O-Level Physics Notes

Succeed in Physics Form I
1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS.
Physics is the branch of science which deals with the study of matter in relation to energy.
Energy-Is the ability of doing work.
The word physics comes from Greek word ‘physicos’ which means Natural. Therefore generally physics can
be described as the study of nature whose aim is to understand the behavior of the universe.
Physics as a subject uses concept like force, energy, mass, weight to explain different phenomena.
A person who studies physics is called a physicist or physician.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICS AND OTHER SUBJECT
Physics is said to be the most fundamental of the natural science therefore the following are the subjects in
which physics related to ;
Chemistry
Biology
Mathematics
Astronomy
Geography
APPLICATION OF PHYSICS IN REAL LIFE
The following are areas/fields in which physics can be applied;
AT HOME
All tools and machinery that are used in our home to simply our works are made in accordance with the laws of
physics .e.g hammer , door handles, hinges, car jack , pulleys etc.
MEDICAL FIELD.
A variety of medical processes and machinery rely on physics .eg x-ray, ultrasound, syringes and needles.
SOURCE OF ENERGY
some process and machines help us to obtain energy for our daily use.eg batteries ,generators and dynamo.
TRANSPORT.
Application of the laws of physics such us friction and frictional force ensures that human being and animal
can walk, run and stop without falling over. Vessels used in transportation such as cars/automobiles, ships,
aero planes and trains are also able to move, brake stop where necessary.
COMMUNICATION
Example of devices that are used in communication are such as telephones, mobile phones, modem, television,
transmitter receiver, satellite dish ,newspaper, emails, fax, short message service (sms) are due to knowledge
acquired from physics.
ENTERTAIMENT
Physics enable people to enjoy a variety of leisure activities as evident in photographs, Digital appliances,
exercise machines and other sports equipments such as inflated balloons, merry –go- rounds are used to
entertain children. Music for example is recorded on tapes, CD using the skills acquired in physics .Television
VCD ,DVD etc.
INDUSTRY
Physics have been able to came up with tools and processes that have resulted in advanced technological
equipments and new discoveries Eg computers, binoculars and telescopes.
IN SCHOOL
The instruments and apparatus used in school laboratory are made through application of the knowledge and
skill acquired in physics class.
“Education is an open sesame to success” Safari L. Mwelu [0785 523 231/0718 707 520] Page 1
IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING PHYSICS

1.It help us to answer many questions about nature.
2.It enable people to acquire professions .
3.It imparts knowledge that is applied in designing and manufacturing different items which are useful in our
daily life.
4.Physics is fun.
2: INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY PRACTICE..

Laboratory is a special room where scientific experiment are done .
Apparatus-these are special tools and instruments which are used in physics laboratory.
LABORATORY RULES AND SAFETY.
As in all types of activities safety in handling of chemical, apparatus and equipment in the laboratory is the
responsibility of every laboratory user. These is a set of rules should be observed when carrying out experiment
in the laboratory. These rules ensure your safety, that of others that around you and the safety of the apparatus
under use.
RULES IN PHYSICS LABORATORY.
The following are the rules to be observed when using in the laboratory.
1.Don’t enter in the laboratory without permission.
2.Don’t eat, drink, run and smoke in the laboratory.
3.Follow instructions given before conducting an experiment.
4.Don’t topuch any electrical equipment with wet hand.
5.Don’t spill any liquid on the floor.
6.Never fight or quarrel in the laboratory .
7.Never use broken apparatus.
8.Perform the intended experiment.
SAFETY MEASURES IN PHYSICS LABORATORY
The following is a list of vital safety measures in the laboratory
i.A physics laboratory should be well ventilated and its doors should open outwards.
ii.Fire extinguishers should be fitted in accessible position.
iii.Laboratory floor should not be polished as this will make them slipperly.
iv.An adequately equiped first aid kit should be in every laboratory.
v.Cabinets and drawers should be included in the design of a laboratory so as to be used for storing apparatus
FIRST AID .
First aid is the help which is given to a sick or injured person before taking him or her to hospital.
IMPORTANCE OF FIRST AID
1.It help to preserve life.
2.It prevents the victims condition from becoming worse.
3.It shortens recovery time.
4.It prevents infection.
5.It helps to reduce pains and suffering
6.It brings hope to a victim
7.It prevents permanent disability
8.It brings hope to a victim.

THE FIRST AID KIT
First aid kit is the small box which contains items and tool needed for first aid.
COMPONENT OF FIRST AID KIT.
ITEMS/COMPONENTS USES
Antiseptic soap Washing hands ,wounds, and equipments.
Antiseptic solution Cleaning fresh cut and bruises.
Assorted bandages and cotton wool Covering and drying wounds
Disposable sterile gloves Preventing direct contact with victim’s body fluids.
Liniment Reducing muscle pains.
Pain killers Reducing pain
Adhesive bandage or plaster Covering minor wounds.
Thermometer To measure body temperature
Sterile gauze Covering wounds to protect them from dust and germs
Safety pins clips and tape. Sucuring bandage or dressings
Scissors and razor blade Cutting dressing materials
Petroleum jelly Smoothening and soothing skin.
CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS IN THE LABORATORY.

i.Slipperly floors.
ii.Incorrect use and handling of apparatus.
iii.Gas leakages from faulty gas taps.
iv.Fires.
v.Failure to follow the right experimental procedures and laid down safety rules.
SOME COMMON ACCIDENTS THAT MAY OCCUR IN PHYSICS LABORATORY.
i.Electric shock
ii.Cut
iv.Fainting
v.Fire
FIRE
Fire is a chemical reaction that involves Fuel, heat and oxygen all combined together in suitable proportion
hence producing fire flame, smoke and heat
Fire is the one of the most highty destructive accidents in the laboratory.
Generally for fire to break out three factors must be fulfilled;
.1Heat
2.Fuel
3.Oxygen
In any physics laboratory fire may be caused by;
1.Electrical faults
2.Smoking materials
3.Carelessness
4.Ignorance and negligence
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF PREVENTING FIRE

1.No lighting of open fires near buildings
2.No smoking in prohibited area
3.No interference with electrical installation
4.All electrical appliances must be turned off immediately after use or before leaving the
laboratory
5.All flammable substance should be locked up in drawer or cabinet
FIRE EXTINGUISHER
Fire are classified according to the type of medium that is burning
There are four (4) types of fire extinguisher
 Water
 Dry powder
 Foam
 Carbon dioxide
CLASSES OF FIRE
FIRE CLASS BURNING MATERIAN MOST APPROPRIATE

FIRE EXTINGUISHER
Class A Organic solid eg .wood, water
paper, plastic wood
Class B Flammable liquid and Dry powder
greases eg petrol, kerosene
paraffin, diesel and alcohol
Class C Flammable gases eg. Dry powder
methane
Class D Combustible metal eg. Dry powder
magnesium or sodium
Class E Electrical appliances eg. Carbon dioxide
damaged electrical cables
CHEMICAL WARNING SIGNS

These are signs which must be obeyed in order to avoid accidents. For example toxic harmful,
irritant,flammable, oxidizing agent, corrosive and explosive
TOXIC
This is the substance which is dangerous and cause death.
HAMFUL OR IRRITANT
This is a substance which can affect our health.

FLAMMABLE
This is the substance which can catch fire easily.

OXIDIZING AGENT
This is a substance which speeds up rate of burning.

CORROSIVE
This is substance which can corrode surfaces and burn your skin.
EXPLOSIVE
This is a substance which may explode easily.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

Scientific method is a set of techniques used by scientists to investigate a problem or answer questions.
STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
The following are steps follows when copying out a scientific investigation.
1. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
This is first step in the scientific method it is when one makes a puzzling observation. An example of such as
observation would be the mass of the bob of a perpendicular affects the time it takes to make one complete
swing (isolation)
2. ASKING QUESTION
A physicist asks a specific question based on what he or she has observe and wants to learn more about in
example does the mass of the bob of perpendicular affect the hire it takes to make one complete swing?
3 FORMULATING A TESTABLE HYPOTHES
A hypothesis is an intelligent gives that times to explain an observation it is suggestion of the answer to the
answer to the question asked for example the mass of the bob of the pendulum affects the time it takes to make
one complete swing
4. PERFORMING EXPERIMENT
Is a test under control condition is used to determine whether the formulated hypothesis true or false. There
three different various these are;
i. Dependent variable
ii. Independent variable.
ii. Controlled variable.
5 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Data collection involve recording what has been observed during the experiment. Data collection helps in
drawing conclusion.
Example
Mass of bob g Time for one swing

10 2
20 2
30 2
40 2
6. DATA INTERPRETATION
We look a possible tone or pattern and explain it
7. DATA PRESENTATION
Data presentation involves the use of mathematical concept to represent the data or results collected this could
include the use of pie chart, graphs and formulate
8. DRAWING CONCLUSION
Conclusion .is the summary of the result of the experiment
3: MEASUREMENTS.
Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to observation or events
Measurement should have two parts
1. Number part
2.Unit part
E.g. 2kg,5s
A complete measurement is called physical quantities
BASIC FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
There are two categories of physical quantities which are;
I. Fundamental quantities
II. Derived quantities
fundamental quantities of nature include;
1.Length
2.Mass
3.time
4.Temperature
5.Amount of substance
6.electric current
7.Luminous intensity
N.B: Mass, Length and Time (MLT) are known as the basic physical quantities of measurement
THE FUNDAMENTAL QUNTITIES AND THEIR UNITS
QUANTITY SI UNIT UNIT SYMBOL

lenght Metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
Temperature kelvin k
Amount of substance mole mol
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
1. LENGTH
Length is the distance between two points. This is the commonly made measurement in our daily life.
The S.I unit of Length is metre (m)
The length of object or distances tend to vary for example distance from the earth to the sun and diameter of a
wire. To cope with this great difference, there are other several units obtained from metre such as kilometre,
centimetre ,millImetre, micrometre and nanometre.

