R e nal M a n ag emen t i n t he

Critically Ill Patient

Kenneth S. Waxman, MD*, Galen Holmes, MD

KEYWORDS
 Renal function  Acute kidney injury  Prerenal azotemia  Peritoneal dialysis

KEY POINTS
 Alterations in renal function are common in surgical patients, where multiple factors affect
the clinical picture and outcomes are influenced by prompt diagnosis and protective
management strategies.
 Recent studies suggest that acute kidney injury occurs in up to two-thirds of intensive care
unit patients and that increasing severity of acute kidney injury is associated with
increasing mortality.
 Urinalysis with microscopy is a useful tool in determining the cause of acute kidney injury.
 Distinguishing between prerenal azotemia and acute tubular necrosis, two of the most
common causes of acute kidney injury, can be complicated by a confusing clinical picture.

INTRODUCTION

Alterations in renal function are common in surgical patients, where multiple factors
affect the clinical picture and outcomes are influenced by prompt diagnosis and
protective management strategies. This is particularly true in critically ill patients.

ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is defined by a decline in renal filtration marked by acute
decrease in glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Although serum creatinine (SCr) is not
a perfect marker for GFR, it is frequently used as a surrogate to estimate GFR. The
true incidence of AKI and acute renal failure has been difficult to define, given the
broad and various definitions used to quantify and study altered renal function. Recent
introduction of consensus definitions, such as RIFLE criteria and Acute Kidney Injury
Network (AKIN) staging, has allowed a more clear analysis of the impact of this
problem. Recent studies suggest that AKI occurs in up to two-thirds of intensive
care unit (ICU) patients and that increasing severity of AKI is associated with

Ventura County Health Care Agency, 2323 Knoll Drive, Ventura, CA 93003, USA
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected]

Surg Clin N Am 92 (2012) 1503–1518

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.suc.2012.08.012 surgical.theclinics.com
0039-6109/12/$ – see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1504 Waxman & Holmes

increasing mortality.1 It is clear that AKI is associated with increased morbidity, such
as increased hospital length of stay and cost of care,2 and has been linked to other
in-hospital complications, such as increased difficulty weaning from mechanical venti-
lation.3 Preoperative risk factors for development of AKI include older age, emergent
surgery, hepatic disease, obesity, high-risk surgery, and vascular disease in chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease.4 Although the incidence of AKI seems to be rising,
overall outcomes are gradually improving.5,6

DEFINITION

The RIFLE criteria (Table 1), defined in 2004 by the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative
Group,7 quantifies the severity of AKI. Studies by Hoste and colleagues8 and Oster-
man and Chang9 found that mortality progressively increased with increasing RIFLE
severity, and that patients in all of the RIFLE classifications had higher mortality
than those in the ICU without AKI.
In 2005, the AKIN formulated consensus diagnostic criteria for AKI. The consensus
states “an abrupt (within 48 hours) reduction in kidney function is currently defined
as an absolute increase in SCr of either 0.3 mg/dL or a percentage increase of
50% (1.5-fold from baseline) or a reduction in urine output (documented oliguria
of <0.5 mL/kg/hr for >6 hrs).” These criteria can only be applied in the face of
adequate fluid hydration.10 This AKIN staging system (Table 2), arguably more inclu-
sive than the RIFLE criteria, simplifies the definition of AKI for researchers and AKIN
correlates with outcomes. Chertow and colleagues2 found that an acute absolute
change in creatinine greater than or equal to 0.3 was associated with increased
mortality, length of stay, and cost of care. Barrantes and colleagues11 found that
patients meeting this definition of AKI were three times as likely to die during
hospitalization.
In 2007, Coca and colleagues12 published a review and meta-analysis of eight
studies that suggest that even smaller elevations in SCr than recommended in RIFLE
and AKIN (on the order of 10%–24%) are associated with a twofold risk of short-term
death in several clinical settings and hypothesize that the lack of successful interven-
tions in the treatment of AKI may be in part caused by delay in diagnosis caused by the
lag-time of SCr. They suggest that implementing a new, more sensitive definition of AKI
may improve the success of proposed interventions.

