Series

FOURIER SERIES

Graham S McDonald

A self-contained Tutorial Module for learning

the technique of Fourier series analysis

● Table of contents
● Begin Tutorial

c 2004 [email protected]
 Table of contents
1. Theory
2. Exercises
3. Answers
4. Integrals
5. Useful trig results
6. Alternative notation
7. Tips on using solutions
Full worked solutions
Section 1: Theory 3

1. Theory

● A graph of periodic function f (x) that has period L exhibits the

same pattern every L units along the x-axis, so that f (x + L) = f (x)
for every value of x. If we know what the function looks like over one
complete period, we can thus sketch a graph of the function over a
wider interval of x (that may contain many periods)

f(x )

P E R IO D = L

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 1: Theory 4

● This property of repetition defines a fundamental spatial fre-

quency k = 2π L that can be used to give a first approximation to
the periodic pattern f (x):

f (x) ' c1 sin(kx + α1 ) = a1 cos(kx) + b1 sin(kx),

where symbols with subscript 1 are constants that determine the am-
plitude and phase of this first approximation

● A much better approximation of the periodic pattern f (x) can

be built up by adding an appropriate combination of harmonics to
this fundamental (sine-wave) pattern. For example, adding

c2 sin(2kx + α2 ) = a2 cos(2kx) + b2 sin(2kx) (the 2nd harmonic)

c3 sin(3kx + α3 ) = a3 cos(3kx) + b3 sin(3kx) (the 3rd harmonic)

Here, symbols with subscripts are constants that determine the am-
plitude and phase of each harmonic contribution

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 1: Theory 5

One can even approximate a square-wave pattern with a suitable sum

that involves a fundamental sine-wave plus a combination of harmon-
ics of this fundamental frequency. This sum is called a Fourier series

F u n d a m e n ta l
F u n d a m e n ta l + 2 h a rm o n ic s

F u n d a m e n ta l + 5 h a rm o n ic s P E R IO D = L
F u n d a m e n ta l + 2 0 h a rm o n ic s

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 1: Theory 6

● In this Tutorial, we consider working out Fourier series for func-

tions f (x) with period L = 2π. Their fundamental frequency is then
k = 2π
L = 1, and their Fourier series representations involve terms like

a1 cos x , b1 sin x
a2 cos 2x , b2 sin 2x
a3 cos 3x , b3 sin 3x

We also include a constant term a0 /2 in the Fourier series. This

allows us to represent functions that are, for example, entirely above
the x−axis. With a sufficient number of harmonics included, our ap-
proximate series can exactly represent a given function f (x)

f (x) = a0 /2 + a1 cos x + a2 cos 2x + a3 cos 3x + ...

+ b1 sin x + b2 sin 2x + b3 sin 3x + ...

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 1: Theory 7

A more compact way of writing the Fourier series of a function f (x),

with period 2π, uses the variable subscript n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
∞
a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1

● We need to work out the Fourier coefficients (a0 , an and bn ) for

given functions f (x). This process is broken down into three steps
Z
STEP ONE 1
a0 = f (x) dx
π
2π
Z
STEP TWO 1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π
2π
Z
STEP THREE 1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π
2π
where integrations are over a single interval in x of L = 2π

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 1: Theory 8

● Finally, specifying a particular value of x = x1 in a Fourier series,

gives a series of constants that should equal f (x1 ). However, if f (x)
is discontinuous at this value of x, then the series converges to a value
that is half-way between the two possible function values

" V e rtic a l ju m p " /d is c o n tin u ity

in th e fu n c tio n re p re s e n te d f(x )

F o u rie r s e rie s
c o n v e rg e s to
h a lf-w a y p o in t

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 2: Exercises 9

2. Exercises
Click on Exercise links for full worked solutions (7 exercises in total).
Exercise 1.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2π such that

1, −π < x < 0
f (x) =
0, 0 < x < π .

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −2π < x < 2π

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval −π < x < π is
 
1 2 1 1
− sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + ...
2 π 3 5
c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
π 1 1 1
= 1 − + − + ...
4 3 5 7

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 2: Exercises 10

Exercise 2.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2π such that

0, −π < x < 0
f (x) =
x, 0 < x < π .

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −3π < x < 3π

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval −π < x < π is
 
π 2 1 1
− cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
4 π 3 5
 
1 1
+ sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − ...
2 3
c) By giving appropriate values to x, show that
2
(i) π4 = 1 − 31 + 15 − 17 + . . . and (ii) π8 = 1 + 312 + 512 + 712 + . . .

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 2: Exercises 11

Exercise 3.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2π such that

x, 0 < x < π
f (x) =
π, π < x < 2π .

