTALS OF tion is correct,” Thus the negation of “por g” is “not-(p or 9), and this means “not and notq.” In truth able form: bog Bva ~WVa) ~H ~G ~pamy TT fT r FOF F Tr ? F ror F er oT Fg TOF F FR OF Tr Tacs r Exercises Give the negation of each statement below and determine if it is tue or false. 1. Anapricotisa fruit and a carvor isa vegetable. 2% Lincoln was assassinated or Douglass was assassinated 8, Some men like to hunt, others like (0 fish. 4 No numbersare odd and all numbers are even, 6. Allinesaresets of points or allangles are right angh 7. The sides of a right angle are perpendicular and & The imersection of two parallel lines is a null set or each pair of straight Fines asa point common tothe tw Fines 9. Every triangle has right angle anlar acute angle 10, Every triangle as right angle and an obtuse ae 11, Every triangle has a ight angle oran obtuse angle 12, Nouiangle has two obtuse angle o evo right angles 18. Some triangles have three acute angles and some have only wo acute angles, M4, iP designatesa tine and iB designates ray 18. Atay hts one end-point ora segment has wo end I right angles are 2.7. Logical implication. “The most common connective in logical deduc tion is “ifsthen.” All mathematical proofs employ conditional statements of this type. ‘The if clause, called hypothesis or premise or given isa set of one or more statements which will form the basis for a conclusion, The then clause which follows necessarily from the premises is called the conclusion. ‘The statement immediately following the "if" is also called the antecedent, anc the statement immediately following the “then” Here aresome simple examples of such conditional isthe consequent ntences: PLEMENTARY Logic 1. IE5x= 20, thenx=4, 2 Uf this figure isa reet ngle, then itis a parallelogram. \ hypothetical stacement asserts that its antecedent implies its conseque The statement does not assert that the antecedent is true, but only rhs consequent is true ifthe antecedent is tue 11 customary in logic to represent siaicments by letters. Thus, we mig let p represent the statement, “The figure isa rectangle” and q the waters igure is a paraliclogram.”. We could then state, “I p, then q” or implies 4.” " We shall find it useful to use an arrow for “implies.” We th cam write “p—* 2" Such a statement iscalled an implication, The “if” statement does not have to come at the beginning of the cor pound statement. It may come last. In other cases, the premise will 9 start with the word “if.” For example: A good scout is trustworthy, Apples are not vegetables, 3. The stuclent in this class who does not study may expect to fail Each of the above can be arranged to the “if-then” form as follows; 1. If he iva good scout, then he is 2. Wthisis an apple, then iti 3. Uthe student it istworthy a vegetable. his class does not study, then he will fai Other idioms that have the same me “isa sufficient condition for q,” ining as “if p, then 4g” are: “ponly if g, “gif be "gis @ necessary condition for py never f, then q,” “suppose pa then SuPPose your instructor made the statement, “If you hand in all you homework, you will pass this course." Here we can let p repre Fh Ot hand in all your homework,” and g the statement, "You will pas {he course.” IF both p and gare true, then p gis centainy true Suppose P is tne and q is false; ie. you hand in all your homework but still fol dhe cose. Obviously, then, p> gis false, NEw suppose fis false. How shall we complete the truth table? Hf pis and gis true, you do not hand in all your homework but you sill pass the ceurse. If p is false and q is false, you do not hand in all your homework ind you do not pass the course. AL fist thought one might feel that mo teeth TRIME should be given to such compound statement under those conditions If we did so, we would violate the property that a statement must be either tue or false, een a: ‘at the state s have made the completely arbitrary dec n that p— q is true60. FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY when p is false, regardless of the truth value of g, ‘Thus, p— qis considered fue only if pis trucand gisfalse. ‘The wuth table for p> gis: boa Exercises In cach of the following compound sentences indicate the premise and the conclusion. 1. The train will be late if it snows. 2) A person lives in California if he lives in San Francisco. 3. Only citizens over 21 have the right to vote, 4. Fouris larger than three. 5, All students must take a physical examination, 6. Tknow he was there because I saw him, 7. Two lines which are not parallel interscet 8. Allright angles are congruer 9, Natural numbers are cither even or odd. 10. He will be punished if he iy caught. 11. Exery parallelogram is a quadrilateral 12, Good seouts obey the laws. 13, Birds do not have four fect. 14, Diamonds are expensive, 15, Those who study wil pass this course. 16. The sides of ar equilateral triangle are congruent to each other 17. ‘The person who steals will surely be caught 18, Tobe successful, one must work. 19, The worker will bea success. 20. You must be satisfied or your money will be refunded. 21, With your looks, I'd be a movie star 28. Modus ponens. An implication by itself is of little value, However, if we know “p implies g” and that p is also true, we must accept q as true. This is known as the Fundamental Rule af Inference. This rule of reasoning is called modus ponens. For example, consider the implication: (a) “If itis raining, itis cloudy.” Also, with the implication consider the statement (8) “Its raining.” If we accept (a) and (b) together, we must conclude that (e) “Iris doudy ELEMENTARY Loic. 61 In applying the Rule of Inference, it does not matter what the content of the statements pand gare, So long as “p implies 4” is true and pis true, we logic. ally must Conclude that q is true, This is shown by forming the genera structure: Le or Lb 2 pg Bong 2p n@ Acomn mon type of invalid resioning is that of afiming the consequent, 14 structure follows: 2.9. Modus tollens. A second syllogism denies the consequent of an in ference and then concludes the antecedent of the conditional sentence must be denied. This mode of reasoning is called modus tollens, Modus tollen reasoning ean be structured Lpwe 2 nog “noc p Consider the conditional sentence (a) “If itis raining, it is cloudy.” Ther consider with the inference the statement (8) “It is not cloudy.” If premises (a) and (b) hold, we must conclude by modus tollens reasoning that (c) “Tes no The method of modus tollens is a logical result of the interpretation tha fr g means "give necessary condition for." ‘Ths, f we don't have gw can't have p.y) FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY p> isconsidered “nen pis fase, regardless of che truth vale of ‘Thus p43 vet ipinucangis fale. The wut abe for p> as » 4 pra Tr Tr r r FE F F T r F i r Exercises vr cach of the flowing compound sentences indicate the premise and the conclusion, M1 The rin willbe late it snows 3. Anervon vein Calfornia fe ves in San Franc, Otveltzens over 21 have the righ to ote Four larger than thee. Allerudengs nus take physical examination Tout he was there because Tse him "Thins which are not parallel intersect Aight angles are congruent Sh Natueal numbers ave either even oF odd 10, He willbe punished If hes caught 11, Every parallelogram is quadrilateral 12. Good acoutsobey the has 18. Binds do not 14. Diamonds are expensive 15, Thowe who suey will pass tis course 16. The sides ofan equilateral triangle are congruen 10 eal other 17, The person who steals will surely be caught 18 To besuccessul, one must work 10. ‘The worker willbe a success 2, Vou must be satisfied or your money willbe refunded. 31, With your looks, La bes movie star 28. Modus ponens. An implication by itself sof lle value. However, if Fe knoe pemplie g* and tia p ivalsotruc, we must accept gas vue. “This seinown ag the Fundamental Rule aftajeence ‘This rule of reasoning icalled vias ponons For example, consider the implication: (a) I its ralning, itis iso wit he wpleaion consider the statement (@) "Is rining cloudy.” If we accept (a) and (2) cogether, we must conclude that (2) “Its cloudy ELEMENTARY Locic 61 In applying the Rule of Inference, it does not matter what the content of the Matements p and q are. So long as “pimplies q” is true and pis true, we logic- ally must conclude that q is true, “This is shown by forming the general structure Lpoq or Lpog 2p 2p Bong Bong The symbol «. means “then” or “therefore.” ‘The three-ste} : werefore.” ‘The three-step form is called a syllogism. Steps 1 and 2 are called the assumplions or premises, and step 3 is called the conclusion. ‘The order of the steps 1 and 2 can be reversed and not change the validity of the syllogism, ‘Thus the syllogism could also be written Le or Lp & poy Rpg Bsa Bg A common type of invalid reasoning is that of afiming te consequent It 2.9. Modus tollens. A second syllogism denies the consequent of an in- ference and then concludes the antecedent of the conditional sentence must be denied. This mode of reasoning is called madus tollens. Modus tollens reasoning ean be structured: Consider the conditional sentence (a) “I it is raining, itis cloudy.” consider with the inference the statement (8) “Tis not cloudy.” It {a) andl (b) hold, we