Table 1
RIFLE criteria

Serum Creatinine Criteria Urine Output Criteria

Risk Increased 1.5–2 baseline <0.5 mL/kg/h for 6 h
Injury Increased 2–3 baseline <0.5 mL/kg/h for 12 h
Failure Increased >3 baseline <0.3 mL/kg/h for 24 h
or or
Serum creatine >4 mg/dL with acute Anuria for 12 h
rise 0.5 mg/dL
Loss Persistent renal failure for >4 wk
End-stage renal disease Persistent renal failure for >3 mo

Data from Bellomo R, Ronco C, Kellum J, et al. Acute renal failure: definitions, outcome measures,
animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs. The Second International
Consensus Conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADOQI) Group. Crit Care
2004;8:R204–12.
 Renal Management in the Critically Ill Patient 1505

Table 2
Acute Kidney Injury Network staging system

Stage Serum Creatinine Criteria Urine Output Criteria

I Absolute increase 0.3 mg/dL <0.5 mL/kg/h for 6 h
or
Increased 1.5–2 baseline
II Increased 2–3 baseline <0.5 mL/kg/h for 12 h
III Increased >3 baseline <0.3 mL/kg/h for 24 h
or or
Serum creatine 4 mg/dL with absolute increase 0.5 mg/dL Anuria for 12 h
or
Need for renal replacement therapy

Data from Mehta R, Kellum J, Shah S, et al. Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN): report of an initia-
tive to improve outcomes in acute kidney injury. Crit Care 2007;11:R31.

DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH

Historical keys include the temporal nature of symptoms, comorbidities, and identifi-
cation of potentially nephrotoxic medications. It is important to identify signs and
symptoms suggestive of obstruction. Although the physical examination in the inten-
sive care patient with AKI is frequently fraught with conflicting clinical findings and is of
limited accuracy,13 ascertaining clues to the patient’s hemodynamics and volume
status is valuable.
Urinalysis with microscopy is a useful tool in determining the cause of AKI. Presence of
casts or other cells can suggest or confirm a diagnosis. Red cell casts suggest glomer-
ulonephritis or vasculitis, whereas white cell casts may raise the possibility of interstitial
nephritis or pyelonephritis. “Muddy brown” casts and renal tubular epithelial cells are
pathognomonic for acute tubular necrosis (ATN) and differentiate ATN from prerenal
azotemia, which has normal sediment or occasional hyaline casts.14 Dark heme-
positive urine without red blood cells on microscopy is diagnostic of rhabdomyolysis.
Distinguishing between prerenal azotemia and ATN, two of the most common causes
of AKI, can be complicated by a confusing clinical picture. Aside from analysis of urine
sediment, response to fluid repletion is frequently used in this distinction. Return to base-
line of renal function in 24 to 72 hours after fluid repletion suggests a prerenal cause.
Urine chemistries can also aid in the diagnosis. The fractional excretion of sodium
(FENa) measures the ratio of the sodium excreted to the sodium filtered by the formula:

FENa 5 (urine sodium  SCr)/(serum sodium  urine creatinine)  100

Prerenal azotemia is indicated by FENa less than 1%, whereas FENa greater than
1% suggests ATN. However, FENa may be spuriously low in patients with severe
sepsis, heart failure, or cirrhosis despite the presence of ATN.15 The FENa may
be falsely elevated in patients on diuretics, with glucosuria, or with preexisting renal
insufficiency. In the case of diuretic use, the fractional excretion of urea (FEurea)
can accurately distinguish between prerenal azotemia and ATN by the following
formula:

FEurea 5 (urine urea nitrogen  SCr)/(blood-urea-nitrogen  urine creatinine)  100

Prerenal azotemia is indicated by a FEurea less than 35% and ATN by a value
greater than 50%.16 Although of variable utility, other serum and urinary measures
1506 Waxman & Holmes

can be used in aggregate to distinguish ATN from prerenal azotemia.17–20 These tests
are summarized in Table 3, in order of general usefulness.
Serologic tests, such as antinuclear antibody, hepatitis B surface antigen, and anti-
glomerular basement membrane antibody, are useful for distinguishing the cause of
glomerular diseases. Creatinine phosphokinase level can indicate rhabdomyolysis.
Blood-urea-nitrogen (BUN) levels reflect the balance between urea production,
metabolism, and excretion and frequently rise as renal function declines. Numerous
nonrenal sources of BUN exist, including dietary protein intake, parenteral hyperali-
mentation therapy, catabolism of endogenous proteins, corticosteroid administration,
and upper gastrointestinal bleeding. However, a recent study by Beier and
colleagues21 suggests that elevation of BUN is predictive of long-term mortality, inde-
pendent of normal creatinine.

