Refraction and the Ray Model of Light - Lesson 5 - Image Formation by Lenses

A. The Anatomy of a Lens

If a piece of glass or other transparent material takes on the appropriate shape, it is
possible that parallel incident rays would either converge to a point or appear to be
diverging from a point. A piece of glass that has such a shape is referred to as a
lens.

A lens is merely a carefully ground or molded piece of transparent material that

refracts light rays in such as way as to form an image. Lenses can be thought of as
a series of tiny refracting prisms, each of which refracts light to produce their own
image. When these prisms act together, they produce a bright image focused at a
point.

Types of Lenses
There are a variety of types of lenses. Lenses differ from one another in terms of
their shape and the materials from which they are made. Our focus will be upon
lenses that are symmetrical across their horizontal axis - known as the principal
axis. In this unit, we will categorize lenses as converging lenses and diverging
lenses. A converging lens is a lens that converges rays of light that are traveling
parallel to its principal axis. Converging lenses can be identified by their shape; they
are relatively thick across their middle and thin at their upper and lower edges.
A diverging lens is a lens that diverges rays of light that are traveling parallel to its
principal axis. Diverging lenses can also be identified by their shape; they are
relatively thin across their middle and thick at their upper and lower edges.
A double convex lens is symmetrical across both its horizontal and vertical axis.
Each of the lens' two faces can be thought of as originally being part of a sphere.
The fact that a double convex lens is thicker across its middle is an indicator that it
will converge rays of light that travel parallel to its principal axis. A double convex
lens is a converging lens. A double concave lens is also symmetrical across both
its horizontal and vertical axis. The two faces of a double concave lens can be
thought of as originally being part of a sphere. The fact that a double concave lens
is thinner across its middle is an indicator that it will diverge rays of light that travel
parallel to its principal axis. A double concave lens is a diverging lens. These two
types of lenses - a double convex and a double concave lens will be the only types
of lenses that will be discussed in this unit of The Physics Classroom Tutorial.

The Language of Lenses

As we begin to discuss the refraction of light rays and the formation of images by
these two types of lenses, we will need to use a variety of terms. Many of these
terms should be familiar to you because they have already been discussed
during Unit 13. If you are uncertain of the meaning of the terms, spend some time
reviewing them so that their meaning is firmly internalized in your mind. They will be
essential as we proceed through Lesson 5. These terms describe the various parts of
a lens and include such words as
Principal axis Vertical Plane
Focal Point Focal Length
If a symmetrical lens were thought of as being a slice of a sphere, then there would
be a line passing through the center of the sphere and attaching to the mirror in the
exact center of the lens. This imaginary line is known as the principal axis. A lens
also has an imaginary vertical axis that bisects the symmetrical lens into halves. As
mentioned above, light rays incident towards either face of the lens and traveling
parallel to the principal axis will either converge or diverge. If the light rays converge
(as in a converging lens), then they will converge to a point. This point is known as
the focal point of the converging lens. If the light rays diverge (as in a diverging
lens), then the diverging rays can be traced backwards until they intersect at a
point. This intersection point is known as the focal point of a diverging lens. The
focal point is denoted by the letter F on the diagrams below. Note that each lens has
two focal points - one on each side of the lens. Unlike mirrors, lenses can allow light
to pass through either face, depending on where the incident rays are coming from.
Subsequently, every lens has two possible focal points. The distance from the mirror
to the focal point is known as the focal length (abbreviated by f). Technically, a
lens does not have a center of curvature (at least not one that has any importance
to our discussion). However a lens does have an imaginary point that we refer to as
the 2F point. This is the point on the principal axis that is twice as far from the
vertical axis as the focal point is.

As we discuss the characteristics of images produced by converging and diverging

lenses, these vocabulary terms will become increasingly important. Remember that
this page is here and refer to it as often as needed.

B. Refraction by Lenses
We have already learned that a lens is a carefully ground or molded piece of
transparent material that refracts light rays in such a way as to form an image.
Lenses serve to refract light at each boundary. As a ray of light enters a lens, it is
refracted; and as the same ray of light exits the lens, it is refracted again. The net
effect of the refraction of light at these two boundaries is that the light ray has
changed directions. Because of the special geometric shape of a lens, the light rays
are refracted such that they form images. Before we approach the topic of image
formation, we will investigate the refractive ability of converging and diverging
lenses.

How a Lens Refracts Light

First lets consider a double convex lens. Suppose that several rays of light approach
the lens; and suppose that these rays of light are traveling parallel to the principal
axis. Upon reaching the front face of the lens, each ray of light will refract towards
the normal to the surface. At this boundary, the light ray is passing from air into a
more dense medium (usually plastic or glass). Since the light ray is passing from a
medium in which it travels fast (less optically dense) into a medium in which it
travels relatively slow (more optically dense), it will bend towards the normal line.
This is the FST principle of refraction. This is shown for two incident rays on the
diagram below. Once the light ray refracts across the boundary and enters the lens,
it travels in a straight line until it reaches the back face of the lens. At this boundary,
each ray of light will refract away from the normal to the surface. Since the light ray
is passing from a medium in which it travels slow (more optically dense) to a
medium in which it travels fast (less optically dense), it will bend away from the
normal line; this is the SFA principle of refraction.