must conclude by modus tollens reasoning that () Then ‘emises tis not The method of medus tolls is a logical result of the interpretation that > q means “gis a necessary condition for p." ‘Thus, if we don't have q, we can’thave p. , So eee eis82 lid reasoning is that of denying the antecedent. Another common type of Its structure follows: EAS x ‘Two other principles of logic should be mentioned here._‘The La: Evcluded Middle asserts “p ot not p" as a logical statement, ‘The “or” in this instance is used in the limited or exclusive sense, For example, “A number is either an odd number or it is not an odd number.” Another example, ‘Silver is heavier than gold or silver is not heavier than gold. It cannot be both. The symbol for the “exclusive or” is "Y."" sive or” follows. The truth table for the “exelu- b 4 py r 7 Fe r F Tr F T r P F Fr The Rule for Dering the Alternative is expressed schematically by L porg 1. porg notg pb 4 As an example, if we accept the statements (a) “The number kis odd o the number his even,” and (b)"The number fis not even,” we must then conclude that (@) “The number kis odd.” We will use these two principles in developing proofs for theorems later in this book, Exercises In the following exercises supply a valid conclusion, if one can be supplied by the method of modus ponens or modus tollens. Assume the the following exercises to be the exclusive or. (Note. You are not asked to deter mine whether the premises or conclusions are true.) PLEMENTARY LoGte 63 1, The taller of two men is always the heavier. Bob is taller than Jack All quacirilaterals have four sides. A rhombus has four sides. king dogs do not bite. My dog barks, Triangle ABC is equilateral. Equilateral triangles are isosceles. Every parallelogram isa quadrilateral. Figure ABCD is a parallelogram, 168 © AC, then mB + mi Bed, Ma=bthenate=b+e. a Wa=dthene=d. cmd, Parallel ines do not meet. Lines fandm do not meet. 10, Allwomen are poor drivers or Tam mistaken, Lam not mistaken, 1}, Anyone handling a toad will get warts on his hand. I handled a toad today. 12, All goonsare loons. This is a loon. 13, Jones lives in Dallas or he lives in Houston. Jones does not live in Dallas. 14. “Allsquares are rectangles. “This is nota rectangle 15, Ia = bythen ae = be. | ae # be 6. WK EST then Re St re 17, HB € AC thenB © AC. BE AC. Each of the following gives the pattern for arriving at a conclusion, Write the statements which complete the pattern, », 1s, (DB © AC, then € FC.¢ @) Then b € AC. OO @) x= 40h ® 19, xs yvthens #2 @) x=», (ODT aaa wo (2) Way dthena @_Thisisan acute or an obtuse triangle. (2) (8) Then thisisan obtuse wiangle W 8 € REors © AT 0) @) Then eats See a @) Then 0 w= 6. (Lis not paralieliom. ©) 1is parallel tom, BQ iAme 2, DBs Woormene » 9.) WB isnot TE (3) The: a Ee64 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY 2.10. Converse of an implication. Ma converse form. ‘This is done by interchanging the “if” of the starement Definition: ‘The converse of p > gis > p. Frequently we are prone to accept a statement and, the true statement “All horses are animals nfer the converse of the state ays have the same truth value as the statement. The converse of the statement is a good one, it “Perpendicular lines form are perpendicular.” In this ca nals are horses." Broken into parts, the “if" of u ws the conclusion is, "This isan animal. true, However, note the following syllogism, Exercises In the following exer given sta Of possible) the uth or falsity of 0, ul 12, 13. 4 15, 16, ment Then write che converse of each statem Carrots are vegetables. Every US. citizen over 21 years of age has the right to vote Fords are cats, Half-lines are rays. No journalists are poor spellers Iftwo angles are each aright angle, they are congruent Only a moron would accept your offer Only parallet tines do not meet. To succeed in school one must study. Only perpendicular Lines form right angles Diamonds are hard, A geometric figure isa set of points, An equilateral triangle has three congruent sides. Ta is less than 6, then fis larger than a Us~y= 1, then wis larger thany. Equilateral triangles are isosceles ¥y statemenits can be expressed in "and the witho nt, The converse ofa staten An obvious exan and the false converse “All statement is, “Thisis ‘All Huftons are good radios” is “Ifa rad @ Hufion.” In geometry, the converse of the starement ight angles” is “If lines form right angles, they , both the statement and its com es determine, if possible, the truth or falsity of the atand determine FLEMENTARY LOGIC 17. Ifa man lives in Los Angeles, he lives in California, 18, Parallel lines in a plane do not intersect. 19. Ifx=5,then x 20. IFBis between A and C, then mi0 TB + mii 211. Logical equivalence. We have seen that the converse ofa tue impli tion does not have to have the same truth value as that of the statement bur cof conrse, it may. IF two statements mutually imply each other, they an said t0 be logically equivalent, Logically equivalent statements. presen the same information, Definition: ‘The statements p and gare equivalent if p and q have the satne uth values and may be substituted for each other: If p and g are equivalent statements, we indicate this by writing p © ¢ This means p— q and g— p, ‘The truth table for equivalence can be developed as follows: ’ ’ pre ath pee r 7 r r Tr r F FE T Fr B 7 T F Fr F F r r T The following are equivalent statements b: Line Lis parallel to tine m. 1 Line mis parallel to line J Logically equivalent sen Thus ices are often put in the form “iE and only if.” c have, “tis parallel to m ifand only if mis parallel to.” Another obvious equivalence is the double negation, since a double nega fon 's equivalent to the corresponding positive statement. ‘Thus, for every Statement p, we have [not (not-p)] © p. 4s an example, if p means “Three is a prime number,” then the double {ekition of p is stated “It is false that three is not a prime number.” ‘The (0 starements are equivalent66 Exercises In the Following exercises determine which pairs are equival in some exercises and q are simple statements; in others, pnd gre implica- tions. 1. ps Sis greater than 3. 9: Bisless than 5, 2 par Ba, G Jat tb 8. p> Line lis perpendicular to line m. 4: Line mis perpendicular to line L 4, po Lines land mare not parallel FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GroMETRY 1. Note th 4g: Lines land m intersect. p> Iitisa dog, it has four legs. 9° If itdoes not have four legs, itis not a dog, fp Perpendicular lines form right angles. Right angles form perpendicular lines. p: Adiameter is achord. g Achord isa diameter PRES, qe yaK p: For numbers a, b,¢,a= b. q For numbers a,b, ¢,.a+¢= b+ The present was expensive. g-_ALis not wue that the present was expensive. {fe Ihe is a native of Spain, he is a native of Europe. @ Ihe is not a native of Europe, he is not a native of S| f: Itwo lines meet to form right angles, they are perpendicular. 4 Mf owo lines are not perpendicular, they do not meet to form right angles, ps Poss Line segment RS interseets line Rand $ are on opposite sides of line L # p @ BE ACB# ABC pl @ Vine Jand line m intersect at point 4 p REST ¢ p # b id mare two lines and A 10m. Rlies on one side of 57. ZRST is an acute angle and £.4BC is an obtuse angle. mZABC > mLRST Vertical angles are congruent, q I the angles are not vertical angles, then they are not congruent, ELEMENTARY LociG 67 19. ps Htoday is Saturday, then tomorrow is Sunday q tomorrow is uot Sunday; hence today is not Saturday. go, jo Wa < 6, then a~ bis negative Ifa —6is positive, then a > 6. 4 2h. pe Land mare two linesand 0 m= 6. gy Lines /and mare parallel to each other 99. pr Afr. then nots. @ lis, then notr 2B. po Hf noes, then s ge Hnoes, then r 24, p> ‘The figure isa triangle. 4 The figure is that formed by the union of three line segments, 242, Four rules of comtaposition. Logically equivalent statements may be substituted for each other whenever they cetur inva Gaeeeree Gad particular type of equivalence has great value in the stray of Inge a contraposition: lamely, ‘The staremer statement of p — g ‘There are four common types of contraposition, four equivalences will reveal that the contrapositive is the negation of the clauses of the converse, as well as the converse of e of the original implication faa 1, —_Hpatheng pthen riot ofp. then not-g Hp thenp 3 (O%P* nota) + (y+ 9) 3, Upsthen noty Wp. then norp? ‘BI NO-g + not-p is called the contrapasitive of the A surdy of the following tion of the clauses (psrgpe _—___ 2 (p> not-g © (¢ > nowp) 4, Hnowp, then g Hhot-g. then pi (POLP > a) © (not~g > p). The student sho accept either 0 1 as tre al ould study the four types until he is satisfied that if you ne of « pair of contrapositives as true, you must accept the fourtypes | 8 The following examples illustrate the applications of the 1. Ihe can v Tene eaves: then he is over 21 years of age Lover 21 years of age, then he cannot votc and mare not perpendicular, t do not intersect at right angles.68 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GroMErRY If Land m intersect at right angles, they are perpendicular: 3. Ihe drives, he should not drink, Ihe drinks, he should 4. If the natural number is not even, itis odd. If the natural number is not odd, itis even. ‘The equivalence of contrapositive statements is shown by the following truth table, “The numbers under each column indicates the order of each step. Can) rrr TR R rrr PTR ieee al Exercises Each exercise contains a conditional statement. Form (a) its converse, ()its contrapositive, and (¢) the converse of its contrapositive, 1. 