BIOMARKERS

Most clinicians rely on changes in SCr and BUN as indicators of renal function because
they are accessible and well established. However, SCr level is influenced by nonrenal
factors, such as age, gender, race, body weight, muscle mass, protein intake, and
drugs, and changes in this laboratory value tend to lag behind actual alterations in
GFR. BUN is influenced by nutritional intake and the degree of catabolism, indepen-
dently of renal function. For these reasons, alternatives to SCr and BUN serve as
more specific markers, earlier indicators, and better prognostic tools for kidney injury.
Belcher and colleagues22 highlight one of the most promising of these markers, inter-
leukin (IL)-18. A proinflammatory cytokine thought to be released by injured proximal
renal tubules,23 IL-18 is a mediator and biomarker of AKI and can be reliably measured
in the urine. The authors cite research that identifies IL-18 as an early indicator of AKI,
as a tool for distinguishing prerenal azotemia and hepatorenal syndrome from ATN,
and as a prognostic tool to predict mortality and viability of renal transplant.22 Belcher
and colleagues22 also discuss neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, an acute-
phase reactant indicative of inflammatory injury, which is upregulated and released
by proximal renal tubular cells within a few hours of tubular damage. Like IL-18,
studies suggest that neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin can be used as an
early indicator,24 in the differential diagnosis, and as a prognostic tool for AKI.25
Kidney injury molecule 1 is a type 1 cell membrane glycoprotein only expressed by
proximal tubular cells in response to injury. It is detectable in urine and has been
shown to discriminate ATN from other causes of AKI and is also used as a prognostic
tool, because it predicts outcomes.22

Table 3
Diagnostic indices distinguishing prerenal azotemia from acute tubular necrosis

Measurement Prerenal Azotemia Acute Tubular Necrosis

Urinalysis Normal or hyaline casts Muddy brown casts
Response to fluid repletion Within 24–72 h No response
FENa <1% >1%
FEurea <35% >50%
BUN/creatinine ratio 20 10
Urine sodium (mEq/L) <20 >30
Urine osmolality (mOsm/L) >350 300

Abbreviations: BUN, blood-urea-nitrogen; FENa, fractional excretion of sodium; FEurea, fractional

excretion of urea.
 Renal Management in the Critically Ill Patient 1507

Cystatin C is a cysteine protease inhibitor secreted by all nucleated cells and is

freely filtered by the glomerulus. Although several studies suggest that serum cystatin
C is better than SCr as a surrogate for GFR and thus better for the early detection of
AKI,26–29 another study suggests urinary cystatin C may be better.30
Liver-type fatty acid binding protein is an intracellular lipid chaperone found in the
proximal renal tubules where it binds lipid peroxidation products thus mitigating tissue
damage in ischemia-reperfusion injury. Although urinary levels may be affected by liver
injury or systemic inflammation, they are largely determined by tubular injury.31