The above diagram shows the behavior of two incident rays approaching parallel to
the principal axis. Note that the two rays converge at a point; this point is known as
the focal point of the lens. The first generalization that can be made for the
refraction of light by a double convex lens is as follows:
Refraction Rule for a Converging Lens
Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a converging lens will refract
through the lens and travel through the focal point on the opposite side of the lens.

Now suppose that the rays of light are traveling through the focal point on the way
to the lens. These rays of light will refract when they enter the lens and refract when
they leave the lens. As the light rays enter into the more dense lens material, they
refract towards the normal; and as they exit into the less dense air, they refract
away from the normal. These specific rays will exit the lens traveling parallel to the
principal axis.
The above diagram shows the behavior of two incident rays traveling through the
focal point on the way to the lens. Note that the two rays refract parallel to the
principal axis. A second generalization for the refraction of light by a double convex
lens can be added to the first generalization.
Refraction Rules for a Converging Lens
 Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a converging lens will refract
through the lens and travel through the focal point on the opposite side of the lens.
 Any incident ray traveling through the focal point on the way to the lens will refract
through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.

The Thin Lens Approximation

These two "rules" will greatly simplify the task of determining the image location for
objects placed infront of converging lenses. This
topic will be discussed in the next part of Lesson 5.
For now, internalize the meaning of the rules and be
prepared to use them. As the rules are applied in
the construction of ray diagrams, do not forget the
fact that Snells' Law of refraction of light holds for
each of these rays. It just so happens that
geometrically, when Snell's Law is applied for rays
that strike the lens in the manner described above,
they will refract in close approximation with these
two rules. The tendency of incident light rays to
follow these rules is increased for lenses that are
thin. For such thin lenses, the path of the light through the lens itself contributes
very little to the overall change in the direction of the light rays. We will use this so-
called thin-lens approximation in this unit. Furthermore, to simplify the construction
of ray diagrams, we will avoid refracting each light ray twice - upon entering and
emerging from the lens. Instead, we will continue the incident ray to the vertical axis
of the lens and refract the light at that point. For thin lenses, this simplification will
produce the same result as if we were refracting the light twice.

Rules of Refraction for Diverging Lenses

Now let's investigate the refraction of light by double concave lens. Suppose that
several rays of light approach the lens; and suppose that these rays of light are
traveling parallel to the principal axis. Upon reaching the front face of the lens, each
ray of light will refract towards the normal to the surface. At this boundary, the light
ray is passing from air into a more dense medium (usually plastic or glass). Since the
light ray is passing from a medium in which it travels relatively fast (less optically
dense) into a medium in which it travels relatively slow (more optically dense), it will
bend towards the normal line. This is the FST principle of refraction. This is shown
for two incident rays on the diagram below. Once the light ray refracts across the
boundary and enters the lens, it travels in a straight line until it reaches the back
face of the lens. At this boundary, each ray of light will refract away from the normal
to the surface. Since the light ray is passing from a medium in which it travels
relatively slow (more optically dense) to a medium in which it travels fast
(less optically dense), it will bend away from the normal line. This is the SFA
principle of refraction. These principles of refraction are identical to what was
observed for the double convex lens above.

The above diagram shows the behavior of two

incident rays approaching parallel to the principal axis
of the double concave lens. Just like the double
convex lens above, light bends towards the normal
when entering and away from the normal when
exiting the lens. Yet, because of the different shape
of the double concave lens, these incident rays are not converged to a point upon
refraction through the lens. Rather, these incident rays diverge upon refracting
through the lens. For this reason, a double concave lens can never produce a real
image. Double concave lenses produce images that are virtual. This will be discussed
in more detail in the next part of Lesson 5. If the refracted rays are extended
backwards behind the lens, an important observation is made. The extension of the
refracted rays will intersect at a point. This point is known as the focal point. Notice
that a diverging lens such as this double concave lens does not really focus the
incident light rays that are parallel to the principal axis; rather, it diverges these light
rays. For this reason, a diverging lens is said to have a negative focal length.
The first generalization can now be made for the refraction of light by a double
concave lens:

Refraction Rule for a Diverging Lens

Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a diverging lens will refract
through the lens and travel in line with the focal point (i.e., in a direction such that its
extension will pass through the focal point).
Now suppose that the rays of light are traveling towards the focal point on the way
to the lens. Because of the negative focal length for double concave lenses, the light
rays will head towards the focal point on the opposite side of the lens. These rays
will actually reach the lens before they reach the focal point. These rays of light will
refract when they enter the lens and refract when they leave the lens. As the light
rays enter into the more dense lens material, they refract towards the normal; and
as they exit into the less dense air, they refract away from the normal. These
specific rays will exit the lens traveling parallel to the principal axis.

The above diagram shows the behavior of two incident rays traveling towards the
focal point on the way to the lens. Note that the two rays refract parallel to the
principal axis. A second generalization for the refraction of light by a double concave
lens can be added to the first generalization.
Refraction Rules for a Diverging Lens
 Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a diverging lens will refract
through the lens and travel in line with the focal point (i.e., in a direction such that its
extension will pass through the focal point).
 Any incident ray traveling towards the focal point on the way to the lens will refract
through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.

A Third Rule of Refraction for Lenses

The above discussion focuses on the manner in which converging and diverging
lenses refract incident rays that are traveling parallel to the principal axis or are
traveling through (or towards) the focal point. But these are not the only two
possible incident rays. There are a multitude of incident rays that strike the lens and
refract in a variety of ways. Yet, there are three specific rays that behave in a very
predictable manner. The third ray that we will investigate is the ray that passes
through the precise center of the lens - through the point where the principal axis
and the vertical axis intersect. This ray will refract as it enters and refract as it exits
the lens, but the net effect of this dual refraction is that the path of the light ray is
not changed. For a thin lens, the refracted ray is traveling in the same direction as
the incident ray and is approximately in line with it. The behavior of this third
incident ray is depicted in the diagram below.