Their equivalence are as follows;
1km—1000 m
1m—100 cm
1m—106 µm
1m---109 nm
Examples.
1.Change the 0.01km into centimeters.
Solution:
1km = 1000000cm
0.01km = cm?
1000000 × 0.01
1
= 1000cm
APPROPRIATE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.

1.LENGTH
The instruments commonly used in the laboratory to measure length include,
i.Metre ruler
ii.Vernier calliper
iii.Micrometre screw gauge
iv.Tape measure
I.USING METRE RULER
In an elementary physics laboratory the metre and half metre ruleR are normally used. These are mainly
wooden and graduated in centimetres and millimeters
metre rule
When taking measurement always ensure that your eye is right above the mark one the scale of the metre rule,
otherwise the value will have an error. The error is due to parallax
Parallax occur when a point an object is viewed from different positions. This makes the object to shift
positions
Parallax is the apparent motion of an object relative to another when the position of the eye is varied
II.USING VERNIER CALIPER

Vernier caliper is an instrument used to measure the length of an object to an accuracy of 0.01cm.
A vernier calliper has two major scales;
i.Main scale
ii.Vernier scale
READING THE VERNIER CALIPER

1. The base measurement is read on the main beam from left to right of the (0) on the main beam scale read the
main scale. Use the vernier zero (0) as the focus
2.Look at the graduation on the vernier scale to see which line up exactly with one of the main scale then read
the number on the vernier scale not the main scale.
3. Add these two readings together then check the reading.
4. The total is the measurement of the vernier caliper.
Examples:
Find the readings of the following vernier calipers below;
1. .
solution:
Main scale= 0.00 cm
Vernier scale=0.06 cm
Reading of the vernier caliper = Main scale + Vernier scale
= 0.00 cm + 0.06 cm
= 0.06cm
2.
solution:
Main scale=8.6 cm
Vernier scale=0.02 cm
Reading of the vernier caliper = Main scale + Vernier scale
= 8.6 cm + 0.02 cm
= 8.62cm|
III. USING MICROPMETER SCREW GAUGE

Micrometer screw gauge is an instrument used to measure the length of an object to an accuracy of
0.001cm /0.01mm
For this reason it is used to measure the length of objects with smaller diameters such as diameter of
wires and ball bearing.
The micrometer screw gauge has two scale which are;
1. The main scale
2. The thimble scale
READING THE VERNIER CALIPER

Readings on the microscope are taken as follows;
The reading of the micrometer screw gauge is the sum of the main scale reading and the thimble scale
reading.
Examples:
Find the readings of the following micrometer screw gauge below
1.
solution:
Main scale=2.5 mm
Thimble scale scale=0.38 mm
Reading of the vernier caliper = Main scale + Thimble scale
= 2.5 mm + 0.38 mm
= 2.88 mm
2. MASS
Mass is the quantity of matter in an object. The S.I Unit of mass is Kilogram (Kg)
The apparatus commonly used to measure mass of objects in the laboratory are;
i.Beam balance
ii. Digital balance /electronic balance
Beam balance Digital balance
3. TIME
Time is the interval between one event and another. The S.I unit of time is Second (s)
Time can be measured by using;
i. Stop watch
ii. Wrist watch
iii. Clock
Stop watch Wrist watch Clock
DERIVED QUANTITIES
Derived quantities are obtained by combining two or more of the fundamental quantities through multiplication
or division.
Example of derived quantities are Area, Volume, Density, Velocity, Weight and Work.
QUANTITY SI UNIT UNIT SYMBOL

Area Square metre M2
Volume Cubic metre M3
Weight Newton N
Work Joules J
Velocity Metre per second M/S
VOLUME
Volume is the quantity of space that an object occupies. The S.I unit of volume is cubic metre (m3) other unit of
volume includes;
i.Cubic centimetre (cm3)
ii.Millilitre (ml)
iii.Litre (L)
The technique for measuring volume vary depending on whether the sample is a Solid, Liquid or Gas
I.SOLID
A.DETERMINING THE VOLUME OF REGULAR OBJECTS
If the solid have regular shape such as cube ,cylinder or sphere its dimensions are measured and the appropriate
formula is used to calculate the volume.
1. VOLUME OF CYLINDER 2. VOLUME OF CUBE
Volume= πr2h Volume= length × breath × height

2. VOLUME OF CUBE
𝟒
Volume= 𝟑πr3
EXERCISE
1. Calculate the volume of rectangular block of sides 15cm ,8cm and 7cm .
2. Calculate the volume of cylinder with the height of 14cm and diameter of 20cm.
3.Calculate the volume of sphere with a diameter of 28m.
4.A cylinder with a height of 100cm has a volume of 61600m3 calculate its diameter.
B: DETERMING THE VOLUME OF IRREGULAR OBJECTS

If the solids has an irregular shape such as a stone ,it is submerged /immersed in a measuring cylinder
containing water ,then the volume of displaced water taken as the volume of the solid. Measuring the volume of
an irregularly shaped solid object is based on the principle that, when an object is completely submerged in
water it displaces a volume of water equal to its own volume.
This is known a displacement or immersion method.
Volume of irregular object can be measured by using;
i. A graduated cylinder
ii. Eureka can or overflow can
I. USING GRADUATED CYLINDER

Suppose you wanted to measure the volume of are small stone. The following stapes are necessary;
1. Fill the graduated cylinder with about 30cm3 of water
2.Careful measure the initial volume of water [V1]
3.Then lower the stone into the water
4.Measure the final volume of water [V2]
5.The difference between the Final and Initial volumes gives the volume of the stone[Vs]
Vs= Final volume-initial volume
Vs= Final volume-initial volume

Vs= V2 - V1
Vs = 40cm3- 30cm3 = 10 cm3
Therefore the volume of the stone is 10 cm3
II. USING OVERFLOW CAN / EUREKA CAN

If the object is too large to fit into the graduated cylinder an alternative method is to use eureka can commonly
known as overflow can
STEPS
1.Fill the eureka can with water up to the level of spout
2.Tie the irregular solid [stone] with string
3.Gently lower a stone into the water by using a string
4.The stone will displace some water which will be collected in the beaker
5.Transfer the displaced water into a graduated cylinder
6.Measure the volume of water
7.This is the volume of the solid
II. LIQUID
The litre is the standard unit used for measuring volume of liquids
1litre=1000cm3 = 1000ml
This implies that 1cm3 =1ml
Instruments used for measuring volume of liquids in the laboratory are;
i.Beakers
ii.Calibrated flasks
iii.Burette
iv.pipette
v.Measuring cylinder
Beaker Conical flask Burette Pipette Measuring cylinder
III. GAS
A gas always fill any container in which it is placed therefore the volume of the Gas can be determined by
measuring the volume of the container.
ERRORS
Errors is a minimal deviation from true volume
Is a measure of estimated difference between observed and the value of a quantity that is being measured
SOURCES OF ERRORS
i.Fault during manufacture
ii.Damage during use
iii.Poor storage
iv.Human factor
TYPES OF ERRORS
i. Parallax
ii. Zero error
iii. Human factor
DENSITY
Density is the mass of an object per unit volume.
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
The S.I unit of density is Kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3)
Other units used for measuring density are grams per cubic centimetres (g/cm3) and grams per millilitres
(g/ml)
DENSITIES OF SOME COMMON SUBSTANCES
SUBSTANCE DENSTIY(g/cm3)
Aluminium 2.7
Copper 8.3
Gold 19.3
Lead 11.3
Water 1
Ice 0.92
Example;
1.What is the density of a piece of wood of mass 25g and volume of 29.4cm3?
Solution
Data given
Mass =25g
Volume =29.4cm3
Density =?
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝟐𝟓𝒈
𝟐𝟗. 𝟒𝒄𝒎𝟑
The density of a piece of wood is 0.9g/cm3
2.A cup of gold colored metal beads was measured to have a mass of 425g by water displacement the volume of
the beads was calculated to be 48.0cm3 identify the density of the metal .
Solution
Data given
Mass =425g
Volume=48.0cm3
Density=?
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝟒𝟐𝟓𝒈
𝟒𝟖𝒄𝒎𝟑
The density of metal is 8.8542 g/cm3
3.Calculate the density of block of glass of mass 5.4g and volume of 2cm3
Solution
Data given:
Mass=5.4g
Volume=2cm3
Density=?
But
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝟓. 𝟒𝒈
𝟐𝒄𝒎𝟑
The density of block is 2.7g/cm3
DENSITY OF REGULAR SOLID
The density of regular solid can be obtained by calculation once its mass and volume have been measured
It is found by dividing mass and volume.
The mass of the material can be obtained by using beam balance on the other hand volume can be obtained by
using various methods depending the nature of the material
DENSITY OF IRREGULAR SOLID
Density of irregular solid can be obtained by;
Measuring its mass by using beam balance or digital balance
Determining its volume through displacement or immersion method involving the Eureka or measuring cylinder
Divide the mass and the volume obtained
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅

𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
Examples;
1. An irregular solid x has a mass of 50g when its totally immersed in water of volume 60cm3 the final volume
of water is read as 70cm3 calculate the density of the irregular solid x.
Solution
Data given
Mass of an object =50g
Initial volume f water =60cm3
Final volume of water =70cm3
Displaced water = V2-V1
But
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑀
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 =
𝑉2 − 𝑉1
50𝑔
𝐷=
70𝒄𝒎𝟑 − 60𝒄𝒎𝟑
50𝑔
𝐷=
10𝑐𝑚3
Density of the solid x is 5g/cm3
DENSITIES OF INSOLUBLE GRANULES

Determining the densities of insoluble small particles such as sand grains also possible they must be held is
some type of container while being measured one technique involved is by using density bottle. A density bottle
has a precisely measured volume, usually 50ml or 100ml.
The following are steps followed when using a density bottle to Measure the density of insoluble granules eg
sand.
1. Measure the mass of an empty density bottle with its stopper record as (m1)
2. Add a small amount of sand to the bottle, replace the stopper and measure (m2)
3. Fill the bottle with water and measure as (m3)

4. Since the density of water is 1g/cm3,the volume of water is cm3added to the bottle is numerically equal to the
mass of water in grams
Volume of water in cm3=mass of water in grams
Volume of sand=volume of bottle=volume of water
5.Calculate the density of sand by dividing its mass by its volume
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝒎)
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝒗)
Examples
DENSITY OF LIQUIDS
The density of liquid can also be calculated if its mass and its volume are known. the Density of a liquid can be
determined through the following steps;
1. Measure the mass of an empty beaker (m1)

2.Run known volume of liquid into the beaker and record the mass as (m2)
3. Substract m1 from m2 to get the mass of the liquid (m2-m1)g
4.Calculate the density of the liquid by dividing mass obtained by the volume of liquid
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
(m2 − m1 )𝒈
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 =
(𝒗)𝒄𝒎𝟑
Examples;
In an experiment to determine the density of liquid Y, Chidibo a form1 Student obtained the following results
Mass of empty beaker=500g
Mass of beaker + liquid (25cm3) =600g
What did he obtained as the density of liquid Y,
Data given;’
Mass empty beaker=500g
Mass of beaker and liquid=600g
Volume=25cm3
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
(m2 − m1)𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 =
(𝑣)𝑐𝑚3
(600 − 500)𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 =
(25)𝑐𝑚3
100𝑔
𝐷= 25𝑐𝑚3
The density of liquid Y is 4g/cm3
RELATIVE DENSITY (R.D)

Relative density is the ratio of the density of substance to the density of water
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
Relative density has no unit. Therefore relative density is unitless.
Examples;
1.An object has a density of 7g/cm3 calculate relative density.
Data given
Density=7g/cm3
Density of water=1g/cm3
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
3
7𝑔/𝑐𝑚
𝑅. 𝐷 =
1𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
Relative density of an object is 7
DETERMINATION OF RELATIVE DENSITY OF LIQUID
Relative density of liquid can be determined by using relative density bottle
PROCEDURES.
1. Find the mass of an empty bottle (m0)
2.Find the mass of bottle=liquid (m1)
3. Find the mass of bottle with water (m2)
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
(𝐦𝟏 − 𝐦𝟎 )𝐠
(𝐦𝟐 − 𝐦𝟎 )𝐜𝐦𝟑
Examples:
1. In an experiment to determine the relative density of liquid X Samba a form1 Physics student attained the
following results.
Mass of an empty relative density bottle=15g
Mass of bottle liquid X=35g
Mass of bottle water=40
Calculate density of liquid X
Data given
Mass of bottle=15g
Mass of bottle liquid=35g
Density of liquid=?
(𝐦𝟏 − 𝐦𝟎 )𝐠
(𝐦𝟐 − 𝐦𝟎 )𝐜𝐦𝟑
(𝟑𝟓 − 𝟏𝟓)𝐠
𝑹. 𝑫 =
(𝟒𝟎 − 𝟏𝟓)𝐜𝐦𝟑
𝟐𝟎𝐠
=
𝟐𝟓𝐜𝐦𝟑
Density of liquid= 0.8g/cm3
APPLICATION OF DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
Relative density and density has its application in our everyday lives. This includes
1. Designing ships and planes
2.Detemining densities of unknown liquids
3.To determine mineral /content of rocks (geologists and mineralogists)
4.it helps in identifying materials
5.Selection of building materials
6. Designing swimming and diving equipments
IMPORTANCE OF MEASUMENTS.
1. Architecture and engineering
2 In trade
3.In agriculture
4.In hospital
5. In fashion industries.
6. In schools.
7. In transport industry
1. What is the density of piece of wood of mass 25g and volume of 29.4 cm3.
2. A cup of gold colored metal beads was measured to have a mass of 425g, by water displacement the
volume of the beads was calculated to be 48.0 cm3. Identify the volume of the metal.
3. Farhan threw a plastic ball in the pool for his dog to fetch. The mass of the ball was 125g. What must
the volume be to have a density of 0.500g/ cm3 ?
4.What is the mass of cylinder of lead that is 2.80 cm in diameter and 10cm in height. If the density of the
lead is 11.4g/cm3.
5. The volume of the solution was measured in a graduated cylinder was 45 cm3, if the mass of solution
measured to be 60.75 grams. What is the density of the solution?
6. An ice cube measured 58cm by 58cm by 58 cm has a density of 0.917g/ cm3 , what is mass?
7. Gasoline is a non polar liquid that will float on water 450g of gasoline is spilled in puddle of water. If
the density of gasoline is 0.665 g/cm3.
8. The density of Aluminium is 2.70 g/cm3. If the mass of a piece of Aluminium is 244g. What is the
volume of Aluminium?
9. The density of substance is 1.63 g/cm3. What is the mass of 0.25 litres of the substance in grams.
10. A cup made of an alloy of Gold and Silver has a volume of 60 cm3 and a mass of 1050 g. Find the mass of
Gold contained in the cup. (Density of Gold = 19.3 g/cm3, Density of Silver = 10.5 g/cm3)
3: FORCE.
Force is a pull or push of a body. Force can;
The S.I unit of force is the Newton (N)
The branch of physics that deals with the effect of force on matter is called mechanics.
Force can;
Cause a moving body to stop,
A body at rest to start moving.
Change the size and shape of an object force can.
Affect direction and the speed of a moving body.
TYPES OF FORCES
There are four types of fundamental forces which are
1.GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
Is the force of attraction between bodies in the universe. An example is the earth’s gravity which pulls objects
towards earth’s centre.
The force of gravity is always equal to the weight of the object. This can be stated as;
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒙 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
From ;
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒙 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
but
𝒂=𝒈
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈
Examples;
1. If an object has a mass of 60 kg how much would it weight on earth?
Solution:
Data given:
Mass=60kg
Acceleration due to gravity g=10m/s2
Weight=?
From;
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔
F=60kg x 10m/s2
F = 600N
2. If an object weight 30N on the earth what is its mass

Solution
Data given
Force = 30N
g=10m/s2
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 =
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐹
𝑀=
𝑔
30𝑁
𝑀=
10𝑁
Mass of an object is 3kg
PROPERTIES OF GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

i. It is always attractive
ii. It is weakest force among the four basic forces
iii. It is central force
iv. It operates over very long distance
2. STRONG FORCES.
These are forces responsible for binding nuclei of an atom they hold the nucleus together (neutron and proton)
3.WEAK FORCE
Is the force responsible for various trends of radioactive decay. The decay of fundamental particles such as Beta
particles.
4. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE
Is the force which cause magnetic and electric effect
PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
i. It may be repulsive or attractive
ii. It is a central force
iii. It is stronger than gravitational force
iv. It is also long range force
EFFECT OF FORCE
Force have several effects an object in real situation these effects include Friction, Stretching, Compression,
restoring, Attraction , Repulsion, Torsion, Viscosity, Air resistance
1.FRICTIONAL FORCE
Friction is the force that one surface an object encounter when resting or moving over another .When one
object slides over another object friction tries to stop movement, thus friction is an opposing force.
Friction force produces heat and causes wearing and tearing of car tyres and shoe soles
2. STRETCHING FORCE
This is the force that passes through a strong cable, loop or wire when it is pulled tight by force acting from
both ends.
3. COMPRESSIONAL AND RESTORING

Compressional force is force which when we applied to an object it result into a decrease in its volume.
Restoring force is the force which returns the object to their original shape and size.
4. AIR RESISTANCE
Air resistance .is the force that resist the movement of an object through the air.
5. VISCOUS FORCE
Viscosity is the resistance of the fluid to flow; example of viscous fluids are honey, grease, and turpentine
6. ATTRACTIVE AND REPULSIVE FORCE

Attractive force is the force by which one object attract another.
E.g a magnet exert attractive force an a piece of metal or (iron fillings)
Attractive force occurs when unlike poles of the magnet are brought together.
Repulsive force is the force of separation that a body or particle exerts on another
NB: like poles repel, unlike poles attract each other
7. NORMAL FORCE
This is support force exerted upon an object which in contact with another stable object.eg when a person leans
against the wall the wall supports the person by pushing horizontally
8. APPLIED FORCE
If you push a box containing books across a floor then there is a force acting on the box is known applied force
9. TORSIONAL FORCE
This is a force produce on solid object when it is twisted.
5. ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE AND THE LAW OF