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −2π < x < 2π

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 2π is
 
3π 2 1 1
− cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4 π 3 5
 
1 1
− sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . .
2 3
c) By giving appropriate values to x, show that
π 1 1 1 π2 1 1 1
(i) 4 = 1− 3 + 5 − 7 +... and (ii) 8 = 1+ 32 + 52 + 72 +...

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 2: Exercises 12

Exercise 4.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2π such that
x
f (x) = over the interval 0 < x < 2π.
2

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 4π

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 2π is
 
π 1 1
− sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . .
2 2 3
c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
π 1 1 1 1
= 1 − + − + − ...
4 3 5 7 9

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 2: Exercises 13

Exercise 5.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2π such that

π − x, 0 < x < π
f (x) =
0, π < x < 2π

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −2π < x < 2π

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 2π is
 
π 2 1 1
+ cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4 π 3 5
1 1 1
+ sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + sin 4x + . . .
2 3 4
c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
π2 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + ...
8 3 5

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 2: Exercises 14

Exercise 6.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2π such that

f (x) = x in the range − π < x < π.

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −3π < x < 3π

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval −π < x < π is
 
1 1
2 sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − . . .
2 3
c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
π 1 1 1
= 1 − + − + ...
4 3 5 7

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 2: Exercises 15

Exercise 7.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2π such that

f (x) = x2 over the interval − π < x < π.

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −3π < x < 3π

b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval −π < x < π is

π2
 
1 1
− 4 cos x − 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 3x − . . .
3 2 3
c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
π2 1 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6 2 3 4

● Theory ● Answers ● Integrals ● Trig ● Notation

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 3: Answers 16

3. Answers
The sketches asked for in part (a) of each exercise are given within
the full worked solutions – click on the Exercise links to see these
solutions

The answers below are suggested values of x to get the series of

constants quoted in part (c) of each exercise
π
1. x = 2,
π
2. (i) x = 2, (ii) x = 0,
π
3. (i) x = 2, (ii) x = 0,
π
4. x = 2,
5. x = 0,
π
6. x = 2,
7. x = π.

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 4: Integrals 17

4. Integrals
R b dv b Rb du
Formula for integration by parts: a u dx dx = [uv]a − a dx v dx
R R
f (x) f (x)dx f (x) f (x)dx
xn+1 n [g(x)]n+1
xn n+1 (n 6= −1) [g (x)] g 0 (x) n+1 (n 6= −1)
0
1 g (x)
x ln |x| g(x) ln |g (x)|
x ax
e ex ax
ln a (a > 0)
sin x − cos x sinh x cosh x
cos x sin x cosh x sinh x
tan x − ln
 |cos x| tanh x ln cosh x 
cosec x ln tan x2  cosech x ln tanh x2 
sec x ln |sec x + tan x| sech x 2 tan−1 ex
sec2 x tan x sech2 x tanh x
cot x ln |sin x| coth x ln |sinh x|
sin2 x x
2 −
sin 2x
4 sinh2 x sinh 2x
4 − x2
cos2 x x
2 +
sin 2x
4 cosh2 x sinh 2x
4 + x2

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 4: Integrals 18

R R
f (x) f (x) dx f (x) f (x) dx
 
1 1
tan−1 x 1 1  a+x 
a2 +x2 a a a2 −x2 2a ln  a−x  (0 < |x| < a)
 
1 1  x−a 
(a > 0) x2 −a2 2a ln  x+a  (|x| > a > 0)

 √ 
2 2
√ 1 sin−1 x √ 1 ln  x+ aa +x  (a > 0)

a2 −x2 a a2 +x2
 √ 
2 2
(−a < x < a) √ 1 ln  x+ xa −a  (x > a > 0)

x2 −a2

√ a2
√ a2
h √ i
sinh−1 x a2 +x2
 −1 x

x


a2 − x2 2 sin a a2 +x2 2 a + a2

√ i √ h √ i
a2
a2 −x2
− cosh−1
2 2
+x x
+ x xa2−a


a2 x2 −a2 2 a

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 5: Useful trig results 19

5. Useful trig results

When calculating the Fourier coefficients an and bn , for which n =
1, 2, 3, . . . , the following trig. results are useful. Each of these results,
which are also true for n = 0, −1, −2, −3, . . . , can be deduced from
the graph of sin x or that of cos x
s in (x )
1

● sin nπ = 0 x
−3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π

−1

c o s(x )
1

● cos nπ = (−1)n x
−3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π

−1

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 5: Useful trig results 20

s in (x ) c o s(x )
1 1

x x
−3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π −3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π

−1 −1

 
0 , n even 0 , n odd
π  π 
● sin n = 1 , n = 1, 5, 9, ... ● cos n = 1 , n = 0, 4, 8, ...
2 2
−1 , n = 3, 7, 11, ... −1 , n = 2, 6, 10, ...
 