Now we have three incident rays whose refractive behavior is easily predicted. These
three rays lead to our three rules of refraction for converging and diverging lenses.
These three rules are summarized below.
Refraction Rules for a Converging Lens
 Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a converging lens will refract
through the lens and travel through the focal point on the opposite side of the lens.
 Any incident ray traveling through the focal point on the way to the lens will refract
through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.
 An incident ray that passes through the center of the lens will in effect continue in the
same direction that it had when it entered the lens.
 Refraction Rules for a Diverging Lens
 Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a diverging lens will refract
through the lens and travel in line with the focal point (i.e., in a direction such that its
extension will pass through the focal point).
 Any incident ray traveling towards the focal point on the way to the lens will refract
through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.
 An incident ray that passes through the center of the lens will in effect continue in the
same direction that it had when it entered the lens.

These three rules of refraction for converging and diverging lenses will be applied
through the remainder of this lesson. The rules merely describe the behavior of
three specific incident rays. While there is a multitude of light rays being captured
and refracted by a lens, only two rays are needed in order to determine the image
location. So as we proceed with this lesson, pick your favorite two rules (usually, the
ones that are easiest to remember) and apply them to the construction of ray
diagrams and the determination of the image location and characteristics.

C. Image Formation Revisited

One major principle discussed in both Unit 13 and Unit 14 of The Physics Classroom
Tutorial is the line of sight principle:
In order to view an object, you must sight along a line at that object; and when you
do light will come from that object to your eye along the line of sight.

This very principle is combined with rules of reflection and refraction in order to
explain how an image is formed and what the characteristics of such images will be.

Plane Mirror Image Formation

In the plane mirror Lesson of Unit 13, it was
mentioned that an image is formed by a plane
mirror as light emanates from an object in a variety
of directions. Some of this light reaches the mirror
and reflects off the mirror according to the law of
reflection. Each one of these rays of light can be
extended backwards behind the mirror where they
will all intersect at a point (the image point). Any
person who is positioned along the line of one of
these reflected rays can sight along the line and view the image - a representation
of the object. Thus, an image location is a location in space where all the reflected
light appears to come from. Since light from the object appears to diverge from this
location, a person who sights along a line at this location will perceive a replica or
likeness of the actual object. In the case of plane mirrors, the image is said to be
a virtual image. Virtual images are images that are formed in locations where light
does not actually reach. Light does not actually pass through the location on the
other side of the plane mirror; it only appears to an observer as though the light
were coming from this position.

Curved Mirror Image Formation

We have also seen how images are created by the reflection of light off curved
mirrors. Suppose that a light bulb is placed in front of a concave mirror; the light
bulb will emit light in a variety of directions, some of which will strike the mirror.
Each individual ray of light will reflect according to the law of reflection. Upon
reflecting, the light will converge at a point. At the point where the light from the
object converges, a replica or likeness of the actual object is created; this replica is
known as the image. Once the reflected light rays reached the image location, they
begin to diverge. The point where all the reflected light rays converge is known as
the image point. Not only is it the point where light rays converge, it is also the point
where reflected light rays appear to an observer to be coming from. Regardless of
the observer's location, the observer will see a ray of light passing through the real
image location. To view the image, the observer must line her sight up with the
image location in order to see the image via the reflected light ray. The diagram
below depicts several rays from the object reflecting from the mirror and converging
at the image location. The reflected light rays then begin to diverge, with each one
being capable of assisting an individual in viewing the image of the object.

For plane mirrors, virtual images are formed. Light does not actually pass through
the virtual image location; it only appears to an observer as though the light was
emanating from the virtual image location. The image formed by this concave mirror
is a real image. When a real image is formed, it still appears to an observer as
though light is diverging from the real image location. Only in the case of a real
image, light is actually passing through the image location.
Converging Lens Image Formation
Converging lenses can produce both real and virtual images while diverging lenses
can only produce virtual images. The process by which images are formed for lenses
is the same as the process by which images are formed for plane and curved
mirrors. Images are formed at locations where any observer is sighting as they view
the image of the object through the lens. So if the path of several light rays through
a lens is traced, each of these light rays will intersect at a point upon refraction
through the lens. Each observer must sight in the direction of this point in order to
view the image of the object. While different observers will sight along different lines
of sight, each line of sight intersects at the image location. The diagram below
shows several incident rays emanating from an object - a light bulb. Three of these
incident rays correspond to our three strategic and predictable light rays. Each
incident ray will refract through the lens and be detected by a different observer
(represented by the eyes). The location where the refracted rays are intersecting is
the image location.

In this case, the image is a real image since the light rays are actually passing
through the image location. To each observer, it appears as though light is coming
from this location.