IMAGING

Imaging is an important part of the initial work-up in patients with AKI. The primary test
of choice is ultrasound. Using ultrasound to determine kidney size and echogenicity,
cortical thickness, and the presence or absence of hydronephrosis is convenient and
noninvasive.32 The presence of a thin rim of decreased echogenicity (“renal sweat”)
may surround the kidneys in patients with kidney injury.33 Recent studies suggest
that the use of color Doppler technology is useful in the diagnosis of AKI.34 Measuring
the resistivity index, an indicator of perfusion based on measurement of flow at the
level of the arcuate or interlobar arteries, may help differentiate among prerenal
azotemia (normal resistivity index), ATN (reduced resistivity index), and postrenal
obstruction (elevated resistivity index). The authors also suggest that this value can
be serially followed, because it normalizes with resolution of the renal insult. Another
promising ultrasonographic technique for the diagnosis of AKI is contrast-enhanced
ultrasound, which makes use of microbubble-based contrast agents to help quantify
renal blood flow, which is thought to be decreased in AKI.35 Ultrasound is critical for
the diagnosis of hydronephosis in which it is more than 95% accurate in detecting dila-
tion of the collecting systems and renal pelvis.36,37 A postrenal obstructive cause of
AKI is suggested when hydronephrosis is present bilaterally.38 Assessing bladder
volume with ultrasound is important in the case of bilateral hydronephrosis. A postvoid
residual volume greater than 150 mL is suggestive of bladder-outlet obstruction39 and
if observed in the presence of a urinary catheter, catheter malfunction should be
considered. If ultrasound is negative, computed tomography (CT) may be required
to elucidate the cause of obstruction, such as obstructing stones or pelvic mass.

MEDICATION REVIEW

When evaluating cases of AKI, a thorough investigation of medications and ingestions

is essential. Certain medications can elevate SCr levels without affecting GFR, leading
to misdiagnosis of AKI. The drugs cimetidine and trimethoprim block tubular creatinine
secretion,40,41 whereas several drugs and substances interfere with the creatinine
assay (Table 4). The drug tenofovir disoproxil fumarate, used in the treatment
of HIV/AIDS, elevates SCr without affecting measured GFR by an undefined
mechanism.42
Various medications and substances induce AKI by several mechanisms (Table 5).
It is important to limit the use of nephrotoxic agents when possible, especially in
combination. If AKI is present, medications should be appropriately dosed.

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
Prerenal Azotemia
Prerenal azotemia is one of the most common etiologies of AKI, caused by a decrease
in renal perfusion. This can occur because of an absolute decrease in extracellular
1508 Waxman & Holmes

Table 4
Nonrenal causes of elevated serum creatinine

Interference with Creatinine

Assay Block Tubular Creatinine Secretion Undefined
Acetone (found in DKA) Cimetidine Tenofovir
Cefoxitin Trimethoprim
Flucytosine
Isopropol alcohol
Methanol
Methyldopa

Abbreviation: DKA, diabetic ketoacidosis.

Data from refs.82–85

fluid volume (ie, hemorrhage, gastrointestinal losses, burns); a decrease in the effec-
tive circulating volume (ie, heart failure, portal hypertension); or shifting volume out of
the intravascular space (ie, third-spacing). Prerenal azotemia by definition is reversible
if treated early with fluid resuscitation, improvement in underlying heart failure, or
correction of the third-space defect. If untreated, poor perfusion leads to tissue
ischemia and cell death, representing a progression to intrinsic renal disease. An
important cause of prerenal azotemia is abdominal compartment syndrome. High
intra-abdominal pressures (>20 mm Hg bladder pressure) result in the clinical triad
of oliguria, dyspnea with high peak airway pressures hindering ventilation, and hypo-
tension transiently responsive to fluid resuscitation. If detected early, medical
management can be effective,43 but as with all compartment syndromes, timely
surgical decompression with a decompressive laparotomy is usually necessary.
Postrenal Azotemia
Postrenal azotemia occurs because of obstruction of urinary flow at any point in the
urinary tract from the renal collecting system to the level of the urethra. Increased
back-flow builds pressure and decreases filtration. This type of azotemia can be
caused by prostatic disease; neurogenic bladder; obstruction of an in-dwelling urinary
catheter; abdominal or pelvic tumors; adhesions from prior surgery or radiation; ves-
icoureteral reflux; ureteral or bladder stones; medications causing crystals or fibrosis;
or myeloma light chains (in multiple myeloma). The obstruction must be corrected to
resolve the azotemia. Complications of postrenal azotemia include urinary tract infec-
tion secondary to urinary stasis, hyperkalemia caused by impaired excretion, and
rarely postobstructive diuresis marked by significant diuresis leading to hypotension.
Intrinsic Renal Disease
Intrinsic renal disease results from injury to the parenchyma of the kidney, including
the glomeruli, the interstitium, and the renal tubules.
Glomeruli
Glomerular disease is classified as nephritic or nephrotic and can have an acute or
insidious onset. Nephritic syndrome is characterized by hematuria, proteinuria, hyper-
tension, and edema caused by pores in the glomeruli allowing leakage of red blood
cells and protein into the urine. Etiologies include bacterial endocarditis, systemic
lupus erythematosus, poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, hepatitis B antigenemia,
IgA nephropathy, and hepatorenal syndrome. The hallmark of nephrotic syndrome is
marked proteinuria with minimal hematuria and anasarca. Frequently, the diagnosis of
 Table 5
Medications associated with direct and indirect nephrotoxicity