FLOATATION
CONCEPT OF UPTHRUST
Consider a cork that is hold just below the surface of liquid and then released. The cork comes to surface
immediately.
This show that while inside the liquid an upward force (upthrust) acts on a cork. This force is greater than the
weight of the cork hence a cork is pushed to the surface.
BUOYANT FORCE
Buoyant force is a upward force that acts on an object if partially immersed in a fluid (liquid or gas)
This upward force enables the object to float or at least seem lighter.
You would not be able to swim in water if it were not for an upthrust force to act on your body .Water vessels
like ships and boats sail on water due to this force, otherwise they would sink.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN APPARENT AND REAL WEIGHT
When the body is totally or partially immersed in the fluid the buoyant force on the body is equal to
the weight of the displaced water or fluid submerged bodies always weight less than when not
immersed in the fluid.
This loss of weight when a body is totally or partially immersed in the fluid is not real hence it is
known as apparent loss in weight.
Apparent weight is the weight of the body when is totally or partially immersed in the fluid.
Real weight is the weight of the object in air.
Apparent loss in weight is the loss in weight when the body is totally or partially immersed in the
fluid.
Therefore;
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
If an object is immersed in a beaker full of water, it displaces some of the water.
A Greek scientist by the name Archimedes discovered that there was a relationship between upthrust acting on
the body and the weight of the liquid displaced, this relation is known as Archimedes principle.
Archimedes principles states that, “ If an object is partially or totally immersed in the fluid it experiences an
upthrust which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.”
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

Examples:
1. When an object is totally immersed in water, its weight recorded as 3.1N. If its weight in air is 4.9N,
calculate the upthrust acting on the object.
Solution;
Data given:
Weight in air = 4.9N
Apparent weight = 3.1N
Upthrust = ?
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 4.9𝑁 − 3.1 𝑁
= 1.8N
The upthrust acting on the body is 1.8N
1. A body immersed in water displaced 1.1N of the liquid. If its weight while in water is 3.3N. Find its weight
in air.
Solution;
Data given:
Water displaced = 1.1N
Apparent weight = 3.3N
Real weight = ?
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 + 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 3.3𝑁 + 1.1𝑁
= 4.4N
The weight of the object in air is 4.4N
DETERMINATION OF RELATIVE DENSITY
Relative density of a substance can be expressed as;
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
=
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
In terms of apparent weight loss it can be expressed as;

𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
Relative density of substance ( Both solids and liquids) can be therefore obtained by applying the Archimede’s
principle.
1. The weight of the stone in air is 25N and 17N in water, calculate the relative density.
Solution;
Data given:
Weight of stone in air = 25N
Weight of stone in water = 17N
Relative density= ?
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
25𝑁
25𝑁 − 17𝑁
25𝑁
𝑅. 𝐷 = 8𝑁
= 3.125
Therefore the relative density is 3.125
Archimedes principle can be used to determine the relative density of both solids and liquids.
Previously we learnt that;
And for liquids;
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅
NOTE: The relative density of an object

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 =
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
BUT;
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
Therefore;
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
BUT;
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 (𝒈) = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓 (𝑵) 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
ALSO;
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 (𝒈) = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝑵) 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕

= 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓 − 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
Therefore;
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
NOTE:
The relative density also determines the proportion of a floating body that will be submerged in a fuid.
If the body is 70% as dense as the fluid, 70% of its volume will be submerged.
Examples:
1. In an experiment to determine the relative density of a liquid, a solid weighed as follows;
Weight in air, WO = 8.6N
Weight in water, W1 = 6.4N
Weight in liquid, W2 = 5.4 N
Calculate the relative density of the liquid
Solution;
Data given:
Weight in air, WO = 8.6N
Weight in water, W1 = 6.4N
Weight in liquid, W1 = 5.4 N
Relative density of the liquid= ?
W0 −W2
𝑟𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
W0 −W1
𝟖.𝟔−𝟓.𝟒
= =1.2
𝟖.𝟔−𝟔.𝟎
Relative density of the liquid=1.2
SINKING AND FLOATING

SINKING
Sinking is the tendency of an object to drop or to fall to the lower levels of the fluid.
FLOATING
Floating is the tendency of an object to remain on the surface of the fluid due to the forces exerted by the fluid.
Buoyancy is the ability of an object to float. Examples of an object that can float include ships, canoes, boats
and balloons.
CONDITIONS FOR FLOATING
The following are some of the conditions to be satisfied before a body can float;
1. The object’s submerged volume must be enough so as to displace a lot of fluid.
2. The density of the object must be less than the density of the surrounding fluid.
3. The upthrust due to the liquid must be equal to the total weight of the object.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UPTHRUST AND FLOATATION
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅.
Since;
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
Therefore for an object to float its apparent weight must be ZERO.

LAW OF FLOATATION
The floatation law states that, “The floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid in which it floats”
If an object flats;
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 = 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒙 %𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅
LAW OF FLOATATION IN EVERYDAY LIFE
There are many objects and vessels that floats or can be made to float, since they apply the law of floatation in
their functioning.
Examples of those objects are Balloons, Ships, Canoe, Hot air Balloons and Submarines.
HYDROMETER
Hydrometer is an instrument used for determining the relative densities of liquids.
It is usually made of glass consisting of a cylindrical stem which is graduated and glass bulb at its end.
The graduation at the stem of the cylinder start with small number at the top and end with large number at the
bottom, thus it sinks more in less dense liquids.
1. An object is hung from a spring balance its weight is 40N in air and 30N when immersed in water;
(a) Calculate upthrust of the object
(b) Calculate the weight of the fluid displaced
(c) What is the mass of displaced water
(d) What is the mass of displaced water

(e) What is the volume and mass of the object
(f) Calculate relative density
(g) Calculate its density
2. A hot air balloon including the envelope, gondola burner, fuel and one passenger has a total mass of
450kg. If the air outside the balloon is at 20C and has density of 1.29 kg/m3, air inside the envelope
heated to a temperature of 120C which has a density of 0.90 kg/m3. What volume must the envelope
expand to just lift the balloon into the air?
3. An object has mass of 150g and a volume of 200 cm3. If placed in water, how much of its volume will be
submerged?
4.A weather balloon using Helium of density 0.178 kg/m3 requires a volume of 250 m3 to lift its payload.
If Hydrogen gas of density0.090 kg/m3 were used instead what would be the required volume?
5. Icebergs are hazardous to shipping because so much of their volume is below the water level. If the
density of the sea water is 1025 kg/m3 and the density of the ice is 909 kg/m3. What percent of an iceberg
is below the water level?
6. STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Matter is anything which has got weight/mass and occupies space. Matter is made up of thin particles called
atoms
STATES OF MATTER
Matter exist in three physical states which are;
i. Solid state
ii .Liquid state
iii .Gases state
I. SOLID STATE
Solid state have definite shape and volume, particle in a solid are closed parked together therefore the particles
are not free to move because they are held together by strong inter molecular forces.
Examples of solids are; wood, stone, books, ice, rock, iron and pen.
II. LIQUID STATE
Unlike solid state, liquids have fixed volume but variable in shape .This largely because a liquid will assume the
shape of any container in which it is hold. In liquids, the atoms and molecules are only slightly held together
weaker than in solid.
Examples of liquids are water, kerosene, milk, petrol, diesel, oil, honey, wine, saliva and urine
III. GASES STATE
Gases have neither a fixed shape nor fixed volume .Gases always fill the container in which they are held.
Atoms and molecules in gases are so far apart that they do not interact with each other, therefore gases have
weakest intermolecular forces of attraction.
Examples of gases are oxygen, hydrogen nitrogen, Sulphur dioxide and Carbon dioxide .
THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Matter is not continuous but is is made up of particles. This was proved by phenomena referred to as Brownian
motion.
In 1927, a scientist by the name Robert Brown used a microscope and observed that pollen grains suspended in
water moved short distance in an irregular zig-zag manner.