Diverging Lens Image Formation

Diverging lenses create virtual images since the refracted rays do not actually
converge to a point. In the case of a diverging lens, the image location is located on
the object's side of the lens where the refracted rays would intersect if extended
backwards. Every observer would be sighting along a line in the direction of this
image location in order to see the image of the object. As the observer sights along
this line of sight, a refracted ray would come to the observer's eye. This refracted
ray originates at the object, and refracts through the lens. The diagram below shows
several incident rays emanating from an object - a light bulb. Three of these incident
rays correspond to our three strategic and predictable light rays. Each incident ray
will refract through the lens and be detected by a different observer (represented by
the eyes). The location where the refracted rays are intersecting is the image
location. Since refracted light rays do not actually exist at the image location, the
image is said to be a virtual image. It would only appear to an observer as though
light were coming from this location to the observer's eye.

Images of Objects That Do Not Occupy a Single Point

The above discussion relates to the formation of an image by a "point object" - in
this case, a small light bulb. The same principles apply to objects that occupy more
than one point in space. For example, a person occupies a multitude of points in
space. As you sight at a person through a lens, light emanates from each individual
point on that person in all directions. Some of this light reaches the lens and
refracts. All the light that originates from one single point on the object will refract
and intersect at one single point on the image. This is true for all points on the
object; light from each point intersects to create an image of this point. The result is
that a replica or likeness of the object is created as we sight at the object through
the lens. This replica or likeness is the image of that object. This is depicted in the
diagram below.
Now that we have discussed how an image is formed, we will turn our attention to
the use of ray diagrams to predict the location and characteristics of images formed
by converging and diverging lenses.

D.Converging Lenses - Ray Diagrams

One theme of the Reflection and Refraction units of The Physics Classroom Tutorial
has been that we see an object because light from the object travels to our eyes as
we sight along a line at the object. Similarly, we see an image of an object because
light from the object reflects off a mirror or refracts through a transparent material
and travel to our eyes as we sight at the image location of the object. From these
two basic premises, we have defined the image location as the location in space
where light appears to diverge from. Because light emanating from the object
converges or appears to diverge from this location, a replica or likeness of the object
is created at this location. For both reflection and refraction scenarios, ray diagrams
have been a valuable tool for determining the path of light from the object to our
eyes.

Applying the Three Rules of Refraction

In this section of Lesson 5, we will investigate the method for drawing ray diagrams
for objects placed at various locations in front of a double convex lens. To draw
these ray diagrams, we will have to recall thethree rules of refraction for a double
convex lens:
 Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a converging lens will
refract through the lens and travel through the focal point on the opposite side of
the lens.
 Any incident ray traveling through the focal point on the way to the lens will
refract through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.
 An incident ray that passes through the center of the lens will in effect continue
in the same direction that it had when it entered the lens.
Earlier in this lesson, the following diagram illustrating the path of light from an
object through a lens to an eye placed at various locations was shown.

In this diagram, five incident rays are drawn along with their corresponding
refracted rays. Each ray intersects at the image location and then travels to the eye
of an observer. Every observer would observe the same image location and every
light ray would follow the Snell's Law of refraction. Yet only two of these rays would
be needed to determine the image location since it only requires two rays to find the
intersection point. Of the five incident rays drawn, three of them correspond to the
incident rays described by our three rules of refraction for converging lenses. We will
use these three rays through the remainder of this lesson, merely because they are
the easiest rays to draw. Certainly two rays would be all that is necessary; yet the
third ray will provide a check of the accuracy of our process.

Step-by-Step Method for Drawing Ray Diagrams

The method of drawing ray diagrams for double convex lens is described below. The
description is applied to the task of drawing a ray diagram for an object
located beyond the 2F point of a double convex
lens.
1. Pick a point on the top of the object and draw
three incident rays traveling towards the lens.
Using a straight edge, accurately draw one ray so
that it passes exactly through the focal point on the
way to the lens. Draw the second ray such that it
travels exactly parallel to the principal axis. Draw
the third incident ray such that it travels directly to the exact center of the lens.
Place arrowheads upon the rays to indicate their direction of travel.
2. Once these incident rays strike the lens, refract
them according to thethree rules of refraction for
converging lenses.
The ray that passes through the focal point on the
way to the lens will refract and travel parallel to the
principal axis. Use a straight edge to accurately
draw its path. The ray that traveled parallel to the
principal axis on the way to the lens will refract and travel through the focal point.
And the ray that traveled to the exact center of the lens will continue in the same
direction. Place arrowheads upon the rays to indicate their direction of travel. Extend
the rays past their point of intersection.

3. Mark the image of the top of the object.

The image point of the top of the object is the
point where the three refracted rays intersect. All
three rays should intersect at exactly the same
point. This point is merely the point where all light
from the top of the object would intersect upon
refracting through the lens. Of course, the rest of
the object has an image as well and it can be found by applying the same three
steps to another chosen point. (See note below.)

4. Repeat the process for the bottom of the object.

One goal of a ray diagram is to determine the
location, size, orientation, and type of image that is
formed by the double convex lens. Typically, this
requires determining where the image of the upper
and lower extreme of the object is located and then
tracing the entire image. After completing the first
three steps, only the image location of the top extreme of the object has been
found. Thus, the process must be repeated for the point on the bottom of the
object. If the bottom of the object lies upon the principal axis (as it does in this
example), then the image of this point will also lie upon the principal axis and be the
same distance from the mirror as the image of the top of the object. At this point
the entire image can be filled in.
Some students have difficulty understanding how the entire image of an object can
be deduced once a single point on the image has been determined. If the object is
merely a vertical object (such as the arrow object used in the example below), then
the process is easy. The image is merely a vertical line. In theory, it would be
necessary to pick each point on the object and draw a separate ray diagram to
determine the location of the image of that point. That would require a lot of ray
diagrams as illustrated in the diagram below.