17 © RX, then T € RX. 2.117 € RX then T € RX. 3. 116 & AB, then € 2 4 Mate= b+c,thenu=b, 5. Ifa+b=0,thena=—b, Heat b=, then cis greater than a 1 will pass this course if T study Ihe isan alien, he is not a citizen. Parallel lines will not meet 10, If thisis not a Zap, it isa Zop. IL. Tf the figure is not a rectangle, ic is not a square. 12. Ifheis nota European, he is not a ative Tealian, 13, Ifthe triangle is equilateral, itis equiangular 14. Good citizens do not create disturbances, In the following exercises determine which of the conclusions are valid. Good citizens do Ido not create d 1, Tama good citizen, IE T study, I will pass this course Twill pass this course. Lstudy FLEMENTARY LOGIE wot study, 1 will not pass this course. 18. TrTstudy. Twill pass this course, mus, itis nota trapezoid oy Mag hathene od gy McA dahon a 4 bye d 2 arb ge, HE € 4B, then ¢ AB IC € AB, then C © AB is not im, then 10m =a point iFTA miso Wim m= 0 Tis not DecemberSummary Test 34 In each of the following indicate whether the statement is always true (mat D) oF not always true (mark F), 1 1 can result from false (untrue) basic assumptions. a 2. The converse of "In triangle RST, if m(AT) > m(RS), then mZS > mL! is “In triangle RST, if mz 8 > mZT, then m(RS) > m(RT}.” ji 3. The converse of “If you eat toadstools, you'll get sick” is “You will ick if you eat toadstools.”” 4. “Close the door!” is a statement, 5. “Itiscold and [ami [reezing” is a starement. 5. Given pistrue, qis false, Then “pand q”is false. 7. Given pis false, gis true. ‘Then “pand q" is false. 8. Given pis true, qis false. Then “por q’’is False 9. Given pis false, gis true. ‘Then “por q” is false 10. “porg” iscalled a conjunction of pand q Ni, If pis false, then not-pis true. 12, A negation of the statement “Not every student is smart’ is “Not e student is stupid.” 18. A negation of the statement “a equals 2and 6 equals 8" isa does not eq 2and bdoes not equal 3.” 14. A negation of “Some blind men can see” is “At least one blind man 15. The negation “not (p or g)” has the same meaning as “not por not 16. “Not (and 9)" means the same as “not (p org.” 17. “Not por not” means the same as “not (p and 9).” 18. Lan implication is true, its converse is also true 19, The converse of “Ifa 0 t= 6, then a ft” is“Ifa then aM # 6." he converse ofa tue statements always tru. sre pexation ofa fale statement may result ina rue statement. raat his 82 days or isles than "isa true statement a hs the same meaning as "p? Tipu trae, now fis also tre, Tree nnegation of "No dis B” i “Every iB.” The negation of “Every Lak isa Luk is "Not every Luks a Lak." Prd Oo! Moripiorg = (not por not pot and 4) «(not pand not 9 (pong) 2 knot p> not) thocp> not) = (p> 4) (pos mot 2 > not). {nacp— 9) (nog p> poe BB. pg 36. pag ia ’ _“notg p a notp bog 3B. pg pg notg not, not? b Snetd 7 bee M1. “p> gorg>p 42 _notp—y p> yandg>p poe nog PDeductive Reasoning opertes of real numbers. In your first course in algchra, you a parBane hae fats aout te real amber system. Sine you wl have ae eearinesecion, The senten vathne to thoreghy reve them 1 ang the following properties, we wil et dhe eters Beane de Foe Raepesting the proper when sked to sappor deucton de shar redsuuabess Equality Properties (reflexive property). =a (symmetric property). a (transitive property). (a {addition property). (a (subtraction property. (a= b) K (e= d) > (a0) (altplication property). (a=) (o= Ad) we = be Qo ae, d) > (ate) = +d). b-d) E:T (division property), (a=) (om d #0) 29, E.8 (substitution property). Any expression may be replaced by an equivalent expression in an equation without changing the truth value of the equation. The symbol for “is greater than" is “>” and for “is less than” is “<- ‘Thus, «> bis read “ais greater than 6.” It should be noted that a > 6 a! 4-< ware two ways of writing the same fact. ‘They can be used interchany ably n F Rp Definition: A real number is postive iff i is greater than zero; itis negative iff iis less than zero, : We say that a > 6 iff'a~ bis a positive number. Similarly, a < bi a—his a negative number, ‘The symbol for fae not greater th is SP" and for “is not less than” is Order Properties O41 (erihotomy property). For every pair of real numbers, «and b,exactly one of the following is true: a < Bya=b,a> b O2 (addition proper). (a< by A (es ty > (a0) = (bed) O88 (subtraction property. (a< 6) > (a=e) < (b—e)s (@< 0) > (ea) > (eb). O4 (multiplication property). (a<) A (e> 0) ae < bes ( be O55 (ivivion property. (a< b) A (o> 0) > ale < ble hela > cbs (a=) A (c<0}—>ale> ble Kela< eb 0.6 (transitive property). (a 0) > ea. The following iddonal properties of the veal number sytem are called “field properties.” z Operations of Addition (closure property), a+ bis a unique real number (associative property). (a+b) e= a+ (bre) (commutative property). «+b (catttive property of zx0). ‘There isa unique real number 0, the additive identity element, such that a-+0= 0+ a= a (additive inverse property), For every real number @, there exists a real number (=a), the additive inverse of a, stuch that at (=a) = (-a) +a=0. Operations of Multiplication (closure property). a+ bis a unique real number (assoriative property). (ab) +c a (be)7A vuspaw FS (commutative property). a-b= bea. F9 tmultiplicative property of 1). There is a unique real number 1, the ‘multiplicative identity element, such that a1 = Leama, F-10 (multiplicative inverse property). For every real number ata # 0) there isa unique real number I/a, the multi plicative inverse of a, such dhat a (Ifa) = (la) -a= 1. Fl (distributive propery). a(b+e) = a-b+a-c Exercises 1-6, What property of the real number system is illustrated by each of the following? Lae3aae4. 25+ (-5)=0. 3. 64056, ADAS7. 5. 544) = 25-424. 6. B2= 25. 7-24. Name the property of the real number system which will support the indicated conclusion. 7. Ix—2=5,thenx 8. [3x = 12, thenx = 4. 9. 17 = 5-4, then x= 7. 10. Ifa+3=7,thena = 1 Af 2445 = 9, then 2a = 4. 12. tat b= 10, and b= 3,thena f= 10. 13, [fy = 7, then x = 1. Mook 15, Ia+8 <8, the 16. Ifx=yand 17. Ifx> yand 18, Ia—2 > 10,thena > 1. 19, W—3e-< 15, thenx > 5 20, 2+ Viis a real number. BW. (5-8) 12= 5 G12), 22. ITE IK) FID 17+ (18+ 12) 23. If fe > —4,then x > 12. UW, Biy+5) = y+ 15, 10, Name the property of real numbers which justify each of the numbered steps in the following problems. Mlustrative Problem, B—3 = 20x+6) Salution REASONS - Given. Distributive property of equality. Subtractive property of equality Subtraction property of equality. Division property of eq 1 2 5. 4 26. 28. =7> Bvt9, Bx > Set 16. Qv> 16. xO 8, 8 BW. 1 By 9< Tet 1B, 203) > 5x47). BG > 5x35, Qe> SetA1 I. 8x > 4. 32. Initial postulates. In this course, we are interested in determining and proving geometric facts. We have, with the aid of the undefined geometric concepts, defined as clearly and as exactly as we could other geometric con- cepts and terms. We will next agree on or assume certain properties that can be assigned to these geometric figures. ‘These agreed-upon properties we will call posealaes. “They should seem almost obvious, even though they may be difficult, if not impossible, to prove. The postulates are not made up at random, but have been carefully chosen to develop the geometry we intend to develop. With definitions, properties of the real number system, and postu- lates 2s a foundation, we will establish many new geometric facts by giving logical proofs. When statements are to be logically proved, we will call them heorems, Once a theorem has been proved, it ean be used with definitions and post lates in proving other theorems. i should be clear that the theorems which we can prove will, to a great extent, depend upon the postulates we agree 10 enumerate. Altering two (0 three postulates can completely change the theorems that can be proved in A given geometry course. Hence, we should recognize the importance of the Selection of postulates to be used I76 cUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY The postulates we will agree on will in great part reflect the world about us Definition: A statement that is accepted as being true without proof is called a postulate Postulate 1. A line contains at least two poinis; a plane contains at least three paints not all collinear; and space contains at east fowr points tal planar. Postulate 2. For every two distinct points, there is exactly one line that contains both pits Notice that this postulate states fo things, sometimes called existence and uniqueness st contains the two given points. is the only one that contains the two points. 