Areas cancel when

s in (x )
when integrating 1

overR whole periods + + + x

● sin nx dx = 0 −3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π
2π
R
● cos nx dx = 0 −1
2π

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 6: Alternative notation 21

6. Alternative notation
2π
● For a waveform f (x) with period L = k
∞
a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nkx + bn sin nkx]
2 n=1
The corresponding Fourier coefficients are
Z
STEP ONE 2
a0 = f (x) dx
L
L
Z
STEP TWO 2
an = f (x) cos nkx dx
L
L
Z
STEP THREE 2
bn = f (x) sin nkx dx
L
L
and integrations are over a single interval in x of L

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 6: Alternative notation 22

● For a waveform f (x) with period 2L = 2π

k , we have that
2π π
k = 2L =L and nkx = nπx
L
∞
a0 X h nπx nπx i
f (x) = + an cos + bn sin
2 n=1
L L
The corresponding Fourier coefficients are
Z
STEP ONE 1
a0 = f (x) dx
L
2L
Z
STEP TWO 1 nπx
an = f (x) cos dx
L L
2L
Z
STEP THREE 1 nπx
bn = f (x) sin dx
L L
2L
and integrations are over a single interval in x of 2L

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 6: Alternative notation 23
2π
● For a waveform f (t) with period T = ω
∞
a0 X
f (t) = + [an cos nωt + bn sin nωt]
2 n=1
The corresponding Fourier coefficients are
Z
STEP ONE 2
a0 = f (t) dt
T
T
Z
STEP TWO 2
an = f (t) cos nωt dt
T
T
Z
STEP THREE 2
bn = f (t) sin nωt dt
T
T
and integrations are over a single interval in t of T

Toc JJ II J I Back
Section 7: Tips on using solutions 24

7. Tips on using solutions

● When looking at the THEORY, ANSWERS, INTEGRALS, TRIG

or NOTATION pages, use the Back button (at the bottom of the
page) to return to the exercises

● Use the solutions intelligently. For example, they can help you get
started on an exercise, or they can allow you to check whether your
intermediate results are correct

● Try to make less use of the full solutions as you work your way
through the Tutorial

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 25

Full worked solutions

Exercise 1.

1, −π < x < 0
f (x) =
0, 0 < x < π, and has period 2π

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −2π < x < 2π

f(x )
1

−2π −π 0 π 2π
x

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 26

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE
π 0
1 π
Z Z Z
1 1
a0 = f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx
π −π π −π π 0

1 0 1 π
Z Z
= 1 · dx + 0 · dx
π −π π 0

1 0
Z
= dx
π −π
1 0
= [x]
π −π
1
= (0 − (−π))
π
1
= · (π)
π
i.e. a0 = 1 .

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 27

STEP TWO
Z π Z 0 Z π
1 1 1
an = f (x) cos nx dx = f (x) cos nx dx + f (x) cos nx dx
π −π π −π π 0
Z 0 Z π
1 1
= 1 · cos nx dx + 0 · cos nx dx
π −π π 0
Z 0
1
= cos nx dx
π −π
 0
1 sin nx 1 0
= = [sin nx]−π
π n −π nπ
1
= (sin 0 − sin(−nπ))
nπ
1
= (0 + sin nπ)
nπ
1
i.e. an = (0 + 0) = 0.
nπ

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 28

STEP THREE
Z π
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π −π
Z 0 Z π
1 1
= f (x) sin nx dx + f (x) sin nx dx
π −π π 0
Z 0 Z π
1 1
= 1 · sin nx dx + 0 · sin nx dx
π −π π 0

0  0
1 − cos nx
Z
1
i.e. bn = sin nx dx =
π −π π n −π
1 1
= − [cos nx]0−π = − (cos 0 − cos(−nπ))
nπ nπ
1 1
= − (1 − cos nπ) = − (1 − (−1)n ) , see Trig
 nπ nπ 
0 , n even n 1 , n even
i.e. bn = 2 , since (−1) =
− nπ , n odd −1 , n odd

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 29

We now have that

∞
a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1
with the three steps giving

0 , n even
a0 = 1, an = 0 , and bn = 2
− nπ , n odd
It may be helpful to construct a table of values of bn

n 1 2 3
4 5

bn − π2 0 − π2 13 0 − π2 15

Substituting our results now gives the required series

 
1 2 1 1
f (x) = − sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + . . .
2 π 3 5

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 30

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

π 1 1 1
4 =1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ...

Comparing this series with

 
1 2 1 1
f (x) = − sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + . . . ,
2 π 3 5
we need to introduce a minus sign in front of the constants 13 , 17 ,. . .