Fortunately, a shortcut exists. If the object is a vertical line, then the image is also a
vertical line. For our purposes, we will only deal with the simpler situations in which
the object is a vertical line that has its bottom located upon the principal axis. For
such simplified situations, the image is a vertical line with the lower extremity
located upon the principal axis.
The ray diagram above illustrates that when the object is located at a
position beyond the 2F point, the image will be located at a position between the 2F
point and the focal point on the opposite side of the lens. Furthermore, the image
will be inverted, reduced in size (smaller than the object), and real. This is the type
of information that we wish to obtain from a ray diagram. These characteristics of
the image will be discussed in more detail in the next section of Lesson 5.
Once the method of drawing ray diagrams is practiced a couple of times, it becomes
as natural as breathing. Each diagram yields specific information about the image.
The two diagrams below show how to determine image location, size, orientation
and type for situations in which the object is located at the 2F point and when the
object is located between the 2F point and the focal point.
It should be noted that the process of constructing a ray diagram is the same
regardless of where the object is located. While the result of the ray diagram (image
location, size, orientation, and type) is different, the same three rays
are always drawn. The three rules of refraction are applied in order to determine the
location where all refracted rays appear to diverge from (which for real images, is
also the location where the refracted rays intersect).

Ray Diagram for Object Located in Front of the Focal Point

In the three cases described above - the case of the object being located beyond 2F,
the case of the object being located at 2F, and the case of the object being located
between 2F and F - light rays are converging to a point after refracting through the
lens. In such cases, a real image is formed. As discussed previously, a real image is
formed whenever refracted light passes through the image location. While diverging
lenses always produce virtual images, converging lenses are capable of producing
both real and virtual images. As shown above, real images are produced when the
object is located a distance greater than one focal length from the lens. A virtual
image is formed if the object is located less than one focal length from the
converging lens. To see why this is so, a ray diagram can be used.
A ray diagram for the case in which the object is
located in front of the focal point is shown in the
diagram at the right. Observe that in this case the
light rays diverge after refracting through the lens.
When refracted rays diverge, a virtual image is
formed. The image location can be found by
tracing all light rays backwards until they
intersect. For every observer, the refracted rays
would seem to be diverging from this point; thus,
the point of intersection of the extended refracted
rays is the image point. Since light does not
actually pass through this point, the image is
referred to as a virtual image. Observe that when the object in located in front
of the focal point of the converging lens, its image is an upright and enlarged image
that is located on the object's side of the lens. In fact, one generalization that can be
made about all virtual images produced by lenses (both converging and diverging) is
that they are always upright and always located on the object's side of the lens.

Ray Diagram for Object Located at the Focal Point

Thus far we have seen via ray diagrams that a real image is produced when an
object is located more than one focal length from a converging lens; and a virtual
image is formed when an object is located less than one focal length from a
converging lens (i.e., in front of F). But what happens when the object is located at
F? That is, what type of image is formed when the object is located exactly one focal
length from a converging lens? Of course a ray diagram is always one tool to help
find the answer to such a question. However, when a ray diagram is used for this
case, an immediate difficulty is encountered. The diagram below shows two incident
rays and their corresponding refracted rays.

For the case of the object located at the focal point (F), the light rays neither
converge nor diverge after refracting through the lens. As shown in the diagram
above, the refracted rays are traveling parallel to each other. Subsequently, the light
rays will not converge to form a real image; nor can they be extended backwards on
the opposite side of the lens to intersect to form a virtual image. So how should the
results of the ray diagram be interpreted? The answer: there is no image!!
Surprisingly, when the object is located at the focal point, there is no location in
space at which an observer can sight from which all the refracted rays appear to be
coming. An image cannot be found when the object is located at the focal point of a
converging lens.

E. Converging Lenses - Object-Image Relations

Previously in Lesson 5, ray diagrams were constructed in order to determine the
general location, size, orientation, and type of image formed by double convex
lenses. Perhaps you noticed that there is a definite relationship between the image
characteristics and the location where an object placed in front of a double convex
lens. The purpose of this portion of the lesson is to summarize these object-image
relationships. The best means of summarizing this
relationship is to divide the possible object locations into
five general areas or points:
 Case 1: the object is located beyond the 2F point
 Case 2: the object is located at the 2F point
 Case 3: the object is located between the 2F point
and the focal point (F)
 Case 4: the object is located at the focal point (F)
 Case 5: the object is located in front of the focal point (F)

Case 1: The object is located beyond 2F

When the object is located at a location beyond the 2F
point, the image will always be located somewhere in
between the 2F point and the focal point (F) on the other
side of the lens. Regardless of exactly where the object is
located, the image will be located in this specified region. In
this case, the image will be aninverted image. That is to say, if the object is right
side up, then the image is upside down. In this case, the image is reduced in size;
in other words, the image dimensions are smaller than the object dimensions. If the
object is a six-foot tall person, then the image is less than six feet tall. Earlier in Unit
13, the term magnification was introduced; the magnification is the ratio of the
height of the object to the height of the image. In this case, the magnification is a
number with an absolute value less than 1. Finally, the image is a real image. Light
rays actually converge at the image location. If a sheet of paper were placed at the
image location, the actual replica or likeness of the object would appear projected
upon the sheet of paper.