Brownian motion states that,” Matter is made up of tiny particles that are in state of continuous random
motion.”
KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
The kinetic theory of matter states that “all matter is made up very small particles that are in constant motion”.
The more heat energy the particles posses the faster they move.
The kinetic theory of matter is also known as the molecular theory of matter.
1. ELASTICITY
Elasticity is the ability of an object to regain its original shape and size after the removal of the deforming force.
Elastic material is the one which is able to regain its original shape and size after the removal of the deforming
force. Examples of elastic materials are rubber band, catapult e.t.c
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TENSION AND EXTENSION OF A LOADED ELASTIC MATERIAL;
HOOKE’S LAW
Hooke’s law states that ‘‘the extension of the spiral spring is directly proportional to the load provided that the
elastic limit is not exceeded.’’
APPLICATION OF ELESTICITY
At home ;
i. Rubber gaskets that seal refrigerator’s doors
ii.Clothing
iii. Spring in furniture
iv. Rubber band that holding things together
v. Toys and balloons
In transport;
i. Rubber tyes .
ii . Aeroplanes wings.
In industries;
i.Steel beams used in construction

ii.Conveyor belts
iii.Measuring weight
iv.Insulation against vibrations and sounds
2. ADHESION AND COHESION
I. COHESIVE FORCE
Cohesive force is the force of attraction between molecules of the same material.
II.ADHESIVE FORCE
Adhesive force is the force of attraction between molecules of different materials.
APPLICATION OF COHESIVE AND ADHESIVE FORCE
1.Sticking two different objects together by tape or glue (adhesive force)
2. Cohesion assists transport of water in plants and animals
3. Ink sticks on paper because of adhesive forces being greater than cohesive force.
3. SURFACE TENSION
Surface tension is the ability of the surface of the liquid to behave like a fully stretched skin.
Cohesive forces are responsible the surface tension of liquids.
Surface tensions enables objects such as small objects even metallic ones(needles, razor blade) and insects to
float on the surface of water.
When needles, papers, clips, razor blade and chalk powder were placed on the surface of the water they all float
on tops, thus the surface tension of water was high.
However, when detergents was added to the water, the same object sunk to the bottom of trough, this means that
the introduction of detergents interfered with surface tension of the liquid therefore detergent decreased the
surface tension of water.
Detergents are examples of Surfactant.
Surfactant is a substance that reduces the surface tension of the liquid.
NOTE: The term Surfactant is an acronym for Surface Active Agent
FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE TENSION
The surface tension of any liquid is affected by the following factors;
i. Nature of the liquid
ii. Contamination of the impurities
iii. Temperature
APPLICATION OF SURFACE TENSION
1. The cleaning action of soap is due to ability to lower surface tension of water.
2. Mosquito normally lay eggs in water, the eggs hang on the water surface. When a small amount of oil is
poured on water, it reduces the surface tension, this breaks the elastic film and the eggs are drowned and killed.
3. Surfactants are also used in emulsion of two liquid like oil and water, which normally do not mix.
4. Hot soup has lower surface tension than cold soup, as a result hot soup spreads over a large area of the tongue
hence hot soup is testier than cold soup.
4. CAPILLARITY
Capillarity is the tendency of liquids to raise or fall in narrow tubes.
APPLICATION OF CAPILLARITY
1. It facilitates the transport of water and nutrient in plants
2. It assists circulation of blood in animals.
3. It facilitates the movement of ground water.
4. It is the principle on which towels absorbs water.
5. The wick of the lamp draws up the fuel (kerosene) by using capillarity.
5. DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
For example diffusion occurs;
i. When a bad egg (rotten egg) is broken
ii. When a bottle of perfume is sprayed
6. OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of lower concentration of solute to the region of
higher concentration of solute through semi- permeable membrane.
7. PRESSURE
Pressure is the force acting normally per unit area
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
Therefore the S.I unit of pressure is Newton per Metre square (N/M2)
Other units of pressure are;
1Nm2=1Pa
1atm=760 mmHg
1atm=1.01×105 N/M2 =1.01×105 Pa
A. PRESSURE DUE TO SOLIDS
Pressure due to solids depends on the surface of contact. A force F applied onto a small area exerts a higher
pressure as applied onto a large surface.
Examples;
1.Consider a block of wood that weigh 30N and measure 5m by 10m by 4m. If it is placed on a table with a
largest possible area (10m × 5m) in contact with the table, it exerts less pressure that it would when exert when
placed with its smallest possible area (5m × 4m) in contact with the table.
(a) Large surface= (10m × 5m)
Force= 30N
Area= 10 × 5= 50m2
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹 30
𝑃 = 𝐴 = 50=0.6
Minimum pressure = 0.6 N/M2
(b) Small base area = (5m × 4m)

Force= 30N
Area= 5m× 4m= 20m2
𝐹 30
𝑃= = =1.5
𝐴 20
Maximum pressure = 1.5 N/M2
2. The tip of a needle has a cross-sectional area of 1× 10-6 m2. If adoctor applies a force of 20N to a syringe that
is connected to a needle, what is a pressure exerted at the tip of the needle?
Solution
Force= 20N
Area= 1×10-6 m2
Pressure=?
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
20
𝑃 = 1×10−6
Pressure =2×107 N/M2
APPLICATION OF PRESSURE DUE TO SOLIDS
1.Objects with sharp points. E.g nails, pins, spears, arrow heads.
2. Objects with sharp edges. E.g razor blade, knife, matchette
3. Buildings are constructed with wide foundations to ensure that the weight of building acts over a large area.
4. During construction of railway wide wooden sleepers are placed below the railway trucks.
5. Caterpillars and tractors tyres have wide surface area in order to significantly produce low pressure. This
prevents them to sink in soft soil.
6. Heavy loads (cargo) are carried in trucks which have many tyres. The presence of many tyres increases
surface area in contact, hence reduced pressure on the roads.
7. Wide straps for school bags. If thin straps with small area were used, high pressure would be produced
causing pain to the shoulders of the pupil.
8. Wide soled shoes are used on sand surface or snow to reduce pressure and avoid sinking.
B. PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
A liquid will exert pressure on an immersed object as well as on the walls of the container.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRESSURE IN LIQUID
The pressure at any point in any liquid at rest depends on;
1. Depth (h)
2. Density of liquid (ρ)
It does not depend on area;
𝐹
𝑃=𝐴
But;
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑔
𝑃= 𝐴
But;
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑣
𝜌𝑣𝑔
𝑃= 𝐴
But;
𝑉 = 𝐴h
𝑃 = 𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔/𝐴
𝑷 = 𝝆𝒉𝒈
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 = 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒙 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
Examples;
1. Calculate the pressure acted on a diver at a depth of 20m below the surface of water in a sea.
Solution:
Data given:
Density= 1000Kg/m3
Height= 20m
Acceleration due to gravity = 10N/ Kg
𝑃 = 𝜌ℎ𝑔
𝑃 = 1000 𝑋 20 𝑋 10
= 200000N/M2
Pressure exerted on a diver is 200000N/M2 or 2 x 105N/M2
The acceleration due to gravity( g) is constant. Therefore, pressure is proportion to desinty (P 𝛼 ρ) as
well as depth (P 𝛼 h) of the liquid. This can be seen clearly when holes are made in a container at different
levels and the container is filled up with water. The speed or height of water jets coming out of each hole would
be different.
As the depth increases, water comes out with higher speed indicating greater pressure. This knowledge finds
useful application in contraction of dams where dams are built with thicker walls at the bottom than the top in
order to withstand the higher pressure at the bottom.
PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS IS UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED THROUGHOUT

When a plunger is pushed to exert pressure on the water, water will come out with the same speed (equal
pressure) on all the holes.
This is a useful application in a car braking system. When a brake pedal is placed, it exerts pressure on the
brake fluid, the fluid then transmits the pressure equally to the breaks to the all tyres.
This property is summarize by Pascal’s principle which states that, “The external pressure acting on a closed
surface of liquid is transmitted equally throughout the liquid”
PRESSURE OF LIQUIDS DOES NOT DEPEND ON THE SHAPE OF THE CONTAINER

If water is poured into a container which has parts of different shapes and sizes, it will find its own level in all
the parts. This means that the pressure is the same or equal in each part.
If pressure was varying in different parts, each part of the container would have its own height. Thus pressure in
liquids is independent of the shape or volume of the container.
APPLICATION OF PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
1.SPIRIT BUBBLE LEVEL
This is an instrument used to check the horizontal levelness of a given surface. That is it is not inclined, it can
also be used to test if a wall is vertical or slanted. It is used by masons and civil engineers in construction of
buildings.
It has a smaller air bubble trapped by spirit or alcohol in a small glass tube. When the surface is horizontal the
bubble stays at the centre of the tube.
2. BOILER GAUGE
A small glass tube is connected to the side of a boiler to indicate the level of a liquid in a boiler. Since the boiler
is opaque, it is not easy to see the exact level of the liquid in the boiler. The level of the liquid in a glass handle
shows the level of the liquid in a boiler.
This exploits the principle of a liquid maintaining same height in different parts of a containing vessel due to the
same pressure.
3. WATER SUPPLIES
Water is supplied to houses from a tank which is placed on a tower or a hill. Water is pumped into a tank and a
supply pipe takes it from the reservoir tank to the houses.. The position of the tank must be at higher level than
all the houses its supplying.
4. HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATIONS
Water falls from a dam have high pressure. Therefore, water reaches out to the turbines with high speed. The
fast moving water drives the water turbines which produce electricity.
As the level of water in the dam decreases, the pressure of the falling water also decreases. Consequently the
speed of water coming out of the dam decreases as well. If the water level becomes very low, the dam stops
producing electricity. This is because, the pressure gets considerably low hence, reduce the speed or force of
water which now is unable to rotate the turbines.
PRINCIPLE OF HYDRAULIC PRESS
In general, small force acting on small area can be used to overcome big force on a large area. This is the
principle applied in many hydraulic systems. One such as the hydraulic lift used in lifting cars in garage.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
An inflated football or car tyres are good examples that show that gases do exert pressure. The air molecules are
in continuous random motion colliding with each other and with the walls of the tube. These collisions produce
pressure on the tube’s walls.
Though the air molecules in a room do collide and exert pressure on bodies, this is not regarded as atmospheric
pressure, the atmospheric pressure is due to weight of air or contents of the atmosphere. The air behaves as a
liquid whose pressure depends on depth.
Mountains top have shorter height of atmosphere above it, thus it experiences higher atmospheric pressure.
Hence pressure at sea level is very high. Climbers on high mountains such as Mount Kilimanjaro experience
low pressure when nearing the top. The low pressure causes the low air density, therefore the climbers
experience poor breathing.
EVIDENCE OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.
CRUSHING CAN EXPERIMENT.
Pour water into a thin metal can a quarter full. Heat the water up to boiling. A lid or cap is then tightly fitted
onto the can. Then pour cold water on the can. This causes the can to collapse or become crushed When cold
water was poured on the can ,it caused the steam to condense .This created low pressure inside the can
.Therefore, the can crushed
.
POURING MILK FROM A CAN .
If a small hole is pierced on a milk can, it is difficult if not possible to pour out the milk .But when two holes
opposite each are made on top of the can, the milk comes out very easily.
A GLASS OF WATER AND CARD EXPERIMENT.
Fill a glass with water to the brim. Slide a paper card over top of the glass to prevent any air bubbles in the
water. Slowly turn the glass upside down with your hand firmly placed on the card . Gently remove your hand
and continue holding the glass upside down. It would be observed that the card does not fall off .Since no air
was trapped inside the glass, the pressure on the card is due to weight of water only. On the outside, the
atmospheric pressure is greater than pressure of the water. Therefore, the card experiences a net upward force
which holds the card in place. Hence, water is prevented from coming out of the glass.
APPLICATION OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.
Atmospheric pressure finds important applications in the following areas.
RUBBER SUCKER [PRESSURE PARDS] .