So we need sin x = 1, sin 3x = −1, sin 5x = 1, sin 7x = −1, etc

π
The first condition of sin x = 1 suggests trying x = 2.

This choice gives sin π2 + 1

3 sin 3 π2 + 1
5 sin 5 π2 + 1
7 sin 7 π2
1 1 1
i.e. 1 − 3 + 5 − 7
Looking at the graph of f (x), we also have that f ( π2 ) = 0.

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 31
π
Picking x = 2 thus gives
h
0 = 21 − π2 sin π2 + 1
3 sin 3π
2 +
1
5 sin 5π
2 i
1
+ 7 sin 7π
2 + ...

h
1 2 1 1
i.e. 0 = 2 − π 1 − 3 + 5 i
1
− 7 + ...

A little manipulation then gives a series representation of π4

 
2 1 1 1 1
1 − + − + ... =
π 3 5 7 2
1 1 1 π
1 − + − + ... = .
3 5 7 4
Return to Exercise 1

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 32

Exercise 2.

0, −π < x < 0
f (x) =
x, 0 < x < π, and has period 2π

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −3π < x < 3π

f(x )
π

−3π −2π −π π 2π 3π
x

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 33

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE

Z π Z 0 Z π
1 1 1
a0 = f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx
π −π π −π π 0
Z 0 Z π
1 1
= 0 · dx + x dx
π −π π 0
 π
1 x2
=
π 2 0

1 π2
 
= −0
π 2
π
i.e. a0 = .
2

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 34

STEP TWO
Z π Z 0 Z π
1 1 1
an = f (x) cos nx dx = f (x) cos nx dx + f (x) cos nx dx
π −π π −π π 0
Z 0 Z π
1 1
=0 · cos nx dx + x cos nx dx
−π π π 0
Z π  π Z π 
1 1 sin nx sin nx
i.e. an = x cos nx dx = x − dx
π 0 π n 0 0 n
(using integration by parts)
  
1 sin nπ 1 h cos nx iπ
i.e. an = π −0 − −
π n n n 0
 
1 1
= ( 0 − 0) + 2 [cos nx]π0
π n
1 1
= 2
{cos nπ − cos 0} = 2
{(−1)n − 1}
πn
 πn
0 , n even
i.e. an = , see Trig.
− πn2 2 , n odd
Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 35

STEP THREE
π 0
1 π
Z Z Z
1 1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = f (x) sin nx dx + f (x) sin nx dx
π −π π −π π 0
1 0 1 π
Z Z
= 0 · sin nx dx + x sin nx dx
π −π π 0
Z π  Z π 
1 1 h  cos nx iπ cos nx 
i.e. bn = x sin nx dx = x − − − dx
π 0 π n 0 0 n
(using integration by parts)
1 π
 Z 
1 1 π
= − [x cos nx]0 + cos nx dx
π n n 0
  π 
1 1 1 sin nx
= − (π cos nπ − 0) +
π n n n 0
1 1
= − (−1)n + (0 − 0), see Trig
n πn2
1
= − (−1)n
n

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 36
− n1
(
, n even
i.e. bn =
+ n1 , n odd

We now have
∞
a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1

− n1
( (
π 0 , n even , n even
where a0 = , an = , bn =
2 − πn2 2 , n odd 1
, n odd
n

Constructing a table of values gives

n 1 2 3 4 5
an − π2 0 − π2 · 1
32 0 − π2 · 1
52

bn 1 − 12 1
3 − 14 1
5

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 37

This table of coefficients gives

 
1 π 2
f (x) = + − cos x + 0 · cos 2x
2 2 π
 
2 1
+ − · 2 cos 3x + 0 · cos 4x
π 3
 
2 1
+ − · 2 cos 5x + ...
π 5
1 1
+ sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − ...
2 3
 
π 2 1 1
i.e. f (x) = − cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
4 π 3 5
 
1 1
+ sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − ...
2 3

and we have found the required series!

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 38

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

π 1 1 1
(i) 4 =1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ...

Comparing this series with

 
π 2 1 1
f (x) = − cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
4 π 3 5
 
1 1
+ sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − ... ,
2 3
the required series of constants does not involve terms like 312 , 512 , 712 , ....
So we need to pick a value of x that sets the cos nx terms to zero.
The Trig section shows that cos n π2 = 0 when n is odd, and note also
that cos nx terms in the Fourier series all have odd n
π
i.e. cos x = cos 3x = cos 5x = ... = 0 when x = 2,

i.e. cos π2 = cos 3 π2 = cos 5 π2 = ... = 0

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 39

Setting x = π2 in the series for f (x) gives

π  
π 2 π 1 3π 1 5π
f = − cos + 2 cos + 2 cos + ...
2 4 π 2 3 2 5 2
 
π 1 2π 1 3π 1 4π 1 5π
+ sin − sin + sin − sin + sin − ...
2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2
π 2
= − [0 + 0 + 0 + ...]
4 π 
1 1 1 1
+ 1 − sin π + · (−1) − sin 2π + · (1) − ...
2 | {z } 3 4 | {z } 5
=0 =0

π π


The graph of f (x) shows that f 2 = 2, so that

π π 1 1 1
= + 1 − + − + ...
2 4 3 5 7
π 1 1 1
i.e. = 1 − + − + ...
4 3 5 7

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 40

Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

π2 1 1 1
(ii) 8 =1+ 32 + 52 + 72 + ...