Case 2: The object is located at 2F

When the object is located at the 2F point, the image will
also be located at the 2F point on the other side of the lens.
In this case, the image will be inverted (i.e., a right side up
object results in an upside-down image). The image
dimensions are equal to the object dimensions. A six-foot
tall person would have an image that is six feet tall; the absolute value of the
magnification is exactly 1. Finally, the image is a real image. Light rays actually
converge at the image location. As such, the image of the object could be projected
upon a sheet of paper.

Case 3: The object is located between 2F and F

When the object is located in front of the 2F point, the
image will be locatedbeyond the 2F point on the other
side of the lens. Regardless of exactly where the object is
located between 2F and F, the image will be located in
the specified region. In this case, the image will be
inverted (i.e., a right side up object results in an upside-
down image). The image dimensions are larger than the object dimensions. A six-
foot tall person would have an image that is larger than six feet tall. The absolute
value of the magnification is greater than 1. Finally, the image is a real image. Light
rays actually converge at the image location. As such, the image of the object could
be projected upon a sheet of paper.

Case 4: The object is located at F

When the object is located at the focal point, no image is
formed. As discussedearlier in Lesson 5, the refracted rays
neither converge nor diverge. After refracting, the light rays
are traveling parallel to each other and cannot produce an image.

Case 5: The object is located in front of F

When the object is located at a location in front of the focal
point, the image will always be located somewhere on the
same side of the lens as the object. Regardless of exactly
where in front of F the object is located, the image will
always be located on the object's side of the lens and
somewhere further from the lens. The image is
located behind the object. In this case, the image will be anupright image. That is
to say, if the object is right side up, then the image will also be right side up. In this
case, the image is enlarged; in other words, the image dimensions are greater than
the object dimensions. A six-foot tall person would have an image that is larger than
six feet tall. The magnification is greater than 1. Finally, the image is a virtual image.
Light rays diverge upon refraction; for this reason, the image location can only be
found by extending the refracted rays backwards on the object's side the lens. The
point of their intersection is the virtual image location. It would appear to any
observer as though light from the object were diverging from this location. Any
attempt to project such an image upon a sheet of paper would fail since light does
not actually pass through the image location.

It might be noted from the above descriptions that there is a relationship between
the object distance and object size and the image distance and image size. Starting
from a large value, as the object distance decreases (i.e., the object is moved closer
to the lens), the image distance increases; meanwhile, the image height increases.
At the 2F point, the object distance equals the image distance and the object height
equals the image height. As the object distance approaches one focal length, the
image distance and image height approaches infinity. Finally, when the object
distance is equal to exactly one focal length, there is no image. Then altering the
object distance to values less than one focal length produces images that are
upright, virtual and located on the same side of the lens as the object. Finally, if the
object distance approaches 0, the image distance approaches 0 and the image
height ultimately becomes equal to the object height. These patterns are depicted in
the diagram below. Eight different object locations are drawn in red and labeled with
a number; the corresponding image locations are drawn in blue and labeled with the
identical number.

F. Diverging Lenses - Ray Diagrams

Earlier in Lesson 5, we learned how light is refracted by double concave lens in a
manner that a virtual image is formed. We also learned about three simple rules of
refraction for double concave lenses:
 Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a diverging lens will
refract through the lens and travel in line with the focal point (i.e., in a direction
such that its extension will pass through the focal point).
 Any incident ray traveling towards the focal point on the way to the lens will
refract through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.
 An incident ray that passes through the center of the lens will in effect continue
in the same direction that it had when it entered the lens.
These three rules will be used to construct ray diagrams. A ray diagram is a tool
used to determine the location, size, orientation, and type of image formed by a
lens. Ray diagrams for double convex lenses were drawn in a previous part of
Lesson 5. In this lesson, we will see a similar method for constructing ray diagrams
for double concave lenses.
Step-by-Step Method for Drawing Ray Diagrams
The method of drawing ray diagrams for a double concave lens is described below.
1. Pick a point on the top of the object and draw three incident rays traveling
towards the lens.
Using a straight edge, accurately draw one ray so that it
travels towards the focal point on the opposite side of the
lens; this ray will strike the lens before reaching the focal
point; stop the ray at the point of incidence with the lens.
Draw the second ray such that it travels exactly parallel
to the principal axis. Draw the third ray to the exact
center of the lens. Place arrowheads upon the rays to
indicate their direction of travel.

2. Once these incident rays strike the lens, refract them according to
the three rules of refraction for double concave lenses.
The ray that travels towards the focal point will refract
through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.
Use a straight edge to accurately draw its path. The ray
that traveled parallel to the principal axis on the way to
the lens will refract and travel in a direction such that its
extension passes through the focal point on the object's
side of the lens. Align a straight edge with the point of
incidence and the focal point, and draw the second
refracted ray. The ray that traveled to the exact center of the lens will continue to
travel in the same direction. Place arrowheads upon the rays to indicate their
direction of travel. The three rays should be diverging upon refraction.

3. Locate and mark the image of the top of the object.

The image point of the top of the object is the point where the three refracted rays
intersect.Since the three refracted rays are diverging,
they must be extended behind the lens in order to
intersect. Using a straight edge, extend each of the rays
using dashed lines. Draw the extensions until they
intersect. All three extensions should intersect at the
same location. The point of intersection is the image
point of the top of the object. The three refracted rays
would appear to diverge from this point. This is merely the point where all light from
the top of the object would appear to diverge from after refracting through the
double concave lens. Of course, the rest of the object has an image as well and it
can be found by applying the same three steps to another chosen point. See note
below.