1. There exists one line 2. This line is unique; thats, Postulate 8. For every three distinct noncoltinear points, there is exactly one plane that contains the three points, Postulate 4. Ifa plane contains tun points of a straight line, then all points of the line are poins of the plane. Pontulate 5. If fv distinet planes intersect, their intersection is one and onty one Tine (see Fig. 8.1). With the above postulates we can start proxing some theorenis, These first theorems will state what to most of us will seem intuitively obvious. Un- fartunately, their formal proofs get tricky and not too meaningful to the geometry student beginning the study of proofs, Consequently, we will five informal proofs of the theorems. You will not be required to reproduce then ‘Howerer, you should understand clearly the statements of the theorems, since you will be dsing them later in proving other theorems DEDUCTIVE REASONING 77 ‘Theorem $.1 33. If two distinct lines in a plane intersect, then their i ‘most, one point, tersection is at Supporting argument. Let Land m be evo distinct lines that intersect at § Using the law of the excluded midalle, we know that either lines fand minter- sect in more than one point oF they do not intersect in more than one point. If they inversect in more than one point, such as at and S, then line J and line m must be the saine line (applying Postulate 2). This contradicts the given conditions that Land m ave distinct lines, Therefore, applying the rule for denying the alternative, lines Und imersect in, at most, one point. Theorem 3.2 3.4. Ifa point P lies outside a line /, exactly one plane contains the line and the point. Supporting argument, By Postulate 1, line Econtains at least wo different points, say A and B, Since P is a point not on /, we have three distinct non: collinear points 4, B, and P. Postulate 3, then, assures the existence and uniqueness of a plane M through line land point P, Theorem 3:2 Theorem 3.3 5.5. If two distinet ines intersect, exactly one plane contains both lines dtpporting argument. Lec Q be the point where lines Fand mi Yowulate 1 guarantees that line must contain at last two points hene there must be another point on fad another point on m._ Let these points be Feuer and Perspectives, Poste 3 tellus that dere is exactly bne plane dha contains points Q, Ry and P. We also know that both land m nust len this plane by postulate 1 sect.78 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY Theorem 33, Summarizing. A plane is determined by 2. A straight line and a poi Exercises 1, Three noncollinear points. 1 not on the line. 3. Two intersecting straight lines. ow matty planes can be passed (a) through two points? through three poms not ina straight ine? Wihat gure i formed atthe intersection ofthe front wall and the floor of classroom? . Hold a pencil so tha it will east a shadow on a piece of paper. Will the shadow be parallel to the pencil? How many planes, in general can contain given straight noton the tine? How many planescan contain agiven straight tine anda point not ontheline? Who ia tipod (ihree legs) used for mourning cameras and surveying instruments? Tow many planes are fixed by four points not all lying inthe same plane? Why will a four-legged eable sometimes rock when placed on. level floor? Tivo points 4 and B lic in plane RS. What car be said about line AB? Te wue points of a straight ruler touch a plane surface, how many other points of the ruler touch the surface? Caan a sttaight line be perpendicular to a line ia a plane without being perpendicular tothe pane? “an two straight lines in space not be | On a piece of paper draw a fine 4B tnany postions ean you hold a pencil and make the pen pendicular to4B at P? ‘Kreal riangles plane figures? Give reasons for your answer. How many thifferent planes are deteriined by pairs ofthe four different SAP. BP, CB. and DP no three of which are coplanar? sand a point lel and yet not meet? Explain. ¢ a point Pon 4B. In how appear per- DEDUCTIVE REASONING 79 16. Explain how, with a straight edge, it is possible to determine whether all points of the top of a table Tie in one plane 17. It in plane MN, 4B a line m, AC 4 line m, and 4 is on m, does it neces: sarily follow that 4B = 31? 18, Is it possible for the intersection of uwo planes to be a line segment? Explain your answer : ie 19, Using the accompanying diagram (a 3-dimensional figure}, indicate which sets of points are (1) collinear, Q) coplanar but not collinear, (3) ot coplanar Fr (@) {4.6.0} () (D.A,F} e {FG AY Hy @) AFDC} ° (© (PB. CEF r € Bx 19 ). Which of the following choices correctly completes the statement: Three distinct planes cannot have in common (a) exactly one point, (b) exactly two points, (c) exactly one line, (€) more than two points, 3. Additional postulates. In Chapter | we discussed the real number line. ¢ showed the correspondence between points on the number and the In order that we may use in subsequent deductive proofs the conclusions we arrived at, we will now restate them as postulates. Postulate 6, (the ruler postulate). The puints ona line can be placed in a one-to- ‘ne correspondence with real numbers in such way that: 1. For every point of the line there corresponds exactly one real number, 2 for every real ember, there corresponds exacty one paint ofthe line; and etait distance Between two puins on a tine is the absolute value ofthe difference tween the corresponding numbers. Postulate 7. To each '9 each puir of distinct points there coresponds a snique positive ‘umber ruhich scaled he dance between ie pain, ao The correspondence between points on a line and real numbers is called {he coordinate system for the line. The number corresponding to called the coordinate of the point. In °fBis—8, of Cis0, of £ is2, and so on. th ven point 3.2, the coordinate of 4 is ~480. FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY AB Cpe F Pig, 22. Postulate 8. For every three collinear points, ome and onty one is between the other two. Thatis, if A, B, and C are (distinct) collinear points, then one and only ‘one of the following statements iy true: (a) A lies berween B and C; (b) B lies between A and C; (¢) C lies between A and B. Postulate 9. If A and B are two distinct points, then there is atleast one paint C such that C € AB, This is, in effec, saying that every Tine segment has at least three points Postulate 10. If 4 and B are two distinct points, there is atleast one paint D such that AB C AD. Postulate 1. For every ZB and every positive number n there is one and only on« point P of AB such that maB ~ n.Thivivcalled the point plotting postulate Postulate 12. 1/ ABs @ ray on the edge of the halpline h, then for very n be- trucen 0 and 180 there is exactly one ray AP, ith P in h, such that mz PAB =n. Thisis called the angle construction postulate Postulate 13. (segment addition postulate). A set of points lying between the endpoints of a line segment divides the segment into a set of consecutive segments the sm of whose lent equals the length ofthe gen segment. Thus. in Fig. 3.3. if A. B. C.D are collinear, then maT + mC+ mCD = as e b Fig 92. nD. Using the symmetric property of equality we could also wi mAB + nBC+mCD. This postulate is often stated as “the whole equals the sum ofits parts." Postulate 14. (angle addition postulate). In a g aiven plane, rays from the vertex ofan ange through 4 set of points in the interior of the angle divide the dangle into consecutive angles the sum of ose measures equals the measure ofthe given angle. “Thus in Fig. 34, if D and F lie in the interior v of ZABC, then mZABD + me DUE + mZEBC = mZABC, Using the symmeuic property of ‘equality, we could also write mad BC = me ABD +MLDBE+mZEBC. This, tao, is referred to Pete DEDUCTIVE REASONING 81 as “the measure of the whole is equal to the sum of the measures of its parts.” Postulate 15. A segment has one and only one midpoint. Postulate 16. An angle has une and only one bisector Exercises What is the mDa? What isthe coordinate of the midpoint of BE? 1 3 4 Whatis the mBC + mé 8, What is the mBA? 9. Ts the coordinate of point 4 greater than the coordinate of point D? 10. Does mBB = mDE? Does this equal the mE? 11, a, b¢, are the coordinates of the corresponding points A,B,C. Ma > « and ¢ > 6, which point ies between the other two? 12, Wis pointon RS, complete the following: RT () m3 — mS = 15, 4,B, and Care three collinear points, nf = 15, n= 11. Which cannot lie between the other two? 14. R, S, Pare three collinear points. If m3 < m between the other two? Given: mZABB = 44, mZBED = 34, mLABF Gomplete the following NLABB+ mZBEC = me WEBED— m2 CED = mc DEC + m2 CEB + mZBEA = mz. It mZ BEC ™ meted meaBC = f rob ne DEF = ne BEP = Formal proofs of theorems. accepted onl “which point cannot lie Pos. 15022, A theorem is a statement or principle that is ‘after it has been proved by reasoning. Every theorem in82 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY yeometry consists of two parts: a part which states what is given or known, Called the given” or “hypothesis.” and a part which is to be proved, called the “conclusion” or “prove Theorems can be written in either of wo forms: (1) As a comple’ tence. In this form the given is a clause beginning with “if” or “when” and the conclusion is a clause beginning with “then.” For example, in the theorem, “If two angles are right angles, then the angles are congruent, “Two angles are right angles” isthe given, and “The angles are congruent” is the conclusion, (2) As a declarative sentence. tn this form the given and the conclusion are not so readily evident. For example, the above theorem