Direct Nephrotoxicity Indirect Nephrotoxicity

Osmotic Interstitial Glomerular Volume
ATN Nephrosis Nephritis Injury Decrease in Intrarenal Blood Flow Depletion
Iodinated contrast Hypertonic NSAIDs NSAIDs Crystal deposition Retroperitoneal fibrosis Diuretics (loop,
solutions (intrarenal obstruction) (ureteral obstruction) mannitol, thiazide)
Aminoglycosides IVIG Beta-lactams Zoledronate Indinavir Ergotamine
Amphotericin B Quinolones Pamidronate Sulfadiazine Sotalol
Petamidine Sulfonamides Ticlopidine Sulfamethoxazole Propranolol
Foscarnet Phenytoin Clopidogrel Methotrexate Bromocriptine

Renal Management in the Critically Ill Patient

Cisplatinum Allopurinol Cyclosporine High-dose acyclovir
Acetaminophen Thiazide and Gemcitabine
loop diuretics
Cidofovir Indinavir
Adefovir PPIs
Tenofovir Vancomycin
Melphalan
IVIG
Hetastarch
Mannitol

Abbreviations: ATN, acute tubular necrosis; IVIG, intravenous immunoglobulin; NSAIDS, nonsteroidal inflammatory drugs; PPIs, proton pump inhibitors.
Data from Pannu N, Nadim MK. An overview of drug-induced acute kidney injury. Crit Care Med 2008;36(4):S216–23.

1509
1510 Waxman & Holmes

nephrotic syndrome requires renal biopsy. Causes include minimal change disease,
focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, and membranous nephropathy.

Interstitium
There are many conditions affecting the renal interstitium including allergic; drug-
induced; infectious (bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic); autoimmune (systemic lupus
erythematosus, Sjögren syndrome, Goodpasture syndrome); infiltrative (lymphoma,
sarcoid); and idiopathic forms of disease. The most common cause of acute interstitial
nephritis is drug-induced disease, which is thought to underlie 60% to 70% of
cases.44 Illicit drugs, penicillins, cephalosporins, sulfonamides, and nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs are some of the most common offenders. Acute interstitial
nephritis can cause fever, rash, eosinophilia, and eosinophiluria; however, none of
these are reliably diagnostic. Kidney biopsy is the gold standard of diagnosis, but
rarely needed. Timely discontinuation of the offending agent is usually effective treat-
ment. The use of steroids in drug-induced acute interstitial nephritis is controversial,
but a recent study suggests that early administration of steroids (within 2 weeks)
may prevent long-term sequelae.45 Hyperuricemia, hyperuricosuria, and hyperphos-
phatemia, seen in tumor lysis syndrome, can cause deposits of crystals in the renal
interstitium and tubules, leading to AKI. Similarly, ingestion of oral sodium phosphate
solutions in bowel preparations for colonoscopy has been recognized as a cause of
AKI from crystal deposition.46 Allupurinol and rasburicase have been used for the
prevention and treatment of tumor lysis syndrome.47