4. Repeat the process for the bottom of the object.

The goal of a ray diagram is to determine the location, size, orientation, and type of
image that is formed by the double concave lens.
Typically, this requires determining where the image of
the upper and lower extreme of the object is located
and then tracing the entire image. After completing the
first three steps, only the image location of the top
extreme of the object has been found. Thus, the
process must be repeated for the point on the bottom
of the object. If the bottom of the object lies upon the
principal axis (as it does in this example), then the image of this point will also lie
upon the principal axis and be the same distance from the lens as the image of the
top of the object. At this point the complete image can be filled in.

Some students have difficulty understanding how the entire image of an object can
be deduced once a single point on the image has been determined. If the object is
merely a vertical object (such as the arrow object used in the example below), then
the process is easy. The image is merely a vertical line. This is illustrated in the
diagram below. In theory, it would be necessary to pick each point on the object and
draw a separate ray diagram to determine the location of the image of that point.
That would require a lot of ray diagrams as illustrated in the diagram below.

Fortunately, a shortcut exists. If the object is a vertical line, then the image is also a
vertical line. For our purposes, we will only deal with the simpler situations in which
the object is a vertical line that has its bottom located upon the principal axis. For
such simplified situations, the image is a vertical line with the lower extremity
located upon the principal axis.
The ray diagram above illustrates that the image of an object in front of a double
concave lens will be located at a position behind the double concave lens.
Furthermore, the image will be upright, reduced in size (smaller than the object),
and virtual. This is the type of information that we wish to obtain from a ray
diagram. The characteristics of this image will be discussed in more detail in the next
section of Lesson 5.

Your Turn to Practice

Once the method of drawing ray diagrams is practiced a couple of times, it becomes
as natural as breathing. Each diagram yields specific information about the image. It
is suggested that you take a few moments to practice a few ray diagrams on your
own and to describe the characteristics of the resulting image. The diagrams below
provide the setup; you must merely draw the rays and identify the image. If
necessary, refer to the method described above.

G. Diverging Lenses - Object-Image Relations

Previously in Lesson 5, ray diagrams were constructed in order to determine the
location, size, orientation, and type of image formed by double concave lenses (i.e.,
diverging lenses). The ray diagram constructed earlier for a diverging lens revealed
that the image of the object was virtual, upright, reduced in size and located on the
same side of the lens as the object. But will these always be the characteristics of an
image produced by a double concave lens? Can convex lenses ever produce real
images? Inverted images? Magnified Images? To answer these questions, we will
look at three different ray diagrams for objects positioned at different locations along
the principal axis. The diagrams are shown below. (Note that only two sets of
incident and refracted rays were used in the diagram in order to avoid overcrowding
the diagram with rays.)
The diagrams above show that in each case, the image is
 located on the object' side of the lens
 a virtual image
 an upright image
 reduced in size (i.e., smaller than the object)
Unlike converging lenses, diverging lenses always produce images that share these
characteristics. The location of the object does not affect the characteristics of the
image. As such, the characteristics of the images formed by diverging lenses are
easily predictable.
Another characteristic of the images of objects formed by diverging lenses pertains
to how a variation in object distance affects the image distance and size. The
diagram below shows five different object locations (drawn and labeled in red) and
their corresponding image locations (drawn and labeled in blue).

The diagram shows that as the object distance is decreased, the image distance is
decreased and the image size is increased. So as an object approaches the lens, its
virtual image on the same side of the lens approaches the lens as well; and at the
same time, the image becomes larger.

H. The Mathematics of Lenses

Ray diagrams can be used to determine the image location, size, orientation and
type of image formed of objects when placed at a given location in front of a lens.
The use of these diagrams was demonstrated earlier in Lesson 5 for
both converging and diverging lenses. Ray diagrams provide useful information
about object-image relationships, yet fail to provide the information in a quantitative
form. While a ray diagram may help one determine the approximate location and
size of the image, it will not provide numerical information about image distance and
image size. To obtain this type of numerical information, it is necessary to use
the Lens Equation and the Magnification Equation. The lens equation expresses
the quantitative relationship between the object distance (do), the image distance
(di), and the focal length (f). The equation is stated as follows:

The magnification equation relates the ratio of the image distance and object
distance to the ratio of the image height (hi) and object height (ho). The
magnification equation is stated as follows:

These two equations can be combined to yield information about the image distance
and image height if the object distance, object height, and focal length are known.

Practice Problems
As a demonstration of the effectiveness of the lens equation and magnification
equation, consider the following sample problem and its solution.

Sample Problem #1
A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 45.7 cm from a double convex lens
having a focal length of 15.2 cm. Determine the image distance and the image size.