This is a shallow circular rubber cap. When using it, it is moistened to get a good seal and then pressed firmly
against a smooth flat surface so that the air trapped inside it is pushed out .Since the atmospheric pressure is
greater, it holds it firmly against the surface.
Rubber suckers are used in industries in lifting metal sheets or glass sheets. Most of printing machines also lift
pieces of paper by use of rubber suckers. They are also used in kitchens for clearing blocked sinks and other
water draining systems.
DRINKING STRAW.
When you drink fruit juice or any other drink using a straw, you suck into the straw hence removing air from it.
This creates low pressure in the straw. The atmospheric pressure pushing down on the liquid in the container
now becomes greater than the pressure in the straw. This forces the liquid up through the straw into your mouth.
THE SYRINGE.
The syringe commonly used by nurses for giving injection, works on the same principle as the drinking straw.
The pressure inside the syringe is reduced by pulling the piston outward .this causes the medicine to rush into
the syringe.
BICYCLE PUMP.
When in operation the bicycle pump uses two valves. One valve is in the bicycle tyre and the other one is the
greasy leather washer which also act as piston in the pump. When the handle is pushed inwards, the washer
presses tightly against the walls of the barrel so that the air inside cannot escape. The air in the barrel gets
compressed. This causes pressure inside the barrel to become higher than pressure in the bicycle tyre. The valve
in the bicycle tyre thus opens to let in air into the tyre. When the handle is pulled out the pressure in the barrel
decreases below that of the tyre and atmospheric pressure such that the tyre valve is forced to close. The
atmospheric pressure pushes air into the barrel. The washer allows the air to get in. The barrel is now full ready
for another down stroke.
LIFT PUMP.
Lift pumps are used for raising water from wells. The lift pump is made up of cylindrical metal barrel with a
side outlet of water from the barrel after being lifted up from the well. There are two valves one is the piston
and the other at the bottom of the barrel closing the entry to the plunger which goes into the well. To understand
how the pump works, let us look at it with the piston down and valves B. Before starting to pump, water is
poured at the top of the piston to prevent air from leaking past it by pressing on valves A. The piston is pulled
by means of a system o f levers as shown in the diagram. Atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the
water presses up water through valve B and into the barrel. The water above the piston is lifted upward and
flows out through the side sprout.
On the down stroke, valve B closes due to pressure of water on it. At the same time valve .A opens allowing
water to pass into the upper part of barrel above the piston . This process is repeated frequently to let out the
water. The lift pump can only raise water to height of about 10m at normal atmospheric pressure. In practice,
however, the height cannot be attained due to leaks of water at the valves and piston.
Also in some places where atmospheric pressure is low due to lower altitude above sea lever, the height would
be less than 10m.
FORCE PUMP.
This type of pump is capable of raising water to heights well over 10 m above the water well. This makes the
pump more suited to lift water from deeper wells than the lift pump.Figure 7.29 shows how this pump works.
The piston is pushed down forcing both valve A and B to close . As the piston is pulled up,the pressure in the
barrel above valve B becomes reduced to below that of the atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure
acting on the water surface in the well forces the water past valve B into the chamber. See figure 7.29 valve A
remains closed because the pressure above it is still that of the atmosphere. When the piston is now pushed
down again,valve B is forced to close and the pressure inside causes valve A to open and water enters into
chamber. As water enters the chamber it causes air in the chamber to be compressed. The compressed air forces
water out of the chamber through the outlet pipe making the flow to be continuous. On the next upstroke,the
same process is repeated.The height to which water is pumped by this pump depends on on the force that can be
exerted on the piston and not on the atmospheric pressure.
THE SIPHON
This is an arrangement used to empty fixed tanks which are difficult to remove their content in normal way. The
tank containing the liquid is fitted with a flexible tube i.e. bent tube which draws out the liquid from the tank.
One end of the tube is set into the liquid and the other set out below the level of the liquid or the upper
reservoir. The tube is bent such that one arm is shorter. The liquid then pours out through the tube. For the
siphon to start working, the tube must first be filled with the liquid. The pressure acting at end A is almost that
of the atmospheric pressure. The pressure at the end E is the atmospheric pressure and pressure due to liquid
column DE of length, h. At A, the pressure is atmospheric, p and at B, the pressure is atmospheric .liquid
pressure. Since the inside pressure at end E is greater than atmospheric pressure, the liquid comes out at end E.
This principle is also used in automatic flushing tanks. When the level of water rises above the level ``A`` the
tank discharges water through the pipe because the out end is lower than the other end in the tank.
MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Atmospheric pressure can be measured using an instrument called barometer.There are three common types of
barometers;
[a]Simple barometer
[b]Fortin barometer
[c]Aneroid barometer
The simple barometer and fortin barometer both use mercury while aneroid barometer does not.
A. SIMPLE BAROMETER
A simple barometer consists of inverted glass tube containing mercury. Above the mercury column is a vacuum
causing the pressure inside to be zero. The tube’s open end is immersed in a mercury container. Since the
pressure inside is zero, the atmospheric pressure pushes the mercury to a height which is approximately 76 cm.
That is why sometimes atmospheric pressure is said to be 76 cm of mercury [76 cm Hg or 760 mm Hg].
The value of atmospheric pressure in Pascals can be found from the mercury height of a simple barometer.
Density of mercury is 13,600 kg/m3 and g=10m/s2,height is 0.76 m.
P=𝜌gh
=13,600 x 10 x o.76
=103,360N/m2 or 103,360 Pa
The atmospheric pressure is approximated as 100,000 Pa.
B.FORTIN BAROMETER
Fortin barometer is similar to simple barometer but with some modifications. It is a very accurate barometer.
The barometer tube dips into a leather bag containing mercury. As the pressure rises and falls, the levels of
mercury in the bag [reservoir] changes.
The adjusting screw is adjusted to bring the level of mercury to the ivory tip .This makes mercury level to be in
a correct position needed in taking measurements. Near the closed end of the tube is a vernier scale which is
adjusted using thumb screw.
Behind the barometer tube, there is a plane mirror used when taking reading. Using a thumb screw, the bottom
of vernier scale is brought to level with the meniscus of the mercury. The barometric height is then read from
the vernier scale correct to 0.1 mm.
C. ANEROID BAROMETER
Aneroid barometer consist of a thin corrugated metal box which has been partially evacuated creating a partial
vacuum in it. The sides of the box are held a part by use of a spring. The box expands when atmospheric
pressure decreases and contracts when atmospheric pressure decreases and contracts when atmospheric pressure
increases.
The two sides move due to pressure changes. Since the movements are small, they are magnified by a system of
levers. They levers cause a pointer on the circular scale to move. The scale is marked in centimeters of mercury
or other standard barometers.
MEASURING GAS PRESSURE USING MANOMETER

A manometer is a special instrument which uses liquid pressure to measure gas pressure. It consists of U-tube
which is open on one end and the other end connected to a gas supply. The U-tube is partially filled with a
liquid in the U –tube causing the level in the two limbs of the tube to be different. The difference in height of
the liquids shows how much pressure of the gas is greater than that of the atmospheric pressure. The pressure of
the gas p is greater than atmosphere pressure p by an amount hg i.e.
Pgas = Patm + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Not that, Paton is the atmospheric pressure .If the atmospheric pressure is known, the pressure of gas can be
found.
1. A block of mass 20Kg has sides of 0.5 m, 0.3m and 0.05m.