could be written, “Two right angles are congruent.” Frequently the simplest way to determine the given and conclusion of a declarative sentence is 10 rewrite tin the if-then form. The formal proof of a theorem consists of five parts: (1) a statement of the theorem; (2) a general figure illustrating the theorem; (8) a statement of what is given in terms of the figure, (4) a statement of what is to be proved in terms Of the figure, and (3) a logical series of statements substantiated by accepted definitions, postulates, and previously proved theorems. OF course, it is not necessary to present proofs in formal form as we will do. The proofs could be given just as conclusively in paragraph fort. However, the beginning geometry student will likely find that by putting statements of the proof in one column and reasons justifying the statements in a neighboring column, it will be easier for others, as well as himself, to follow his line of reasoning. Most of the theorems in this text hereafter will be proved formally. ‘The student will be expected to give the same type of proofs in the exercises that follow. ‘Theorem 3.4 3.8. For any real numbers, a,,and ¢,if a= c,and 6 = ¢,then a= b. Givens a, ,and care real numbers. a= 6 5=¢ Prove: a Proof svavewents REASONS 1 e=abae 1. Given Qeab 2, Symmetric property of equality. ka 3. Transitive property of equality (from Statements 1 and 2). DEDUETIVE REASONING 83 ‘Theorem 3.5 3.9. For any real numbers a, 6, and cif c= a, ¢ Hypothesis: a, Conclusion: a Proof: SUATEMENTS then a = b. 3. Aric property of equality 3. Theorem 3.4 ‘Theorem 3.6 3.10. For any real numbers a,b, ¢ and dife= a, d= b, and c= dythen a= b. ype a,b, ¢,and dare real numbers; c= a,d= b,c = d. z Proof: : Le=ad=be=d, 1. Given, Be=b, 2 Transitiv we vransitive property of equality 3@ 4. Theorem3.5 (c= a Nc=b—> a ‘Theorem 3.7 3.11, All right angles are congruent, Given: Lecand 2B ave right angles. GConctusion: 20 = 2B Proof: Phorm 3.7, UEMENTS REASONS La 7 a isa right angle |, Bisarightangle 2 mea = WM; mep = 90. 1. Given, 2. ‘The measure of a right angle is 90. 3. Wa=c,b=c,thena 4 La= Lb mLa= meh, B mea= mep. 4 Lam 2p.BA FONDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY Theorem 3.8 3.12, Complements of the same angle are congruent. Given: Zeand 28 are complementary angles, Zyand 26 are complementary angles. Prove: 2x = £5 Theorem 3.4 DEDUCTIVE REASONING 85 5.15, Corollary to Theorem 38, Complements of congruent angles are ‘congruent Given: £xisthe complement of Za; Zyis the complement of £5; La = Lb, Gonchsion: Ze 23 Proof Prov nf: STATEMENTS REASONS ei ere 1. 2xisthe complement of 2a. 1. Given. ae 1. Zand Z0arecomplementary &. 1. Given, 9, Siete complement of 2b ‘Zyand 28 are complementary 4. eet 2 Given, 2. mex mZ0= 90. 2. If two 4 are complementary, ¢ B mea meh B La Lb ma= meh nc) + 28 = 90 sum of their measures equals 9. ext mca = 9. 4. If two angles are complementary, orp aga ea ieee cihens oe a the sum of their measures is 90, 4 neem ney, Subsaaive prope 5 mextmch= 0, 5. A.quantity may be substituted for toe itsequal in an equation 1 She smncol ihe measures ow %, they are comple. Ics important that each statement in the proof : they ate compl Se ee a : 7. Complements of the same angle tions that are clear and commonly accepted may be used. ‘The reader find in the appendix a list of the common abbreviations which we will use: this book. Phe student can easily prove the following theorems: ‘Theorem 3.9 3.18. AI straight angles are congruent. ‘Theorem 3.10 3.14. Supplements of the same angle are congruent. These theorems will subsequently be used in proving new theorems. corollary of 2 geometric theorem is another theorem which is easily deri from the given theorem. Consider the following: are congruent. In like manner the student ean prove: 8.16. Corollary “rollary to Theorem 3.10. Supplements of congruent angles are 327. Dustra lustrative Example I: Chen! Collies ponnts a B, fra, Cainer puis tC, Das shown; w= mB roo : Hlsraice sampleRG FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY DEDUCTIVE REASONING 87 r 1. 4, B, C, D ave collinear poims as 1. Given shown 2. mdC = BD 2. Giver 3. mC = mAB + mBC 3. Definition of beeweenness (also b aa ri postulate 13), xz 4. mBD = mBC + mED. 4, Same as reason 3. 5, AB + mBC = mBC+ CD. 5. Substitution property (statement an 4 in statement 2) a 3.18, Hlustrative Example 2: with BE Given: ZABC 6, Subtractive property of equality. trative Ena. [SPATEMENTS REASONS 1 BB. AC. 1. Given. 2 ZAEB is right angle. 2 Perpendicular fines form right shown. 4, B,C, D, E are angles. coplanar points 3B mZAEB = 9. 3. Definition of right angle mZABD > md EBC 4. CEBC isthe complement 4. Given Prove: mZABE > mZDBC. of ZEB, Proof 5. mZEBC+ me EBA = 90, 5. Two angles ave complementary iff the sum of their measures is 90. # 6. mZEBC+ mc ERA = mZABC. 6. Angle addition postulate. w Eso T mZaBe = 4, 7. Substitution property of equality {or Theorem 3.5) eee bescioedint ABC = md AEB. 8. (a=c) A (b=) amb. —— 9. 2aBC & ZAER 9. Angles with the same measure 1. BEE and BB are vays drawn from 1. Giver eons from the vertex of ZABC as ese Beret e Dea oe 2. mZABD > mZEBC 2. Giver In the following exercises complete th Sf aug exercises complete the proofs, using for reasons only the S. mZABD+ mZDBE > mZEBC+ 3, Additive property of order. ¥en. definitions, properties of the real number system, postulates, theorems, m2 DBE. and corollaries we have proved thus Far A. nZABD + mZDBE = mABE; 4. Angle addition postulate hea reear as méBBC+mZDBE = mZDBC 2 Prove the corollary to 1 ‘5. mZABE > mZDBC. 5. Substivution property of order. corollary to Theorem 3.10. 5:19, IMlustrative Example Given: #1 AC. ZEBCis the compleme Prove: CABG = ZARB. Proof Given: Collinear points 4, B, C,Das shown; mC ~ nBiD. rove: mAb = me, of ZEBA.88 Given: Prove: Given: Prove: Given: Prove Given: Prove: Given: Prove: Given: Prove: Callinear points 4, B,C, Das shown: mAC > mBD mB > med, ZABC with BBand BE as shown, A,B, C.D, Eare coplanar; mZABD = m2 EBC. m2 ABE = mz DBC ZABC with BB and BE as shown A,B,C, E ave copla MABE = me DBC mZARD = m2 CBE. MPS = PR mS = mR. mPT = mF, 2 m2 ABC = mZRST and Dall 2 mZABD=mzRSP,— #<—————> mZDBC = MZ PST. ZABC = LIST; £6 = £0, La = 2) ZABD & ZRSP. DEDUCTIVE REASONING 89 10, Given: Points D and E tie on sides AC and BC of AABC as shown; m4D nBE; mC = mi Prove: ABCs isosceles. L. Ginen: A,B, C, Dare coli MLEBC = mLECB, Prove: MLABE = mZDCE ar points; 2 Given: Points D and Eon sides AC and BC of AABC as shown; mZBAC mZABC; mL CAE = mZCBD. Prove: mZEAB = mZDBA, Fe 2 > c 13. Given: BE 1 AB, 2 BAC and ZCAD are complementary Prove: mZDAB = mz ABC. A B be90. FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY 14. Given: AD 1 4B; BC 1 4B, 2B = £0 Proves 2A £0 15, Given: BC 1 4B; £Gisthe complement of £ABD. Prove: moC = mZDBC. : Be IB. ‘Theorem 3.11 3.20. Two adjacent angles whose noncommon sides form a straight are supplementary. Given; ZABD and ZDBC are adjacent angles. ZABC isa straight angle, Conclusion: ZABD isa supplement of £ DBC Proof a a Phosnem 3.11 STATEMENTS, REASONS, 1, ZABD and ZDBC are adjacent 1. Given, angles ZABC isa straight angle. 2 Given, : 3. mZABC = 180. 3. ‘The measure of a straight is 180. nZABD-+m£DBC = m2 ABC. 4, Angle addition post 5. mZABD+ mz DBC = 180. ba cane. 6. 24BD isa supplement of DBC. 6. If the sum of the measures of angles is 180, the angles supplementary. se. 4 DEDUGTIVE REASONING 1 ‘theorem 3.12 gal. Vertical angles are congruent, siorn: AB and CD are straight lines Give it imersecting at E, forming vertical angles Zeand Zy, 49. Conclusion? 23 Pro Thewen 12 1. AB andl CD ave straight lines. 1. Given, 2. £CED and 2AEB ave straight 2 Definition of straight angle angles +3, grand 27 ave supplementary 3. ‘Theorem 3.11 angles. 4, cyand 27 are supplementary 4. Pheorem 3.11 angles Bae Zp 5. Supplements of the same angle _ are congruent ‘Theorem 3.13 { 322, Perpendicular lines form four right angles. Groen: CB 1. Hib wo. a oy es ‘onclusion: ZAOC, ZBOG, ZBOD, and ‘seaeaeeacaai| eae Prag AOD ate ght angles | D Theoven 313 REASONS eee L. Given, nemo aight ange 2 4 lines forma right angle, 3. The measure of a right angle is 90.92 FENDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GLOMETRY 4. £AOBis astraight angle ZBOC and ZAOC are adjacent angles, 6. ZBOC and ZAOC are supple 6. 7. mZBOC + mZAOC = 180. 7. 8. medOG 9. medOD m2BOD 10, ZOD 90; mZBOD = 90. 10. 2BOC, ZBOD, ZAOD 1h are right angles. ‘Theorem 3.14 3.23. If two lines meet to form congruent adjacent angles, they are perpendicular. Given: CB and AB intersect at O; Z40C = £BOC Prove: EB 1 AB. Proof: 1, £406 = LROG, 1 2 m2ZAOC = mz BOC 2 3, mZAOC+ m2 BOC = mZAOB. 3 4, ZAOB isa straight angle. 4 5, mCAOB = 130. 5. 6. mZAOC+ mZBOC = 180, 6. 5. mLBOC+ m2 BOC = 180, i 8 mZBOC = 90, 8 9. ZBOC is aright angle. 9. 10. CB 4 AB. 10, DEDUCTIVE REASONING 93 Definition of a straight angle Definition of adjacent angles, Theorem 3.11 The sum of the measures of twe supplementary angles is 180. Subtraction property of equality Vertical angles are congruent. in Substitution propertyof equality Statements 2, 8, 9, and def tion of right angle. crave Example 4.24. Ilustrative Example: ‘ + Givens AC, DF and GH are straight lines, LGBC = ZBEF Prove: £ABG © DEB. Proof aT Peas - : | L ACisa straight line. 1. Give 2 ZABC isa straight angle 2. Definition of straight angle. S. £ABGisthe supplementof LGBC. 5. ‘Theorem 8.11 4 DP isa straighciine —amtive ee Tiewrem 3.74. 