Compare this series with

 
π 2 1 1
f (x) = − cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
4 π 3 5
 
1 1
+ sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − ... .
2 3
This time, we want to use the coefficients of the cos nx terms, and
the same choice of x needs to set the sin nx terms to zero

Picking x = 0 gives
sin x = sin 2x = sin 3x = 0 and cos x = cos 3x = cos 5x = 1

Note also that the graph of f (x) gives f (x) = 0 when x = 0

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 41

So, picking x = 0 gives

 
π 2 1 1 1
0 = − cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + ...
4 π 3 5 7
sin 0 sin 0
+ sin 0 − + − ...
 2 3 
π 2 1 1 1
i.e. 0 = − 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ... + 0 − 0 + 0 − ...
4 π 3 5 7

We then find that

 
2 1 1 1 π
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ... =
π 3 5 7 4
1 1 1 π2
and 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ... = .
3 5 7 8

Return to Exercise 2
Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 42

Exercise 3.

x, 0 < x < π
f (x) =
π, π < x < 2π, and has period 2π

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −2π < x < 2π

f(x )
π

−2π −π 0 π 2π
x

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 43

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE
2π π
1 2π
Z Z Z
1 1
a0 = f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx
π 0 π 0 π π

1 π 1 2π
Z Z
= xdx + π · dx
π 0 π π
 π  2π
1 x2 π
= + x
π 2 0 π π
 2   
1 π
= − 0 + 2π − π
π 2
π
= +π
2
3π
i.e. a0 = .
2
Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 44

STEP TWO
Z 2π
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π 0
Z π Z 2π
1 1
= x cos nx dx + π · cos nx dx
π 0 π π
" π # 2π
Z π 
1 sin nx sin nx π sin nx
= x − dx +
π n 0 0 n π n π
| {z }
using integration by parts
"    π #
1 1 − cos nx
= π sin nπ − 0 · sin n0 −
π n n2 0

1
+ (sin n2π − sin nπ)
n

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 45

"    #  
1 1 cos nπ cos 0 1
i.e. an = 0−0 + − 2 + 0−0
π n n2 n n

1
= (cos nπ − 1), see Trig
n2 π
1
(−1)n − 1 ,


= 2
n π

− n22 π , n odd
(
i.e. an =
0 , n even.

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 46

STEP THREE
Z 2π
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π 0
Z π Z 2π
1 1
= x sin nx dx + π · sin nx dx
π 0 π π
" # 2π
1 h  cos nx iπ Z π  − cos nx  
π − cos nx
= x − − dx +
π n 0 0 n π n π
| {z }
using integration by parts
"   π #
1 −π cos nπ sin nx 1
= +0 + − (cos 2nπ − cos nπ)
π n n2 0 n
" #
1 −π(−1)n

sin nπ − sin 0 1
1 − (−1)n


= + 2
−
π n n n
1 1
− (−1)n + 1 − (−1)n


= 0 −
n n

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 47
1 1 1
i.e. bn = − (−1)n − + (−1)n
n n n
1
i.e. bn = − .
n
We now have
∞
a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1
(
3π 0 , n even
where a0 = 2 , an = , bn = − n1
− n22 π , n odd

Constructing a table of values gives

n 1 2 3
4 5

an − π2 0 − π2 312 0 − π2 512
bn −1 − 21 − 13 − 14 − 15

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 48

This table of coefficients gives

   h i
1 3π 2 1
f (x) = 2 2 + − π cos x + 0 · cos 2x + 32 cos 3x + . . .
  h i
1 1
+ −1 sin x + 2 sin 2x + 3 sin 3x + . . .

h i
3π 2 1 1
i.e. f (x) = 4 − π cos x + 32 cos 3x + 52 cos 5x + . . .
h i
1 1
− sin x + 2 sin 2x + 3 sin 3x + . . .

and we have found the required series.

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 49

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

π 1 1 1
(i) 4 =1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ...