Like all problems in physics, begin by the identification of the known information.
ho = 4.00 cm do = 45.7 cm f = 15.2 cm
Next identify the unknown quantities that you wish to solve for.
di = ??? hi = ???
To determine the image distance, the lens equation must be used. The following
lines represent the solution to the image distance; substitutions and algebraic steps
are shown.
1/f = 1/do + 1/di
1/(15.2 cm) = 1/(45.7 cm) + 1/di
0.0658 cm-1 = 0.0219 cm-1 + 1/di
0.0439 cm-1 = 1/di
di = 22.8 cm
The numerical values in the solution above were rounded when written down, yet
unrounded numbers were used in all calculations. The final answer is rounded to the
third significant digit.
To determine the image height, the magnification equation is needed. Since three of
the four quantities in the equation (disregarding the M) are known, the fourth
quantity can be calculated. The solution is shown below.
hi/ho = - di/do
hi /(4.00 cm) = - (22.8 cm)/(45.7 cm)
hi = - (4.00 cm) • (22.8 cm)/(45.7 cm)
hi = -1.99 cm
The negative values for image height indicate that the image is an inverted image.
As is often the case in physics, a negative or positive sign in front of the numerical
value for a physical quantity represents information about direction. In the case of
the image height, a negative value always indicates an inverted image.
From the calculations in this problem it can be concluded that if a 4.00-cm tall object
is placed 45.7 cm from a double convex lens having a focal length of 15.2 cm, then
the image will be inverted, 1.99-cm tall and located 22.8 cm from the lens. The
results of this calculation agree with the principles discussed earlier in this lesson. In
this case, the object is located beyond the 2F point (which would be two focal
lengths from the lens) and the image is located between the 2F point and the focal
point. This falls into the category of Case 1: The object is located beyond 2F for a
converging lens.

Now lets try a second sample problem:

Sample Problem #2
A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 8.30 cm from a double convex lens
having a focal length of 15.2 cm. (NOTE: this is the same object and the same lens,
only this time the object is placed closer to the lens.) Determine the image distance
and the image size.

Again, begin by the identification of the known information.

ho = 4.00 cm do = 8.3 cm f = 15.2 cm
Next identify the unknown quantities that you wish to solve for.
di = ??? hi = ???
To determine the image distance, the lens equation will have to be used. The
following lines represent the solution to the image distance; substitutions and
algebraic steps are shown.
1/f = 1/do + 1/di
1/(15.2 cm) = 1/(8.30 cm) + 1/di
0.0658 cm-1 = 0.120 cm-1 + 1/di
-0.0547 cm-1 = 1/di
 di = -18.3 cm
The numerical values in the solution above were rounded when written down, yet
unrounded numbers were used in all calculations. The final answer is rounded to the
third significant digit.
To determine the image height, the magnification equation is needed. Since three of
the four quantities in the equation (disregarding the M) are known, the fourth
quantity can be calculated. The solution is shown below.
hi/ho = - di/do
hi /(4.00 cm) = - (-18.3 cm)/(8.30 cm)
hi = - (4.00 cm) • (-18.3 cm)/(8.30 cm)
hi = 8.81 cm
The negative value for image distance indicates that the image is a virtual image
located on the object's side of the lens. Again, a negative or positive sign in front of
the numerical value for a physical quantity represents information about direction. In
the case of the image distance, a negative value always means the image is located
on the object's side of the lens. Note also that the image height is a positive value,
meaning an upright image. Any image that is upright and located on the object's
side of the lens is considered to be a virtual image.
From the calculations in the second sample problem it can be concluded that if a
4.00-cm tall object is placed 8.30 cm from a double convex lens having a focal
length of 15.2 cm, then the image will be enlarged, upright, 8.81-cm tall and located
18.3 cm from the lens on the object's side. The results of this calculation agree with
the principles discussed earlier in this lesson. In this case, the object is located in
front of the focal point (i.e., the object distance is less than the focal length) and the
image is located behind the lens. This falls into the category of Case 5: The object is
located in front of F (for a converging lens).

The third sample problem will pertain to a diverging lens.

Sample Problem #3
A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 35.5 cm from a diverging lens having
a focal length of -12.2 cm. Determine the image distance and the image size.

Like all problems in physics, begin by the identification of the known information.
ho = 4.00 cm do = 35.5 cm f = -12.2 cm
Next identify the unknown quantities that you wish to solve for.
di = ??? hi = ???
To determine the image distance, the lens equation will have to be used. The
following lines represent the solution to the image distance; substitutions and
algebraic steps are shown.
1/f = 1/do + 1/di
 1/(-12.2 cm) = 1/(35.5 cm) + 1/di
-0.0820 cm-1 = 0.0282 cm-1 + 1/di
-0.110 cm-1 = 1/di
di = -9.08 cm
The numerical values in the solution above were rounded when written down, yet
unrounded numbers were used in all calculations. The final answer is rounded to the
third significant digit.
To determine the image height, the magnification equation is needed. Since three of
the four quantities in the equation (disregarding the M) are known, the fourth
quantity can be calculated. The solution is shown below.
hi/ho = - di/do
hi /(4.00 cm) = - (-9.08 cm)/(35.5 cm)
hi = - (4.00 cm) * (-9.08 cm)/(35.5 cm)
hi = 1.02 cm
The negative values for image distance indicate that the image is located on the
object's side of the lens. As mentioned, a negative or positive sign in front of the
numerical value for a physical quantity represents information about direction. In the
case of the image distance, a negative value always indicates the existence of a
virtual image located on the object's side of the lens. In the case of the image
height, a positive value indicates an upright image.
From the calculations in this problem it can be concluded that if a 4.00-cm tall object
is placed 35.5 cm from a diverging lens having a focal length of 12.2 cm, then the
image will be upright, 1.02-cm tall and located 9.08 cm from the lens on the object's
side. The results of this calculation agree with the principles discussed earlier in this
lesson. Diverging lenses always produce images that are upright, virtual, reduced in
size, and located on the object's side of the lens.