3. DEF isa straight angle. 5, Same as reason 2 D 6 ZDPRisthesupplement of BEF, 6. Theorem 3.11 2. £GBC = ZBEF 7. Given. 8 L4BG = ZDEB. 8. Supplements of congruent angles are congruent Angle addition postulate. Definition of straight angle i ‘The measure of a straight an aaa is 180, In the folk eae he following exercises give formal proofs, using for reasons only the a=bAb= ea Sven statements, definitions, postulates, thearems, and corollaries Substitution property of equalit Division property of equality 1 Given: CD and CE are straight lines. £CAB CBA. Paces Definition of right a Pinte: AD = ZaBE — 2 Given: 3G, DE.and Di as shown inthe figure. ABE isthe supplement lines okeBer Prove: 21K ABE.04 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY Eescerve pecoct os. 6, Given: AB,CD. and EF ave a © D straight lines ga=Lb SN ae Prove: EP bisects 2800. £ Be ae 2 No 5 ¢ 1. Given ra Prov: 3. Given: 4B, GB. and EF ave straight lines, 2b = Ze Prove: a= £0 8. Given: 2D 4 3B BC 4 JB; ZBAC = ABD. Proves LDAC = ZCBD, Given: ABC; CB bisects CACB; ZA is the complement of ZACD; 2B is the complement of ZBCD. Prove: LA = ZB. / 4. Given: 3B, straight lines, 20 = Prove: 2b= Le jen: AE ancl BB inwerseting ZA nthe complement of LACBs ZB isthe complement of ZDCF, Proves ZA = 2E. 10. Given: maD = mBD, Prove: Bet.9% a 2 s 8 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY Given Prove: Given. Prove: Given: Prove! Given: ZABGisastraight 2: EB bisects ¢ ABD; Fi bisects CBD. Prove: EB is 110 BF. (Hints mxtmeytmcrt mes mZx= 2%, mer=m23). Given: TB 4 CB a 0; mZBOE = mZDOF Prove: mZEOD = mZAOF Proof: 5B 1 CD. BOD and ZAOD ave vight 4. mZBOE = mZDOF. mZBOD = mzAOD, mZEOD* mW BOE méAOF + mZDOF = mZ AOD. mLEOD+ mZBOE = mZAOF + mz DOF. mZEOD = AOR REASONS Why? Why? Why? Why? Why? Why? Why? DEDUCTIVE REASONING 97 ep 16. Given: TB 1 TB a 0; ZBOE = mZ DOF. Prove: OF 1 OB. A Proof e Bx 16 SEATEMENTS REASONS 1. 4B 1 oD. 1. Why? 2, £BODisaright £ 2. Why? 3. mz BOD = 90. 3. Why? 4. m£BOE + mz EOD = mZBOD. 4. Why 5. mZBOE+mZEOD =), 5. Why? 6. m2 BOE = mz DOF. & Why? 7. mZDOF + mzBOD = 9%, 7. Why? 8. m£DOF + mZEOD = mZEOR, 8. Why? 9, mZEOF =, 9 Whyz 10, -.OF 1 OF. 10. Why? 17. Given: AB a CD; OB 1 GF. Prove: ZBOE = £FOD, Proof: StareMeNts 1 L. Why? 2 % Why? 8 ZPOE isa 3. Why? 4. mZBOD=...;mZFOE=.... 4. Why? 5. m2? = me BOD. 5. Why? 6. mZBOE+ m2 DOE = %. 6 Why? 7 mee+ m2? = me FOE. 7. Why? 8. mZ?-+ mz? = 90, 8. Why? 9. ZBOE isthe... of LDOE. 9. Why? ZFODisthe... of ZDOE. 10. Why? £BOE = 2FOD. 1. Why?Summary Tests Test 1 1 One plane ad only one plane can contain a given Kine and a point not on the tin Pheetumber isa real mamber shat snot ational ery angle congruent el 1 pstlatesastatenent that has been proved “The beers of two adjcent suppleme 10, Vertical angles hae equal measures. 11 The aisolute vali ol every onvero ral numbers pose 12, tet lines neersecy there are wand only wo podnt that are contained by ba ins 15, Tetons erect wo form sertcl angles shat are supplementary. the Verical angles ae right angles, 14, Acovolay isa theoter 1B Wan abtuse angle bxccted,twoacute angles wil be 16, Verbal angles eannot be supplementary. 17, Adjacent angles are npplestentary 18. A perpendicular toa ine bivcts he ne 18. Two adjacenc angles are ether complementary or supplementary ¥y angles ave perpendicular 20, Iris not possible for vertical angles to be adjacent angles, 41. Lis possible for three lines to he mutually perpendicular 22, A perpendicular is line running up. 24. If ovo angles are complementary, then each of them is acute, 24. LE ovo angles are supplementary, then one of them is acute and the other is obtuse, Test 2 COMPLEVION STATEMENTS 1, A statement considered true without proofs called a(n) 2. IL two angles are either complements or supplements of the same angle they are 5. The sides of a right angle are____to each other. 4. The pairs of nonadjacent angles formed when two lines intersect are called —_ 5. Ain) angle has a larger measure than its supplement 6. The bisectors of two complementary adjacent angles forms an angle whose measure is 7. Angle d is the complement of an angle whose measure is 42. Angle is thesupplement of 24. ‘Then the measure of 2B is 8. Point B lies on line RS. Line AB is perpendicular to Tine RS, ‘Then mZABR = 5. ‘Twoangles complementary to the same angle are 10. The difference between the measures of the supplement and comple ment of an angle is 11. The bisectors of pair of vertical angles form a 12, The measure of'an angle that is congruent co its complement i 13. The measure of an angle that has half the measure of its supplement is MM. The sum of the mews 'sof two adjacent angles formed by two intersect ing tne |G. For every three distinet noncollinear points, there is exactly one —___ ‘hat contains the three points 6. Lf m24 < m2B, then the measure of the supplement of £1 is the 1p, Measure of the supplementof 20 Ifthe noncommon sides of ewo adjacent angles are perpendicular to each other, then the angles are The correspondence between points on a line and the real numbers is called the — for the lineerscct, their intersection is a : 19, Ifo planesintersect, ees 30. iF two distinet lines intersect, how many planes can contain both i Test’ PROBLEMS - |. Given; AD . DC; dB 1 BC; 2CDB = LCBD. Prove: LADB = LABD. i: 2B Bel 2. Given: AB, CD, and EF are straight fines; EB bisects £400, Prove: EF bisects £BOD. z 3. Given: ABCBisasteaight line: meat mie= 180 : i Prove: 26% £0 ce _ 4. Given: LBAD = £ABC i ‘i ZDAC = ZCBD Prove: £CAB = LDBA / a > bet 4 Congruence —Congruent Triangles 4.1. Congruent figures. Industry today relies a great deal on mass produc tion and assembly line manufacture. Often each part of a machine or house- hold article is made by precision inanufacture 4 have exactly the same shape and size. These parts are then sent to an assembly plant where the parts can be fitted gether to form a complete unit. Phe mass production and repair of automobiles, airplanes, television sets, ‘automatic washers, refrigerators, and the many other products of modern industry depend on the inanrufacture of thousands of parts having exactly the seme shape and size. It is especially important in repairing @ complex »nuachine that the necessary replacement parts match exactly the original parts, Tn this chapter we will study the geomerry of figures that have the same shape and size, Definition: Two figures are congruent when they have the same shape and. size, (see $1.19) The word congruent is derived from the Latin words con meaning “with and grueve, meaning “to agree.” Congruent figures can be made to coincide, part by part. The coincident parts are called corresponding parts. Th symbol for congruence is =. This symbol is a combination of the two sym= bols=, meaning have the same size, and ~, meaning having the same shape. "hus, AdBC = ADEF means AABCis congruent to ADEF 42. Congruence relations. ‘The following theorems are a direct conse- quence of the properties of the real number system, They can be used to shorten many proofs of other theorems. Proofs of some of the theorems will be given; others will be left as exercises102. FUSDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY Congruence Theorems for Segments ‘Theorem 4.1 4.3. Reflexive theorem, Every segment is congruent to itself. Given: AB Conclusion: 3B % TB Proof Theonem 4. REASONS 1. Reflexive axiom (E-D) 2. Definition of congruent segments. ‘Theorem 42 44, Symmetric theorem. If 4B = CD, then CD = 4B. ‘Theorem 4.3 4.5. Transitive theorem, If 4B = CD and CD = EF, then 4B = EF. ‘Theorem 44 46. Addition theorem, If B is between 4 and C, F between D and F and AB = DE and BC = EF, then aC = DF. Given: 4B Bisbevwee Conclusion: Aand G; Eis benween Dand F. een Pron oe 4 5 —* ? Tina 1B ae 1. Given 2 mdb WEF, 2, Definition of congruent segments 3. mAB + mBC = mDE + mEP- 3. Addition property of real num- bers 4. Binberween d and Cs 4. Given, Pishetween Dand F 5. maB + mBC = mAC. 5. Definition of betweenness. DF 6. Substitution property of equality: 7. Definition of congruent segment. CONGRUENCE— CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 103 ‘Theorem 4.5 4.2. Subtractive theorem. If B is between A and C, E is between D and F, » DF and BC «= EF, then AB = DE. Congruence Theorems for Angles ‘Theorem 4.6 428, Reflexive theorem, Every angle is congruent to itself. 2 ‘Theorem 4.7 49. Symmetric theorem. If 2A = 2B,then 2B = 2A, If 4 = /Band 2B = £C,then 2A = £C. Theorem 4.9 4.11. Angle addition theorem. IF D is-in the interior of 2ABC, P is in the imerior of /RST, CABD = CRSP, and ZDBC = 2 PST, then 2 ABC = CRST. (Sce figure for Theorem 4.10.) ‘Theorem 4.10 4.12. Angle subtraction theorem. the imerior of ZRST, ABC “PST, If D is in the interior of 2ABC, P is in RST, and ZABD = /RSP, then DBC = Given: Disin interior of ABC; P isin interior of RST: LABG = ZRST; LABD = 2 RSP. Conclusion: ZDBC = ZPST. Proof Thenem 4.10104 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY sexremenrs REASONS 1. D in interior of £4BC; Pisin 1 imerior of ZRST; ZABC = RST; ZABD = ZRSP. 2. (a) MLABC = mLRST. Definition of angle congruence. (b) mZABD = mLRSP. 