Compare this series with

 
3π 2 1 1
f (x) = − cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4 π 3 5
 
1 1
− sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . .
2 3
Here, we want to set the cos nx terms to zero (since their coefficients
are 1, 312 , 512 , . . .). Since cos n π2 = 0 when n is odd, we will try setting
x = π2 in the series. Note also that f ( π2 ) = π2

This gives
π 3π 2
cos π2 + 1
cos 3 π2 + 1
cos 5 π2 + . . .
 
2 = 4 − π 32 52

sin π2 + 1
sin 2 π2 + 1
sin 3 π2 + 1
sin 4 π2 + 1
sin 5 π2 + . . .
 
− 2 3 4 5
Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 50

and
π 3π 2
2 = 4 − π [0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]

1 1 1 1
 
− (1) + 2 · (0) + 3 · (−1) + 4 · (0) + 5 · (1) + . . .
then

π 3π 1 1 1


2 = 4 − 1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ...

1 1 1 3π π
1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ... = 4 − 2

1 1 1 π
1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ... = 4, as required.

To show that
π2 1 1 1
(ii) 8 =1+ 32 + 52 + 72 + ... ,

We want zero sin nx terms and to use the coefficients of cos nx

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 51

Setting x = 0 eliminates the sin nx terms from the series, and also
gives
1 1 1 1 1 1
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + 2 cos 7x + . . . = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + . . .
3 5 7 3 5 7
(i.e. the desired series).
The graph of f (x) shows a discontinuity (a “vertical jump”) at x = 0

The Fourier series converges to a value that is half-way between the

two values of f (x) around this discontinuity. That is the series will
converge to π2 at x = 0
 
π 3π 2 1 1 1
i.e. = − cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + . . .
2 4 π 3 5 7
 
1 1
− sin 0 + sin 0 + sin 0 + . . .
2 3
 
π 3π 2 1 1 1
and = − 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + . . . − [0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]
2 4 π 3 5 7
Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 52

Finally, this gives

 
π 2 1 1 1
− = − 1+
+ + + . . .
4 π 32 52 72
π2 1 1 1
and = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
8 3 5 7

Return to Exercise 3

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 53

Exercise 4.

f (x) = x2 , over the interval 0 < x < 2π and has period 2π

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 4π

f(x )
π

0 π 2π 3π 4π
x

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 54

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE

Z 2π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π 0
Z 2π
1 x
= dx
π 0 2
 2 2π
1 x
=
π 4 0

(2π)2
 
1
= −0
π 4

i.e. a0 = π.

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 55

STEP TWO
Z 2π
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π 0
Z 2π
1 x
= cos nx dx
π 0 2
( 2π )
Z 2π
1 sin nx 1
= x − sin nx dx
2π n 0 n 0
| {z }
using integration by parts
(  )
1 sin n2π sin n · 0 1
= 2π −0· − ·0
2π n n n
( )
1 1
= (0 − 0) − · 0 , see Trig
2π n
i.e. an = 0.

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 56

STEP THREE
Z 2π Z 2π
1 1 x
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = sin nx dx
π 0 π 0 2
Z 2π
1
= x sin nx dx
2π 0
(  2π Z 2π   )
1 − cos nx − cos nx
= x − dx
2π n 0 0 n
| {z }
using integration by parts
( )
1 1 1
= (−2π cos n2π + 0) + · 0 , see Trig
2π n n
−2π
= cos(n2π)
2πn
1
= − cos(2nπ)
n
1
i.e. bn = − , since 2n is even (see Trig)
n
Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 57

We now have
∞
a0 X
f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1

where a0 = π, an = 0, bn = − n1

These Fourier coefficients give

∞  
π X 1
f (x) = + 0 − sin nx
2 n=1 n
 
π 1 1
i.e. f (x) = − sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . . .
2 2 3

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 58

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

π 1 1 1 1
4 =1− 3 + 5 − 7 + 9 − ...

π π
Setting x = 2 gives f (x) = 4 and
 
π π 1 1
= − 1 + 0 − + 0 + + 0 − ...
4 2 3 5
 
π π 1 1 1 1
= − 1 − + − + − ...
4 2 3 5 7 9
 
1 1 1 1 π
1 − + − + − ... =
3 5 7 9 4
1 1 1 1 π
i.e. 1 − + − + − . . . = .
3 5 7 9 4
Return to Exercise 4

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 59

Exercise 5.