(Take g=10m/s). Find;
(a) Weight of the block
(b) Maximum pressure it can exert
(c) Minimum pressure it can exert
2.(a)Explain why tractors have wide tyres?
(b)Explain why sharp knife cuts meat easily than blunt one?
3.The density of honey in a tin of cross-section area 2.48m2 is 1004Kg/m3. If the tin column is 0.5m high.
Calculate the pressure and force the tin exerts at the bottom.
3. Calculate the pressure at the bottom of the tank of water 15 m deep due to the water above it.
8. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Work is the product of force and distance moved in the direction of force.
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒙 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒙𝑫
𝑾 = 𝑭𝑫
Where;
F=force
D=distance
The SI unit of work is Newton metre (NM)
But;
1NM =1J
The SI unit of work is Joule
Examples:
1.A sack of maize which weights 800N is lifted to a height of 2m.what is the work done?
Solution
Data given;
Force=800N
Distance=2M
Work=?
From;
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐷
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐷
𝑊 = 800𝑁 𝑥 2𝑀
= 1600Nm
But 1NM=1J
Therefore work done is 1600J
2. How much work is done to first lift a 7kg object is a distance of 2m and then hold it at that height for 10
seconds.
Solution
Data given;
Mass=7kg
Distance=2m
Time=10s
But;
From;
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐷
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐷
Since;
F = mg = 7 x 10 =70N
W=FD
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 70𝑁 𝑥 2𝑀
Work done=140J
ENERGY.
Energy is the ability or capacity to do work
The SI unit of energy is joule (J)
The concept of energy is used in all fields of science among them are;
Physics: Change in motion, heat and the states of matter, electric and magnetic phenomena, atomic and nuclear
transformation.
Chemistry: Interaction in matter at the atomic or molecular level, the change of one va
Geology: Earthquakes, volcano, formation of mountains, erosion and continental drift.
Meteorology: Wind, precipitation, lighting, hurricane and tornadoes.
Astronomy: Stars and galaxy formation the motion of nomical objects
Biology: Growth and development, metabolism in living, photosynthesis and reproduction
Therefore work is done with the availability of energy hence the possession of energy can be viewed as a
promise of work to be done.
FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy exist in many different forms. All energy may be classified as either kinetic energy or potential energy.
Within the two classification of energy there are many different forms of energy which are;
i. Thermal energy
ii. Electrical energy
iii. Chemical energy
iv. Nuclear energy
v. Electromagnetic energy
vi. Sound energy
vii. Elastic potential energy
viii. Mechanical energy
1. KINETIC ENERGY (K.E)

Kinetic energy :is the energy possessed by the body by a reason of it motion The kinetic energy of an object
depend on its mass and velocity.
Kinetic energy is expressed as;
𝟏
𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝒙 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒙 𝑺𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝟐
𝟏
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝑴𝑽𝟐
𝟐
The SI unit of K.E is joule (J)
Examples;
1. An object as a mass of 5kg what is its kinetic energy if its speed is 10m/s2
Solution;
Data given
Mass =5kg
Velocity=10m/s2
K.E=?
From
1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑥 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
2
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑀𝑉 2
2
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑥 5 𝑥 102
2
= 250
The kinetic energy is 250J.
2. What is the kinetic energy of 0.12g bullet travelling at 320m/s?

Solution;
Data given
Mass =0.12g = 0.00012kg
Velocity = 320m/s
K.E=?
From;
1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
2
1 2
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑀𝑉
2
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑥 0.00012𝑥 3202
2
= 6.144
The kinetic energy is 6.144J
2.POTENTIAL ENERG (P.E)

Potential energy is the possessed by the body by a reason of its position or state.
The potential energy is expressed as;
𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒙 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝑷. 𝑬 = 𝑴𝒙𝒈𝒙𝒉
𝑷. 𝑬 = 𝑴𝒈𝒉
The SI unit of P.E is joules (J)
Examples;
1. A stone of mass 2kg fall from a height of 25m above the ground calculate the potential energy possessed by
the stone.
Solution:
Data given
Mass = 2kg
Height =25m
Acceleration due to gravity=10N/kg
P.E=?
From
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑀𝑥𝑔𝑥ℎ
𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑀𝑔ℎ
𝑃. 𝐸 = 2 𝑥10𝑥25
P.E = 500J
TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY
THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The principle of conservation of energy state that “Energy can neither of be created nor destroyed but it can
be transformed from one form to another”
A device which coverts or transforms one form of energy to another is called a transducer.
Examples of energy transformations includes;
 The bow converts Potential Energy into kinetic energy.
 Microphone converts sound energy into electric energy .
 Receiver converts electric energy into sound energy .
 Dynamo converts mechanical energy into electric energy.
 Turbines converts mechanical energy into electric energy
 Filaments of the electric lamp converts electric energy into light and heat energy
 Batteries (dry cells) coverts chemical energy into electric energy .
 Generator converts chemical energy into electric energy .
 Chlorophyll converts sun light energy into chemical energy.
THE SIMPLE PENDELUM BOB
Consider the motion of simple pendulum. A pendulum is a mass suspended by a string or wire from a fixed
point so that it can move back and forth along arc.
The lowest point is called the equilibrium level.
NB: The total mechanical energy of the pendulum remains constant.
At point A and D
The pendulum’s highest point above equilibrium level, all energy is P.E
Thus,
𝑬𝑻 = 𝐏. 𝐄 + 𝐊. 𝐄
But K.E = 0
𝑬𝑻 = 𝐏. 𝐄 + 𝟎
𝑬𝑻 = 𝐏. 𝐄
At point C
The point C is the lowest point, therefore all the energy is K.E
Thus,
𝑬𝑻 = 𝐏. 𝐄 + 𝐊. 𝐄
But at point C
P.E = 0
𝑬𝑻 = 𝟎 + 𝐊. 𝐄
𝑬𝑻 = 𝐊. 𝐄
At point B
At points like B, Between highest and lowest points, the energy is a mixture of K.E and P.E
Thus;
𝑬𝑻 = 𝐏. 𝐄 + 𝐊. 𝐄
Examples:
1.At its highest point, a pendulum of mass 0.8 Kg is 1.2m above the equilibrium level.
(a) What will be its velocity, as it swings its lowest point?
(b) What is its velocity when it is 0.9m above reference level/equilibrium level
(c) At what height above the equilibrium level will its velocity be 2m/s
Solution:
Data given;
Mass= 0.8kg
Height= 1.2m
(a) What will be its velocity, as it swings its lowest point?
The pendulum’s highest point above equilibrium level, all energy is P.E
Thus,
𝐸𝑇 = P. E + K. E
But K.E = 0
𝐸𝑇 = P. E + 0
𝐸𝑇 = P. E
But;
𝑃. 𝐸 = 0.8 𝑋 9.8𝑋1.2
𝑃. 𝐸 = 9.41 𝐽
But;
At the lowest energy P.E=O
𝐸𝑇 = 0 + K. E
𝐸𝑇 = K. E
Therefore;
2K.E= 𝑀𝑉 2
2𝐾. 𝐸
𝑉=√
𝑀
2 𝑋 9.41
𝑉=√
0.8
V= 4.85
Velocity at the lowest point is 4.85m/s
(b) What is its velocity when it is 0.9m above reference level/equilibrium level.
Solution:
𝐸𝑇 = P. E + K. E
P. E + K. E = 𝐸𝑇
P. E + K. E = 9.41
𝑃. 𝐸 = 0.8 𝑥 9.8 𝑥 0.9
𝑃. 𝐸 = 7.06
K. E = 𝐸𝑇 − 𝑃. 𝐸
K. E = 2.35𝐽
2𝐾. 𝐸
𝑉=√
𝑀
2 𝑋 2.35
𝑉=√
0.8
4.7
𝑉=√
0.8
𝑉 = √5.875
𝑚
𝑉 = 2.41
𝑠
Velocity at the lowest point is 2.41m/s
(c) At what height above the equilibrium level will its velocity be 2m/s
Solution:
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑀𝑉 2
2
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑥 0.8𝑥 22
2
𝐾. 𝐸 = 1.6𝐽
𝐸𝑇 = P. E + K. E
P. E = 𝐸𝑇 − K. E
P. E = 9.41 − 1.6
P. E = 7.81𝐽
But;
𝑃. 𝐸
ℎ=
𝑚𝑔
7.81.
= 7.84
h=1m
The height will be 1m
POWER
Power is the rate of doing work.
Power is the measure of the rate at which energy changes. This means that whenever work is done, energy
changes in a different form.
Therefore;
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑾𝑫
𝑷= 𝒕
The S.I unit of power is Joule per second (J/S) or Watt (W)
1J/S = 1Watt
Other units of power are;
1Kilowatt = 1000 Watts
1Megawatt = 𝟏𝟎𝟔 Watts
1Horse power (HP) = 750Watt
Examples:
1. A forklift was used to raise the load of 400kg to a height of 2m in 4 seconds. Determine the power
determined.
Solution:
Data given;
Mass= 400kg
Height= 2m
Time= 4s
But;
𝑃. 𝐸 = 400𝑥10𝑥2
P.E = 8000J
Work done is 8000J