3. mZABC = mZABD-+ mz DBC; 3. Angle addition postulate, MLRST = m2 RSP +2 PST. 4, mZABD+mZDBC = mZRSP+ 4, Substitution property of equality mZPST {statement $ in statement 2a). 5. mZDBC = mZPST. 5. Subtraction property of equality (statement 2b from statement 4. 6. ZDBC = ZPST 6. igruence. ‘Theorems on Bisectors ‘Theorem 4.11 4.13. Segment bisector theorem. If AC = DF, B biscets AC, E bisects DF, then AB = DE. Given: AC = DF; B bisects AC; E bisects DP. Gonctuson: AB = DE Pronf, a A 3 € D Theor 42 DE < mdC = mDP. taddltion postulate, 4 4 jon property of equality 5. 5 of bisector of segment, 6. 6. Substitution property of equality 7. 7. Division property of equality 8 8. mdB = mdb <> AB CoNcRUENCE CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 105 ‘rheorem 4.12 434 Angle bisector theorem, If LABC = /RST, BD biscets ABC, SP bisects / RST, then ZABD = / RSP. [The proof issimilar to that of Theorem 4.11) é 5 € 2 s a ® Theorem 4.12 4.15. Illustrative Example: Given: ZDBC, Prove: ZABD = ZEBC Proof ~ stra Example 1. ZABE = 2DBc, 1. Given. 2. ZDRE = CDBE. 2. Reflexive theorem of 3. CABD = CEBC. 3. Subtractive theorem of Exereises (A) hi the following indicate which statements are always true and which are not always true 1 ap 2 mab 4B = CD. 5. A ray has one, and only one, midpoint 4 LAB & BC, then B bisects ACCONGRUENCE CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 107 1. Given f Ep Bbisects AC; E bisects FD; aC = FD. FB and aBbiscet each other at Gs % aE = FB. dE 1 FB. 7. IB bisects AC, then AB 8. 1f.4B = BC,then AC = BD a ¥ 9. be tot Wo. Poe oeceec n 5, Given: LDAB = LBA; £BAG © ZABE 6. Given: FP biscets both 2EJGand 24/8; ZEJG = LAB. F 7 19, If ZAGC = CGE and 24GB 3. Givens TE = ED; ED = Z then LBGC = LDGC Given: TG = BE: HP bis 13. Wf 2DGA = ZBGE then 2AGB = LEGD. AG and BE at. a aaa MM LAGD = ZBGE. ba 58 1B. ZDGA = mL BGC mEDGC+ mZAGB. 4.16. Corresponding parts of geometric figures. Congruent figures can be made to coincide, part by part. For example, in AABC and ADEF of Fig. 4.1 if i is possible to move the triangles so that the three vertices and the three sides of AABC fit exactly the three vertices and the three sides of ADE! the criangles are congruent t each other. We write this fact as AABC = ADEF. (It should be understood that the triangles need not actually be naned, but themovement is done abstracils inthe and.) : 16, IfD bisects AC and F bisects BC, then AD = Ul 2CRE = MPA. I LECH 1 FB, then 24M 2BUC. 19, IFC bisects ZACK, then AM = BM. 20, IF biscets AE, then F bisects BD. 2h. IP 2AFM = ZBFM. ‘Then 2GRA = ZCPB, 22, CAFC and ZBFC are vertical angles Exercises (B) By using the theorems on congruence, what conclusions can be drawn i This matching of vertices and sides of a geometric figure is called a one-to- each of the following exercises? Write your conclusions and reasons in the ig of vertices and sides of a a fig led a one-t one correspondence. The matched parts are called corresponding parts. same manner shown in the following example E p Thus we speak of coresponding sides aud corresponding angles. The watchin Ilustrative example: Up scheme of corresponding vertices can be shown by the symbolism: A =» D, Given: ZAED = Z CDE; LDEB = ZFDB. BEC, Wecanalso show this matching by writing ABC & DEF Conclusion: LAEB = LCDB. / Thus given a correspondence ABC <> DEF between the vertices of wo Reason: Angle subtraction theorem. aN ‘viangles if cach pait of corresponding sides are congruent, and if each pair a ¥ Uf corresponding angles are congruent, then the correspondence ABC © lastratne Eval DEF isa congruence between th tuo triangle108 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GFOMETRY Two triangles can be matched-up six ways. and ADEF are: ABC © FED ABC © FDE Other ways of matching AABC ABC > EFD ABC «> EDF ABC © DFE In Fig. 4.1, if the matching ABC + DEF gives a congruence, we can state that AC and DF are corresponding sides, and BCA and ZEFD are corre sponding angles. Can you find the other pairs of corresponding sides and, corresponding angles? ‘Two scalene triangles can have only a single one-to-one correspondence which will give a congruence. ‘Two isosceles triangles can have two one-to-one correspondences which will give congruence A TM, the two correspondences RST KLM and RST LEM might give congruences. We will determine late ‘what additional conditions must be known before the triangles can be prov congruent to each other The order in which matching pairs of vertices are given is not important in expressing congruence and the vertex you start with is not important In Fig. 4.3, we could describe the one-to-one correspondence in one line DEFG © HKJI_ ov EFGD © KJIH. Can you fim them? All char matters is that corresponding points be matched, Ieshould be evident that a triangle can be made to coincide with itself. Th ‘There are two others. CONGRUENCE— CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 109 ABC + ABC isan identity congruence, For the isosceles triangle RST (Fig. 4.4), where BT = ST, itcan be shown that, under the one-to-one / correspondence HST SRT, the figure can be inuide 10 coincide with itself Fig. t. Exercises AGH] and a AKIM. List all the possible matchings of the second Je with the ordered sequence GHY of the hist triangle 2.1 the matching RST © LMR gives a congruence between ARST and ALMK, list all the pairs of corresponding sides and corresponding angles of the wo triangles. 3, Write down the six matchings of equilateral AABC with itself, beginning with the identity congruence BC #8 4. Write down the four matchings of rectangle ABCD with itself ABC with ARST, AC and RT were matched os correspond ing sides. Does it then follow that (1) Band 28 are corresponding angles? (2) BC and ST are corresponding sides? 6 Which of the following figares form matched pairs that are cong each other? 5. In match @ w eo @ eo o Pro 6TID. FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY CONGRUENCE— CONGRUENT TRIANGLES II shown in Fig. 4.5, the shape of the triangle is fixed. It cannot be changed without bending or breaking the pieces of wood. However, Ife bolt together four (or more) boards, forming a four-sided figure as shown in Fig. 46, the shape of the frame can he changed by exerting a force on one uf the bolts. The measures of the angles formed by the boards can be changed in size even though the lengths of the sides of the figure remain the same. The frameof Fig. 4.6 can be made rigid by bolting a board across D and F (or £ and G), thus forming wo rigid 0 The rigidity of triangles is illustrated in the practical applications of this property in the construction of many types of structures, such as bridges, fowers, and gates (Fig. 4.7), 7-12. In each of the following use ruler and protractor to find which triangles seem to be congruent, Then indicate the pairs of sides and angles in the triangles which seem to match in a congruence. © D 4.10. Congruence of triangles. The engineer and the drafisman are con. sinually using congruence of triangles in their work. By applying their know- ledge of congruent triangles, they are able to study measures of the three sides and the threeangles of a given triangle and to compute areas of triangles, Otten they apply this knowledge in constructing triangular structures which will be exact duplicates of an original structure, If there exists some correspondence ABC + DEF of the ver- ices of AABC with those of ADEF such that each pair of corresponding sides £ are congruent and-each pair of corresponding: angles: are congruent, the correspondence ABC < DEF is called a congruence between the triangles. The triangles are congruent triangles. Or we may state that AABC is con- le grucntto ADEP, written ABC = ADEF. a B D bx 12 4.17. The triangle is a rigid figure. Much of our study of congruence of geometric figures deals with uiangles. The triangle is the most widely used Of all che geometric figures formed by straight lines. ‘The triangle is rigid in structural design. If three boards are bolted together at 4, B, and C, 38 Hig 64.8), we know six relationships between the! angles. nately néd=mcD MLB = mek mLC= LF The equations in the left column and the congruences in the right columa| mean the same thing. ‘They can be used interchangeably. InSection 9.2 we will introduce a third way toindicate congruency of segments. CONGRUENCE— CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 113 4.19, Basic congruence postulate. Although we defined wo triangles as congruent if three pairs of sides and three pairs of angles are congruen triangles can be proved congruent if fewer pairs of corresponding parts are known tobe congruent. We must first accept a new postulate. Postulate 17 (the S.A.S. postulate). Two triangles are congruent if too sides and the included angle of one are, respectively, cangruent to the two sides and the included. angle of the ather ‘This postulate states that, in Fig. 4.9, i€ Bs then AABC = ADEF. ‘The student often will find that he is aided in making a quick selection of the congruent sides and congruent angles in the two triangles by designat Uvem with similar check marks for the congruent pairs of congruent sides and congruent angles. In this text we will frequently use hash marks to indi cate “given” congruences. Thus, in Fig, 4.10, if it is given that AC = DE, AM = DB,AC 1. AD and DE 1 AD, the student can readily see which are the congruent pairs It will also be helpful if, in proving a congruence for ewo tangles, the st dent names the triangles in such a way 4% to indicate the matching vertices For example, in Fig. 410, since ABC DBE can be proved a congruence, it would be more explicit to refer to these Wiangles as "A4BG and ADBE” rather th and ADEB." Al tence “AABC = ADEB™ can be proved correct, the sentence ADBE™ will prove more helpful since it aids in picking out the Corresponding parts of the two figures. It is importa iangles congr Fig. 4.10, that the student recognize, in using Postulate 17 10 prove that the cougruent angles must be Between (Formed by)114 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY the corresponding congruent sides. If the congruent angles are two known congruent sides, it does not necessarily follow that the correspon. dence will give a congruence. In ARST {and AKEM (Fig. 4.11) note that, though RS = KM, ST = NIL. and 28 * ZK, the Cviangles certainly are not congruent, 4.20. Application of Postulate 17. In Postulate 17 we have stated that two ti- ee: angles, each made up of three sides and a “ three angles, are congruent if only three Fig particular parts of one wiangle can be shown congruent respectively to the three corresponding parts of the second triangle. Hereafter, when we are given any two tangles in which we know, oF can prove, two sides and the included tangle of one triangle congruent respectively to v0 sides and the included angle of the other, we can quote Postulace 17 as the reason for stating that the two triangles are congruent cis essential that the student memorize, or can state the equivalent in his own words, the statement of Postulate 17 because he will be required fre- quently in subsequent proofs to give it as a reason for statements in these proofs, After the student has shown competence in stating the postulate, the insrructor may permit him to refer briefly 1 it by the abbreviation SAS. (side-angle side). “This abbreviation will be used hereafter in this text. Once Postulate 17 is accepted as true. it becomes possible to prove various congruence theorems for Uiangles. We will next consider a theorem and. wo other examples of how this postulate can be used in proving other con gruenees, Theorem 4.13 421. If the two legs of one right triangle are congruent respectively to the ‘two legs of another right triangle, the triangles are congruent. Given: SABC and ADEF with AC = DP, BC = EF, 2Cand 2F ate right. Conclusion: QABC * ADEF z Proof Tiewrem 4.13.0 8 c a ae CONGRUENCE—CONERLENT TRIANGLES 115 SrsTIMENTS REASONS 1, Given 3. Right angles are congruent 3 2Ce LF AARC = ADEE 1 SAS 5 422, Mustrative Example I: The bisector of the A vertex of an isosceles triangle divides it into two Congruent triangles. T Given: Isosceles triangle ABC with bisects ZACB. Conclusion: BADC = ABDC Proof Hasratce Esampe 1 AC= Ke. 1. Given, 2 D=c 2. Reflexive theorem of segments 3. CD biscets ZACB 3. Given. 1 da = 2p 4. A bisector divides an angle into two congruent anges 5. AADC = ABDC 5 SAAS. 4.28, Mustrative Exainple 2: ¢ Given: ‘The adjacent figures with AD and CE bisecting each other ah. Conclusion: SABC Prong DBE. Masai fap. Starnes REASONS 1. ADand CE bisect each other at B. 1. Given, 2 Ba = BD, 2 Definition of bisector 8 BE. 3. Reason 2. 4 ‘DBE 4. Vertical angles are congruent. 5 5 SAS. ADBE.116 FONPAMENTALS OF COLLEGE C1 4.24. Use of figures in geometric proofs. Every valid geometric proof uld be independent of the figure used to illustrate the problem. Figures are used merely as a matter of convenience. Strictly speaking, before Example 2 could be proved, it should be stated that: (1) 4B, G.D,and E are five points lying in the same plane; (2) B is between 4 and D; and 3) B is bowen Cand E To include such information, which can be inferred ftom the figure, would make the proof tedious an tious, In this text it will be permis: sible to use the figure to infer (without stating it) such things as betwcenness, collinearity of points, the location of a point in the interior or the exterior of an angle or in a certain half-plane, and the general relative position of points, lines, and planes. The nuldent should be careful nt to infer congruence of segments and angles, bisectors of segments and angles, perpendicular and parallel lines just because “they appear that way” in the figure. Such things must be included in the hypotheses or in the developed proofs. It would not, for example, be correct to assume 2 and 2D are tight angles in the second ‘example because they might look ike it rep Exercises (A) The wiangles of each of the twelve following problems are marked to show congruent sides and angles. Indicate the pairs of triangles which can be: proved congruent by Postulate 17 or Theorem 4.13. J a iL = 13. Given: AC. 4B; DE . BD; a -y iD a 7 D AC = DE; Bbiseets AD. ee iy Conclusion: AABC = ADBE. CONGRUENCE CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 117 B10 b118 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY U4, Givens AD and BE intersecting aC; CB, AC = De Conclusion: SABC = ADEC 15. Given: OS 1. RT; S bisects RT: Conclusion: ARSQ = ATSQ. 16, Given: 2D4B Conclusion: ABE Bets CONGRUENCE— CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 119 19, Given: Isosceles AABC with AC = BC; Dthe mid point of aC; E the midpoint of BC. Gonelusion: BACE & ABCD. Bes, 20, Givens ARS with 2SQR & ZSRO: T the midpoint of W she midpoint of Bas Conclusion: ATOR = AWRO. Theorem 4.14 425. If two triangles have two angles and the included side of one con- ‘gruent to the corresponding two angles and the included side of the other, ‘the triangles are congruent. 17, Given: RS = QT, PS ZRIP = ZOSP. Conclusion: ARTP = AQSP: PT, 18. Given: AC = AB; BC 20; LB £y, Conclusion: ABC % AABD. ; ; LL. Theorem 4.4 Given: AABC and QDEF with 24 = LD, 2B = CE, 4B = DE. Conclusion: ABC = ADEF Proof srareyents REASONS 1B 2b. 1. Given 2 On DB there is a point H such 2 Point plotting postulate that mDH = AC. 3. Draw FEE. 3. ‘Two points determine a line120 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY 4. AABC = ADE. 4. SAS 5. 2DEH = 2B 5, Corresponding & of congruen Bares tovach other 6. 2B = Le 6. Gin o 2bEH = ce 7. Cangruence of is transitive, 8. Eff and EP are the same ray 8. Angle construction postulate 8 H=F, 8. Two lines intersect in at-mos one point 10, Replacing H of Statement 4 by (from Statement 9) Lt will be noted that in drawing the figure for the proof of Theorem 4.1 the point H is shown between D and F, The point could just as well drawn with F between H and D. This would not alter the validity of t proof. The abbreviation for the statement of this theorem is A.S.A. Theorem 4.15 4.26. If a leg and the adjacent acute angle of one right triangle are cor gruent respectively to a leg and the adjacent acute angle of another, the ri triangles are congruent. Se eee eed CONGRUENCE— CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 121 4.27. Illustrative Example 1 Given: TD diseets ZACK; CD 4. HB. Conclusion: ADC = ABDC Proof SUA FEMENES REASONS 1. CDbiiseets ACB. 1. Given, 2. ZACD = ZBCD. 2A bisector divides an angle into two congruent angles, Given, Two perpendicular tines. for right angles. 8 CD 4 AB. 8 4, 2ADCand 2BDCarerightangles. 4 5. ZADC = ZBDC 5. Right angles are congruent 6. D=CD 6. Congruence of segments is reflexive. 7 T ASA The student will note how the method of modus ponens as been applied in theahove prot. ‘The logic used could be written: (a) 1. A bisector divides an angle into two congruent angles ‘Theorem 4.1. a 3 ZACD = AC Given: Right & ABC and DEF with £4 = 2D, leg AC = leg DF, £C and 2) i eee 8 s 0) Boo perpendicular ine form ight angles a eoremehtae : 2 Cis perpendicular w 4B. Conan: BARC ADEE SZC and ZBDC are sigh anges aise ee (0) 1. Allright angles are congruent evr . 2. £ADC and ZBDC are right angles eae zs ea 1 aC = ZBDC 2 LCand ZF are right 4. 2 f) LTE two. les have two angles and the included side of one 3 26 = cP. 3. Right angles are congruent. congruent to the corresponding two angles and the included side of 4. aC = DF. 4. Given the other, the triangles are congrient 5. <. QABC % ADEF. BASAL CD: 2ADC = LEDC.122 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLLEGE GEOMETRY 4.28. Illustrative Example 2: Given: JB 4 BC,DC 1 BC, ZABD Prove: ABC Proof Mstrative Example? B sraremenes REASONS 1. 4B 4 BC; BC 4 BC. 2. ZABCis aright angle; ZDCBis.a right angle. 3. LABC = ZDCB. 4 ZDCA. ZACB. DBC, Given. Perpendicular lines meet to form rightangles. Right angles are congru Given Subtraction of angles theorem, Symmetric theorem of = angles. Reflexive theorem of congruent segments. ASA, Exercises (A) The triangles of each of the following ten problems are marked to show congruent sides and angles. Indicate the pairs of triangles that can be proved congruent by Theorem 4.14 or Theorem 4.15. (See figure Exercises | throtigh 10.) > ¢ : AA ¥ ZN f B > L + w Bx Bed CONGRUENCE— CONGRUENT ‘TRIANGLES & bx, P Dy 5 R r E A B s Bx, Bx 1, Exercises (B) Prove formally the following exercises 11. Given: TE and BD biseet each i other atC; DE 1. BD; GB 5. BD, a Conclusion: BAB = AFDC ext