π−x , 0<x<π
f (x) =
0 , π < x < 2π, and has period 2π

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −2π < x < 2π

f(x )
π

−2π −π 0 π 2π
x

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 60

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE
Z 2π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π 0
Z π Z 2π
1 1
= (π − x) dx + 0 · dx
π 0 π π
 π
1 1
= πx − x2 + 0
π 2 0
2
 
1 π
= π2 − −0
π 2
π
i.e. a0 = .
2

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 61

STEP TWO
Z 2π
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π 0
1 π 1 2π
Z Z
= (π − x) cos nx dx + 0 · dx
π 0 π π
 π Z π 
1 sin nx sin nx
i.e. an = (π − x) − (−1) · dx +0
π n 0 0 n
| {z }
using integration by parts
 Z π 
1 sin nx
= (0 − 0) + dx , see Trig
π 0 n
 π
1 − cos nx
=
πn n 0
1
= − 2 (cos nπ − cos 0)
πn
1
i.e. an = − 2 ((−1)n − 1) , see Trig
πn
Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 62


 0 , n even
i.e. an =
2
, n odd

πn2

STEP THREE
Z 2π
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π 0
Z π Z 2π
1
= (π − x) sin nx dx + 0 · dx
π 0 π

1
h  cos nx iπ Z π  cos nx  
= (π − x) − − (−1) · − dx + 0
π n 0 0 n
  π  1 
1 
= 0− − − · 0 , see Trig
π n n
1
i.e. bn = .
n
Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 63
π
In summary, a0 = 2 and a table of other Fourier cofficients is

n 1 2 3 4 5

2 2 2 1 2 1
an = πn2 (when n is odd) π 0 π 32 0 π 52

1 1 1 1 1
bn = n 1 2 3 4 5

∞
a0 X
∴ f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1
π 2 2 1 2 1
= + cos x + cos 3x + cos 5x + . . .
4 π π 32 π 52
1 1 1
+ sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + sin 4x + . . .
 2 3 4 
π 2 1 1
i.e. f (x) = + cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4 π 3 5
1 1 1
+ sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + sin 4x + . . .
2 3 4
Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 64
π2 1 1
c) To show that 8 =1+ 32 + 52 + ... ,

π
note that, as x → 0 , the series converges to the half-way value of 2,

 
π π 2 1 1
and then = + cos 0 + cos 0 + cos 0 + . . .
2 4 π 32 52
1 1
+ sin 0 + sin 0 + sin 0 + . . .
2 3
 
π π 2 1 1
= + 1 + 2 + 2 + ... + 0
2 4 π 3 5
 
π 2 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + ...
4 π 3 5
π2 1 1
giving = 1 + 2 + 2 + ...
8 3 5
Return to Exercise 5

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 65

Exercise 6.

f (x) = x, over the interval −π < x < π and has period 2π

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −3π < x < 3π

f(x )
π

x
−3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π

−π

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 66

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE
Z π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π −π
Z π
1
= x dx
π −π
 π
1 x2
=
π 2 −π

1 π2 π2
 
= −
π 2 2

i.e. a0 = 0.

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 67

STEP TWO

1 π
Z
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π −π
Z π
1
= x cos nx dx
π −π
( π Z π   )
1 sin nx sin nx
= x − dx
π n −π −π n
| {z }
using integration by parts

1 π
 Z 
1 1
i.e. an = (π sin nπ − (−π) sin(−nπ)) − sin nx dx
π n n −π
 
1 1 1
= (0 − 0) − · 0 ,
π n n
Z
since sin nπ = 0 and sin nx dx = 0,
2π
i.e. an = 0.

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 68

STEP THREE

1 π
Z
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π −π
Z π
1
= x sin nx dx
π −π
( π Z π   )
1 −x cos nx − cos nx
= − dx
π n −π −π n
1 π
 Z 
1 1 π
= − [x cos nx]−π + cos nx dx
π n n −π
 
1 1 1
= − (π cos nπ − (−π) cos(−nπ)) + · 0
π n n
π
= − (cos nπ + cos nπ)
nπ
1
= − (2 cos nπ)
n
2
i.e. bn = − (−1)n .
n
Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 69

We thus have
∞
a0 X h i
f (x) = + an cos nx + bn sin nx
2 n=1

with a0 = 0, an = 0, bn = − n2 (−1)n

and
n 1 2 3

2
bn 2 −1 3

Therefore
f (x) = b1 sin x + b2 sin 2x + b3 sin 3x + . . .
 
1 1
i.e. f (x) = 2 sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x − . . .
2 3

and we have found the required Fourier series.

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 70

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

π 1 1 1
4 =1− 3 + 5 − 7 + ...