Tubules
ATN was originally thought to be caused by a period of ischemia followed by reperfu-
sion causing extensive necrosis. More recently investigators emphasize the role of
endothelial dysfunction, systemic inflammatory mediators, and oxidative stress in
causing AKI.48 With this in mind, the term currently is more often used to describe
a clinical situation with adequate renal perfusion to maintain tubular integrity but not
enough to sustain glomerular filtration.49 This is particularly true in the case of sepsis
and shock of any cause. ATN is also caused by toxins, most commonly the aminogly-
coside antibiotics. Other toxins causing ATN include platinum, antifungals, rhabdo-
myolysis, hemolysis, and radiographic contrast (see Table 5). Risk factors for ATN
include volume contraction, age, and concomitant use of other nephrotoxins. Preven-
tion of ATN is focused on achieving euvolemia while maintaining renal perfusion and
avoiding further renal insults. Rhabdomyolysis is caused by massive breakdown of
muscle, releasing myoglobin, which can result in ATN. Rhabdomyolysis can be precip-
itated by drugs (heroin, cocaine, statins, alcohol); multiple trauma; crush injuries;
seizures; muscle compression; and extreme exertion. Contrast-induced nephropathy
(CIN) is an acute decline in renal function seen after administration of intravenous
radiographic contrast, specifically an increase in SCr of 25% above baseline or abso-
lute increase of 0.5 mg/dL within 48 hours after administration of parenteral contrast.
Although not well understood, it is likely the result of several factors. Transient hypo-
tension caused by osmotic diuresis, vasoconstriction of glomerular vessels, and direct
cytotoxic effect has been hypothesized.50 CIN is the third most common cause of
hospital-acquired renal injury and is most prevalent among those with underlying renal
disease.51 Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis is a recently diagnosed disease that occurs
in patients with preexisting stage IV and V chronic kidney disease or acute renal failure
that has been linked to intravenous administration of gadolinium-based contrast
media for magnetic resonance imaging. Shortly after exposure to gadolinium (2–12
weeks) patients develop skin thickening and fibrosis, similar to scleroderma, and
 Renal Management in the Critically Ill Patient 1511

can have rapid progression to joint contractures and severe disability. Systemic
involvement may occur, leading to cardiomyopathy, pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary
hypertension, diaphragmatic paralysis, and death. The pathophysiology of the disease
still remains unclear, but recent studies have demonstrated gadolinium deposits in
tissues of patients diagnosed with nephrogenic systemic fibrosis.52 Currently, preven-
tion of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis entails avoidance of gadolinium administration in
this population. Several treatment options (steroids, intravenous immunoglobulin, UV
light, renal transplant) have been studied and have some benefit, but the evidence is
based on small case studies or case reports and requires further evaluation.

RENAL PROTECTIVE STRATEGIES

Prevention of CIN
It is generally accepted that low-volume nonionic low-osmolar or iso-osmolar contrast
media are associated with a decreased incidence of CIN than the high-osmolar
agents.53 For this reason, the high-osmolar preparations should be avoided. Such
agents are currently not commonly used in clinical practice. Volume expansion has
been accepted as the primary prevention of CIN, although choice of fluid has been
controversial. Several meta-analyses of isotonic sodium bicarbonate show benefit
over isotonic saline. However, a recent randomized controlled trial (RCT) suggested
no difference between the two fluids, both of which were beneficial in preventing
CIN.54 Although the evidence suggests that bicarbonate may be superior, adequate
volume resuscitation with either fluid is acceptable. N-acetylcysteine is a free radical
scavenger that has been shown to decrease the incidence of CIN compared with
placebo55 and saline alone.56 However, several studies found no benefit to N-acetyl-
cysteine in the prevention of CIN. Despite an unproved benefit, because it is safe and
inexpensive, many experts recommend N-acetylcysteine for its possible benefit.57