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑊𝐷
𝑃= 𝑡
8000𝐽
𝑃= 4𝑆
= 2000 Watts
Therefore the power developed is 2000 Watts
1. A force of 80N pulls a box along a smooth and level ground through a distance of 5m. calculate the
work done by the force.
2. Chambundu lifts a brick of mass 10kg from a flow to a shelf 3m high. How much work does he do?
3. If a man pushes a van against a force of 300N for a distance of 10m, how much work does he do?
4.What is the kinetic energy of 2kg missile travelling at 600m/s?
5. Chipato has a mass of 80 kg. If he runs at a speed of 15m/s , calculate his kinetic energy.
6. A stone of mass 10kg is dropped from rest to the ground 10m down. If it hits the ground with a velocity
of 20m/s. Determine its;
(a) Kinetic energy
(b) Potential energy
7.How much power is required to accelerate a 1000kg car from rest to 26.7m/s in 8seconds?
8. A truck for transporting sand is filled to capacity. If the digger has to move through a height of 2m and
the total load was 5000kg calculate;
(a) The work done in loading the sand
(b) The power in developed in 5seconds
9. Rock A has a mass of 2kg and a speed of 1m/s. Another rock B has a mass of 1kg and a speed of 2m/s,
which rock has more kinetic energy?
10. A car with mass of 10 kg moves with kinetic energy of 2000J. Calculate the speed of the car.
9. LIGHT PART I
Light is the form of energy which stimulated the sensation of vision.
Therefore light is an invisible form of energy that causes the sensation of vision in us through our eyes.
NATURE OF LIGHT
Light is a form of energy that can be distinguished from other forms of energy through its features or
characteristics namely;
(i) Light radiates (spreads out) from its source
(ii) Light travels in straight line
(iii) Light travels energy
(iv) Light travels in vacuum.
(v) Light travels at fastest speed. At speed limit of 3 x 108 m/s
SOURCE OF LIGHT
Light can come from a source in two ways;
(a) A source may give out its own light.
(b) It may reflect light from another object.
For example we see the sun because it emits light, where as we see the moon because it reflects light
from the sun.
Therefore sources of light can be classified as natural or artificial.
Examples of natural sources of light are;
(i) The sun
(ii) The stars
(iii) Lightings
Examples of artificial sources of light are;
(i) Wood fire
(iii) Candles
(iii) Hurricane lamps
(iv) Gas lamps
(v) Electric lamps
LUMINOUS AND NON LUMINOUS BODIES
Luminous objects are those that emits (send out) their own light. Examples of luminous bodies are;
(i) The sun
(ii) Stars
(iii) Glowing TV
(iv) Glowing worms
(v) Fire flies (Bioluminiscence flies)
Non luminous objects are those that do not emit their own light. They only become visible when they
reflect light from another source into our eyes.
Examples of non luminous bodies are;
(i) The moon
(ii) The planets

Objects that emit light as a result of being heated are called Incandescent.
Examples of incandescent bodies are light bulbs, fire and candles.
PROPAGATION AND TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT
RAYS AND BEAMS OF LIGHT.
Light travels in straight lines. This is one among the properties of light. The spreading of light from its
source to the environment in straight lines is referred to as rectilinear propagation of light.
A ray is the path taken by light in moving from the source to another point.
A ray is usually represented as a line with an arrow head.
A beam is a collection or bundle of rays of light. A beam of light can either be parallel, convergent or
divergent.
TRANSPARENT, TRANSLUSCENT AND OPAQUE

The ability of light to travel through material varies from one substance to another. When light travels
through matter, it is said to be transmitted (passed through). When discussing light transmission
materials are classified into three categories namely as;
(i) Transparent materials.
(ii) Transluscent materials.
(iii) Opaque materials.
1. TRANSPARENT MATERIALS
Materials that allow light to pass through them are called transparent materials.
Examples of transparent materials are glass and clear plastics.
2. TRANSLUSCENT MATERIALS
Transluscent materials are materials that allow only part of light to pass through them. Examples of
transluscent materials are oily paper, tinted glass (frosted glass)
3. OPAQUE MATERIALS
Opaque materials are those that do not allow light to pass through at all. Examples of opaque materials
are walls human body.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT.
We stated earlier that we see objects only when portion of light from them enters our eyes. When light
falls on a body it either passes through or bounces back. When light bounces back it is said to be
reflected and bouncing back process is called reflection of light.
TYPES OF REFLECTION
All polished or shiny surfaces reflect light, but the way they reflect light is not the same. For example,
the reflection in a plane mirror is not the same as reflection on a polished brick or white paper.
Reflection can be classified as;
(i) Regular reflection
(ii) Irregular or diffuse reflection
1. REGULAR REFLECTION
Regular reflection occurs when light rays fall on a smooth surface, the light rays are reflected parallel to
each other.
2. IRREGULAR/DIFFUSE REFLECTION
Irregular reflection occurs when reflected rays from the surface are not parallel to each other. This
means that reflected rays are sent in different directions.
LAWS OF REFLECTION
When light is reflected two important laws must be obeyed, before stating the laws it is important to
know the terms used in the laws. These are;
1. Incident ray: This is the ray that falls on the surface at the point of incidence.
2. Normal: It is perpendicular line drawn to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence.
3. Reflected ray: This is the ray that bounces back from the reflecting surface.
4. Point of incidence: This is the point on surface at which incidence ray strikes the reflecting surface.
5. Angle of incidence: This is the angle between incident ray and the normal.
7.Angle of reflection: This is the angle between the normal and reflected ray.
First law of reflection states that, “The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray at the same point
of incidence all lie in the same plane.”

Second law of reflection states that, “The angle of incidence equals to angle of reflection.”
IMAGES FORMED BY PLANE MIRRORS
Plane mirror is a thin flat piece of glass whose one side is silvered and the other side is shiny. The shiny
surface reflects light incident on the glass.
Rays from object incident to the mirror are reflected away. The rays appears to meet at a point beyond
the mirror surface where the image is formed such image formed is said to be virtual image. That is , it
is formed by apparent intersection of rays.
PROPERTIES OF IMAGES IN PLANE MIRRORS
Images formed in plane mirrors show some unique properties, these are;
1. Plane mirrors form virtual images.
2. The image is upright.
3. The image is inverted laterally.
4. The image is the same size as the object’s size.
5. The image distance equals to the object’s distance from the mirror.
MULTIPLE IMAGES
If two mirrors are placed at an angle to each other and an object is placed between them several images
of the object are formed. The number of images formed obeys a rule that; if the number 3600 is divided
by the angle between the mirrors, n number of images are formed.
The number of images n formed by two plane mirrors at an angle Ɵ is given by;
𝟑𝟔𝟎ₒ
𝒏= –1
Ɵ
If the mirrors are placed at 𝟗𝟎ₒ to each other, and an object is placed between them the numbers of
images formed in the mirror is 3. When the mirrors are parallel to each other, the angle is zero and the
number of images of an object placed between them is undefined (infinite number of objects)
APPLICATION OF PLANE MIRRORS.
Mirrors are used at home for grooming and decorations purposes. In physics laboratory and marines
mirrors are used to make a periscope.
The periscope is made up of two mirrors fixed facing each other at inclined angle of 𝟒𝟓ₒ to the stem of
the periscope. Light is reflected by the two mirrors.
More complex periscopes are used in submarines.
Kaleidoscope is another instrument which uses plane mirrors. Three mirrors inclined at an angle of
𝟔𝟎ₒ to each other are fixed in an opaque tube. The ground glass plate at the bottom of the tube allows
light into the tube. Small pieces of colored glass are plane on the glass plate. These pieces act as an
object.
These are reflected to form five images, Observing through the tube five images together with the
object are seen forming symmetrical pattern with six identical sectors. When the tube is shaken the
pieces rearrange themselves and new pattern is obtained.

O-Level Physics Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

O-Level Physics Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

O-Level Physics Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Succeed in Physics Form I

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING PHYSICS

2: INTRODUCTION TO LABORATORY PRACTICE..

8.It brings hope to a victim.

Antiseptic soap Washing hands ,wounds, and equipments.

Antiseptic solution Cleaning fresh cut and bruises.

Assorted bandages and cotton wool Covering and drying wounds

Liniment Reducing muscle pains.

Pain killers Reducing pain

Adhesive bandage or plaster Covering minor wounds.

Thermometer To measure body temperature

Safety pins clips and tape. Sucuring bandage or dressings

Scissors and razor blade Cutting dressing materials

Petroleum jelly Smoothening and soothing skin.

CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS IN THE LABORATORY.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF PREVENTING FIRE

FIRE CLASS BURNING MATERIAN MOST APPROPRIATE

CHEMICAL WARNING SIGNS

This is the substance which is dangerous and cause death.

This is a substance which can affect our health.

This is the substance which can catch fire easily.

This is a substance which speeds up rate of burning.

This is a substance which may explode easily.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

5 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Mass of bob g Time for one swing

THE FUNDAMENTAL QUNTITIES AND THEIR UNITS

QUANTITY SI UNIT UNIT SYMBOL

centimetre ,millImetre, micrometre and nanometre.

APPROPRIATE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.

II.USING VERNIER CALIPER

READING THE VERNIER CALIPER

III. USING MICROPMETER SCREW GAUGE

READING THE VERNIER CALIPER

ii. Digital balance /electronic balance

Beam balance Digital balance

Stop watch Wrist watch Clock

QUANTITY SI UNIT UNIT SYMBOL

1. VOLUME OF CYLINDER 2. VOLUME OF CUBE

Volume= πr2h Volume= length × breath × height

B: DETERMING THE VOLUME OF IRREGULAR OBJECTS

I. USING GRADUATED CYLINDER

Vs= Final volume-initial volume

II. USING OVERFLOW CAN / EUREKA CAN

Beaker Conical flask Burette Pipette Measuring cylinder

The density of a piece of wood is 0.9g/cm3

The density of metal is 8.8542 g/cm3

The density of block is 2.7g/cm3

DENSITY OF REGULAR SOLID

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅

DENSITIES OF INSOLUBLE GRANULES

3. Fill the bottle with water and measure as (m3)

1. Measure the mass of an empty beaker (m1)

RELATIVE DENSITY (R.D)

2. If an object weight 30N on the earth what is its mass

PROPERTIES OF GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

3. COMPRESSIONAL AND RESTORING

6. ATTRACTIVE AND REPULSIVE FORCE