Setting x = π2 gives f (x) = π2 and

 
π π 1 2π 1 3π 1 4π 1 5π
= 2 sin − sin + sin − sin + sin − ...
2 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2

This gives  
π 1 1 1
= 2 1 + 0 + · (−1) − 0 + · (1) − 0 + · (−1) + . . .
2 3 5 7
 
π 1 1 1
= 2 1 − + − + ...
2 3 5 7
π 1 1 1
i.e. = 1 − + − + ...
4 3 5 7

Return to Exercise 6
Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 71

Exercise 7.

f (x) = x2 , over the interval −π < x < π and has period 2π

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval −3π < x < 3π

f(x )
π
2

−3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π
x

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 72

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE
Z π Z π
1 1
a0 = f (x)dx = x2 dx
π −π π −π
 π
1 x3
=
π 3 −π

1 π3 π3
  
= − −
π 3 3

1 2π 3
 
=
π 3

2π 2
i.e. a0 = .
3

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 73

STEP TWO

1 π
Z
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π −π
Z π
1
= x2 cos nx dx
π −π
( π Z π   )
1 sin nx sin nx
= x2 − 2x dx
π n −π −π n
| {z }
using integration by parts
( )

2 π
Z
1 1 2 2
= π sin nπ − π sin(−nπ) − x sin nx dx
π n n −π
( )
2 π
Z
1 1
= (0 − 0) − x sin nx dx , see Trig
π n n −π
Z π
−2
= x sin nx dx
nπ −π

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 74

(  π Z π   )
−2 − cos nx − cos nx
i.e. an = x − dx
nπ n −π −π n
| {z }
using integration by parts again
( )
−2 1 π
Z
1 π
= − [x cos nx]−π + cos nx dx
nπ n n −π
(   )
−2 1 1
= − π cos nπ − (−π) cos(−nπ) + · 0
nπ n n
(   )
−2 1
= − π(−1)n + π(−1)n
nπ n
( )
−2 −2π
= (−1)n
nπ n

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 75

( )
−2 2π
i.e. an = − (−1)n
nπ n

+4π
= (−1)n
πn2
4
= (−1)n
n2

4
, n even
(
n2
i.e. an =
−4
n2 , n odd.

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 76

STEP THREE
π
1 π 2
Z Z
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx = x sin nx dx
π −π π −π
(  π Z π   )
1 − cos nx − cos nx
= x2 − 2x · dx
π n −π −π n
| {z }
using integration by parts
( )
Z π
1 1 2 π 2
= − x cos nx −π + x cos nx dx
π n n −π
( Z π )
1 1 2 2
π cos nπ − π 2 cos(−nπ) +


= − x cos nx dx
π n n −π
( )

2 π
Z
1 1 2 2
= − π cos nπ − π cos(nπ) + x cos nx dx
π n| {z } n −π
=0
Z π
2
= x cos nx dx
πn −π
Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 77

( π )
Z π
2 sin nx sin nx
i.e. bn = x − dx
πn n −π −π n
| {z }
using integration by parts
( )
Z π
2 1 1
= (π sin nπ − (−π) sin(−nπ)) − sin nx dx
πn n n −π
( )
1 π
Z
2 1
= (0 + 0) − sin nx dx
πn n n −π

−2 π
Z
= sin nx dx
πn2 −π

i.e. bn = 0.

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 78

∞
a0 X
∴ f (x) = + [an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2 n=1
(
4
2π 2 n2 , n even
where a0 = 3 , an = −4 , bn = 0
n2 , n odd

n 1 2 3 4
1 1 1




an −4(1) 4 22 −4 32 4 42

2π 2
   
1 1 1 1
i.e. f (x) = − 4 cos x − 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 3x − 2 cos 4x . . .
2 3 2 3 4

+ [0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]

π2
 
1 1 1
i.e. f (x) = − 4 cos x − 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 3x − 2 cos 4x + . . . .
3 2 3 4

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 79
π2
c) To show that = 1 + 212 + 312 + 412 + . . . ,
6
(
1 , n even
use the fact that cos nπ =
−1 , n odd

1 1 1
i.e. cos x − 22 cos 2x + 32 cos 3x − 42 cos 4x + . . . with x = π

1 1 1
gives cos π − 22 cos 2π + 32 cos 3π − 42 cos 4π + . . .

1 1 1
i.e. (−1) − 22 · (1) + 32 · (−1) − 42 · (1) + . . .

1 1 1
i.e. −1 − 22 − 32 − 42 +...

 
1 1 1
= −1 · 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + . . .
2 3 4
| {z }
(the desired series)

Toc JJ II J I Back
Solutions to exercises 80

The graph of f (x) gives that f (π) = π 2 and the series converges to
this value.

Setting x = π in the Fourier series thus gives

π2
 
2 1 1 1
π = − 4 cos π − 2 cos 2π + 2 cos 3π − 2 cos 4π + . . .
3 2 3 4
2
 
π 1 1 1
π2 = − 4 −1 − 2 − 2 − 2 − . . .
3 2 3 4
π2
 
2 1 1 1
π = + 4 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
3 2 3 4
2
 
2π 1 1 1
= 4 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
3 2 3 4
π2 1 1 1
i.e. = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6 2 3 4
Return to Exercise 7

Toc JJ II J I Back