Other Preventative Strategies

The most important priority in renal protection is to maintain renal perfusion. Fluid
choice, specifically crystalloid or colloid, for this purpose has been controversial.
The landmark SAFE study58 compared saline and albumin and found no difference
in survival or need for renal replacement therapy (RRT) between the two groups.
However, in post hoc analysis, albumin was found to have increased mortality in trau-
matic brain injury and a trend to decreased mortality in septic shock.
The use of synthetic colloids for volume expansion has been cautioned because of
numerous studies implicating an increased risk of renal dysfunction. This increased
risk of AKI was confirmed by a recent systematic review of the use of hydroxyethyl
starches in patients with sepsis59 and suggests that its use should be avoided.
When fluid resuscitation is administered in critically ill patients, the amount given is
also an important decision. An observational study in patients with AKI reported
increased mortality associated with a positive fluid balance60 and an RCT in patients
with acute lung injury reported fewer ventilator days with conservative fluid manage-
ment, which did not increase the need for RRT.61 Erythropoetin has some promising
nonerythropoietic properties, including tissue protection and antiapoptotic effect in
animal models of brain, heart, and kidney. Despite preclinical data showing protective
effects in AKI, the EARLYARF RCT in humans did not show benefit in erythropoetin
administration.62 However, proponents of erythropoetin cite the use of poorly validated
biomarkers, among other flaws in study design that may have been responsible for the
apparent failure.63 The use of diuretics, such as mannitol and furosemide, in the
prevention and treatment of AKI is extensive but they have not been conclusively found
1512 Waxman & Holmes

to shorten the duration of AKI, reduce the need for RRT, or improve overall outcomes.64
Although it is based on anecdotal studies performed in the early 1960s, the prophy-
lactic use of mannitol, together with an adequate hydration policy, is standard practice
in many vascular and cardiac surgical units. Mannitol is beneficial in preventing ATN in
postrenal transplant patients65 and in severe crush injury.66 In a recent study, high-
dose furosemide showed a protective effect on mortality in patients with acute lung
injury but no significant effect after adjustment for post-AKI fluid balance, which
when positive, was strongly associated with mortality.67 Atrial natriuretic peptide
seems to dilate afferent glomerular arterioles and constrict efferent glomerular arteri-
oles and may selectively increase GFR. It also inhibits agents that vasoconstrict the
glomerular blood flow. Although the most recent RCT shows promising results in
reducing the need for dialysis in cardiac surgery patients,68 previous studies did not
show any benefit.69,70 Further studies are needed before its use is recommended.
It has been shown that dopamine at low doses increases renal perfusion and GFR
and for this reason, dopamine was evaluated for its role in renal protective strategies.
Despite numerous studies on this subject, none have yielded evidence to support this
use of dopamine, and some results suggest it may worsen renal perfusion.71 Fenoldo-
pam, a dopamine-1 receptor agonist used in hypertensive emergencies, increases
renal blood flow at its lowest dose. Although it failed to show benefit in sepsis, it
has shown promise in surgical patients and the critically ill. In a recent meta-
analysis of 16 randomized trials it seems to reduce mortality and need for RRT.72
A promising study by Heemskerk and colleagues73 reports a significant decrease in
plasma creatinine after an infusion of alkaline phosphatase in intensive care patients
with severe sepsis or septic shock. The authors propose that exogenous alkaline
phosphatase attenuates production of nitric oxide, a systemic vasodilator that causes
compensatory renal vasoconstriction, by inhibiting inducible nitric oxide synthase, an
enzyme that catalyzes production of nitric oxide. Reduction in nitric oxide may protect
renal function; however, larger trials are needed to determine the presence of
morbidity or mortality benefit. Other agents evaluated for potential use in prevention
of CIN or ATN include theophylline and prostaglandin E1. Both have shown promising
but conflicting results, requiring further study before their use is recommend.

TREATMENT
Nonrenal Care that Affects AKI
It is clear that hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia during the postoperative period or
during critical illness correlate with adverse outcomes. A recent study in surgical ICU
patients also suggests that the presence of hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia in the
same patient is associated with higher mortality risk.74 Several studies suggest that
intensive insulin therapy is associated with decreased incidence of AKI and reduced
need for RRT, and may be renoprotective in critically ill surgical patients.75 However,
the largest and most recent RCT comparing intensive insulin therapy with conventional
glucose control found no difference in need for RRT.76 Lung protective ventilation is
a mainstay in the treatment of acute respiratory distress syndrome because of the
ARDSnet trial, which also suggested that the low-volume ventilation also may be bene-
ficial for the kidney. The damaging effects of high-volume and high-pressure ventilation
have been increasingly reported77 and validate the use of lower volumes.

Renal Replacement Therapy

Despite numerous clinical trials evaluating pharmacologic agents for use in treating
AKI, RRT remains the mainstay in treatment. Approximately 4% of critically ill patients
 Renal Management in the Critically Ill Patient 1513

who develop AKI require RRT.78 The goal of RRT in AKI is to support nonrenal organs
while awaiting recovery of renal function. However, standardization of practice in
regards to initiation, dose, and modality of RRT has not been established and remains
controversial.

Timing of initiation of RRT

Generally accepted indications for initiation of dialysis include severe acidemia, severe
hyperkalemia, ingestion of a dialyzable substance causing renal injury, volume over-
load, and clinically apparent signs of uremia. Evidence suggests a benefit to early initi-
ation; however, each study has variable definitions of early and late and differing
markers to trigger initiation, including BUN, oliguria, ICU admission, and SCr.79
Continued studies are needed to further define optimal initiation.

Frequency and rate of RRT

When determining the appropriate dose of dialysis, wide variation in clinical practice
exists. Numerous studies are available, but there are conflicting data on outcomes.
The largest and only multicenter trial looking at outcomes related to amount of renal
support was the Acute Renal Failure Trial Network Study.80 This study, following
customary practice, assigned hemodynamically stable patients to the intermittent
hemodialysis (IHD) group and hemodynamically unstable patients to continuous renal
replacement modalities. The intensive management strategy had IHD six times per
week or continuous therapy at 35 mL/kg/h. The less intense management strategy
had IHD three times per week or continuous therapy at 20 mL/kg/h. They found no
significant difference between groups in 60-day survival or renal recovery.

Modalities for RRT

Peritoneal dialysis is a simple but limited method for clearance of solute and ultrafiltra-
tion. It offers hemodynamic stability but can compromise respiratory status because
of the dialysate volume. Its role in the ICU is therefore limited. Ultrafiltration is a tech-
nique that allows rapid removal of volume without significant solute removal. This
protects intravascular volume and causes less hypotension. This strategy is useful
in treating volume-overloaded states. IHD is the most frequently used method for
RRT in the United States. This method uses a semipermeable biocompatible synthetic
membrane and an electrochemical gradient maintained by continuous dialysate flow
to remove solute. The major benefit of IHD is rapid removal of solute. Volume removal
is frequently limited by hypotension. Another frequent drawback is hypoxia during
treatments. Continuous renal replacement therapies are commonly used for RRT
internationally, but used less frequently in the United States. Continuous therapies
use hemofiltration, a technique that, like ultrafiltration, removes volume, but also has
equal removal of solute because of the high permeability of the membrane used. In
this case, solute clearance is dependent on volume filtered and because the volume
filtered is substantial, replacement fluid is infused continuously to avoid hemodynamic
instability. Hemodiafiltration adds a dialysate flow to supplement hemofiltration clear-
ance. It is unclear if this addition adds benefit to hemofiltration alone. Continuous
venovenous hemofiltration and continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration are two
frequently used methods of CRRT that have been compared with IHD. It was initially
thought that these continuous methods were safer for hemodynamically unstable
patients and more physiologic and thus better for the critically ill. However, studies
to determine the optimal method of RRT have yielded contradictory results. In a recent
meta-analysis of nine randomized trials, Bagshaw and colleagues81 found no differ-
ence in mortality or renal recovery between continuous and intermittent modalities.
They comment on numerous problems with study design and quality that may
1514 Waxman & Holmes

undermine the results. Other drawbacks to the continuous modalities are the higher
cost and need for anticoagulation. Hybrid therapies exist and have not yet been eval-
uated by prospective randomized trials. The most common hybrid modality is slow
low-efficiency dialysis. Slow low-efficiency dialysis is a technique that is based on
the observation that slower flow and longer treatments of IHD improve the inherent
hemodynamic instability. Slow low-efficiency dialysis is usually continued over 8 to
12 hours nightly, avoiding typical daytime interruptions (procedures, radiology,
surgery) and allowing for daytime mobilization. Presently, many questions regarding
the variables of RRT remain unanswered and current practice is based largely on clini-
cian choice, available resources, and cost.

SUMMARY

AKI is common in the hospital setting and morbidity and mortality outcomes depend
on early recognition and early intervention. Identifying patients at risk of AKI is critical
in prevention, early identification, and appropriate treatment.

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